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THE LIBRARY

The Ontario Institute

for Studies in Education

Toronto, Canada

LIBRARY

:2ilSSS«

RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS
IN EDUCATION

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY

DIVISION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

UNDER THE EDITORIAL DIRECTION

OF ALEXANDER INGLIS

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS IN EDUCATION

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

READINGS IN THE
HISTORY OF EDUCATION

A COLLECTION OF SOURCES AND READINGS TO

ILLUSTRATE THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL

PRACTICE, THEORY, AND ORGANIZATION

A Companion Volume to the Present Volume
684 pages, 375 Readings, 90 Illustrations.

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN THE
UNITED STATES

A STUDY AND INTERPRETATION OF AMERICAN
EDUCATIONAL HISTORY

An Introductory Textbook dealing with the Larger Problems

of Present-Day Education in the Light of their Historical Development

517 pages, 85 illustrations in text, 20 insert plates

"I have always thought that the chief object of education was
to awaken the spirit, and that inasmuch as a literature whenever
it has touched its great and highest notes w^as an expression of
the spirit of mankind, the best induction into education was to
feel the pulses of humanity which had beaten from age to age
through the universities of men who had penetrated to the
secrets of the human spirit." (Wood ROW Wilson, in acknowledg-
ing receipt of the Doctor's Degree from the University of Paris, Dec.
21, 1918.)

"The study of the past begins to inspire us with new hopes
for the future of humanity. The life which, viewed from without,
seems in us, and thousands such as we, so petty and trivial, catches
a new significance and even grandeur from the thought that it is
not the isolated, transient thing we deemed it. We begin to
perceive that no earnest effort for the good of humanity is ever
lost, no life, however obscure, that has been devoted to the highest
ends, to the service of mankind, to the progress of truth and good-
ness in the world, is ever spent in vain. For we think of them as
contributions to a life which is not of to-day or yesterday, but
of all time — a life which, never hasting, never resting, is through
the ages ever advancing to its consummation." (John Caird, in
an Address on "The Study of History" delivered at the University of
Glasgow, November 8, 1884. "University Addresses," p. 253.)

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THE

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE AND PROGRESS CONSIDERED

AS A PHASE OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND

SPREAD OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

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CAMBRIDGE • MASSACHUSETTS
U • S • A

TO MY WIFE

FOR THIRTY YEARS

BEST OF COMPANIONS IN BOTH

WORK AND PLAY

PREFACE

The present volume, as well as the companion volume of Readings,
arose out of a practical situation. Twenty-two years ago, on en-
tering Stanford University as a Professor of Education and be-
ing given the history of the subject to teach, I found it necessary,
almost from the first, to begin the construction of a Syllabus of
Lectures which would permit of my teaching the subject more
as a phase of the history of the rise and progress of our Western
civihzation than would any existing text. Through such a study
it is possible to give, better than by any other means, that vision
of world progress which throws such a flood of light over all our
educational efforts. The Syllabus grew, was made to include de-
tailed citations to historical literature, and in 1902 was published
in book form. In 1905 a second and an enlarged edition was
issued,^ and these volumes for a time formed the basis for class-
work and reading in a number of institutions, and, though now
out of print, may still be found in many libraries. At the same
time I began the collection of a series of short, illustrative sources
for my students to read.

It had been my intention, after the publication of the second
edition of the Syllabus, to expand the outline into a Text Book
which would embody my ideas as to what university students
should be given as to the history of the work in which they were
engaged. I felt then, and still feel, that the history of education,
properly conceived and presented, should occupy an important
place in the training of an educational leader. Two things now
happened which for some time turned me aside from my original
purpose. The first was the publication, late in 1905, of Paul
Monroe's very comprehensive and scholarly Text Book in the
History of Education, and the second was that, with the expan-
sion of the work in education in the university with which I
was connected, and the addition of new men to the department,
the general history of education was for a time turned over to
another to teach. I then began, instead, the development of
that introductory course in education, dealing entirely with

' Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Edtication, with Bibliographies, ist ed., 302
pp., illustrated, New York, 1902; 2d ed., with classified bibliographies, 358 pp.,
illustrated, New York, 1905.

viii PREFACE

American educational history and problems, out of which grew
my Public Education in the United States.

The second half of the academic year 1910-11 I acted as
visiting Lecturer on the History of Education at both Harvard
University and Radcliffe College, and while serving in this capac-
ity I began work on what has finally evolved into the present
volume, together with the accompanying book of illustrative
Readings. Other duties, and a deep interest in problems of school
administration, largely engaged my energies and writing time
until some three years ago, when, in rearranging courses at the
university, it seemed desirable that I should again take over
the instruction in the general history of education. Since then
I have pushed through, as rapidly as conditions would permit,
the organization of the parallel book of sources and documents,
and the present volume of text.

In doing so I have not tried to prepare another history of edu-
cational theories. Of such we already have a sufficient num-
ber. Instead, I have tried to prepare a history of the progress
and practice and organization of education itself, and to give to
such a history its proper setting as a phase of the history of the
development and spread of our Western civilization. I have
especially tried to present such a picture of the rise, struggle for
existence, growth, and recent great expansion of the idea of the
improvability of the race and the elevation and emancipation
of the individual through education as would be most illuminat-
ing and useful to students of the subject. To this end I have
traced the great forward steps in the emancipation of the intellect
of man, and the efforts to perpetuate the progress made through
the organization of educational institutions to pass on to others
what had been attained. I have also tried to give a proper set-
ting to the great historic forces which have shaped and moulded
human progress, and have made the evolution of modern state
school systems and the world-wide spread of Western civilization
both possible and inevitable.

To this end I have tried to hold to the main lines of the story,
and have in consequence omitted reference to many theorists
and reformers and events and schools which doubtless were im-
portant in their land and time, but the influence of which on the
main current of educational progress was, after all, but small. For
such omission I have no apology to make. In their place I have
introduced a record of world events and forces, not included in

PREFACE ix

the usual history of education, which to me seem important as
having contributed materially to the shaping and directing of
intellectual and educational progress. While in the treatment
major emphasis has been given to modern times, I have never-
theless tried to show how all modern education has been after all
a development, a culmination, a fiowering-out of forces and im-
pulses which go far back in history for their origin. In a civiliza-
tion such as we of to-day enjoy, with roots so deeply embedded in
the past as is ours, any adequate understandin-g of world prac-
tices and of present-day world problems in education calls for some
tracing of development to give proper background and perspec-
tive. The rise of modern state school systems, the variations in
types found to-day in different lands, the new conceptions of the
educational purpose, the rise of science study, the new functions
which the school has recently assumed, the world-wide sweep of
modern educational ideas, the rise of many entirely new types of
schools and training within the past century — these and many
other features of modern educational practice in progressive
nations are better understood if viewed in the light of their
proper historical setting. Standing as we are to-day on the
threshold of a new era, and with a strong tendency manifest to
look only to the future and to ignore the past, the need for
sound educational perspective on the part of the leaders in both
school and state is given new emphasis.

To give greater concreteness to the presentation, maps, dia-
grams, and pictures, as commonly found in standard historical
works, have been used to an extent not before employed in writ-
ings on the history of education. To give still greater concrete-
ness to the presentation I have built up a parallel volume of Read-
ings, containing a large collection of illustrative source material
designed to back up the historical record of educational develop-
ment and progress as presented in this volume. The selections
have been fully cross-referenced (R. 129; R. 176; etc.) in the
pages of the Text. Depending, as I have, so largely on the com-
panion volume for the necessary supplemental readings, I have
reduced the chapter bibliographies to a very few of the most
valuable and most commonly found references. To add to the
teaching value of the book there has been appended to each chap-
ter a series of questions for discussion, bearing on the Text, and
another series of questions bearing on the Readings to be found
in the companion volume. In this form it is hoped that the Text

X PREFACE

will be found good in teaching organization; that the treatment
may prove to be of such practical value that it will contribute
materially to relieve the history of education from much of the
criticism which the devotion in the past to the history of educa-
tional theory has brought upon it; and that the two volumes which
have been prepared may be of real service in restoring the subject
to the position of importance it deserves to hold, for mature stu-
dents of educational practice, as the interpreter of world progress
as expressed in one of its highest creative forms.

Ellwood p. Cubberley

Stanford University, Cal.
September 4, 1920

CONTENTS
Introduction : The Sources OF OUR Civilization . . . 3

PART I

THE ANCIENT WORLD

FOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR WESTERN CIVILIZATION
GREECE — ROME — CHRISTIANITY

Chapter I. The Old Greek Education

I. Greece and its People 15

II. Early Education IN Greece 21

Chapter 1 1. Later Greek Education

III. The New Greek Education

Chapter III. The Education and Work of Rome

I. The Romans and their Mission .
II. The Period of Home Education .
HI. The Transition to School Education

IV. The School System as finally established
V. Rome's Contribution to Civilization

53
58
60

63
74

Chapter IV. The Rise and Contribution of Chris-
tianity

I. The Rise and Victory of Christianity .... 82
II. Educational and Governmental Organization of the

Early Church 92

HI. What the Middle Ages started WITH . . . .101

PART II

THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

THE DELUGE OF BARBARISM; THE MEDLEVAL STRUGGLE
TO PRESERVE AND REESTABLISH CIVILIZATION

Chapter V. New Peoples in the Empire .... 109
Chapter VI. Education during the Early Middle Ages

I. Condition and Preservation of Learning . . .126

Chapter VII. Education during the Early Middle
Ages

11. Schools established and Instruction provided . .150

xii CONTENTS

Chapter VIII. Influences tending toward a Revival
OF Learning

I. Moslem Learning from Spain i8o

II. The Rise OF Scholastic Theology i86

III. Law and Medicine as New Studies 192

IV. Other New Influences and Movements . . . .199

Chapter IX. The Rise of the Universities . . .215

PART III

THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO
MODERN ATTITUDES

THE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNING; THE

REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP; AND THE RISE

OF RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Chapter X. The Revival of Learning 241

Chapter XL Educational Results of the Revival of

Learning 263

Chapter XII. The Revolt against Authority . . . 287

Chapter XIII. Educational Results of the Protestant
Revolts

I. Among Lutherans and Anglicans 306

Chapter XIV. Educational Results of the Protestant
Revolts

II. Among Calvinists and Catholics 330

Chapter XV. Educational Results of the Protestant
Revolts

HI. The Reformation and American Education . . . 356

Chapter XVI. The Rise of Scientific Inquiry . . . 379

Chapter XVI I. The New Scientific Method and the
Schools

I. Humanistic Realism 397

II. Social Realism 401

III. Sense Realism , . . . 405

IV. Realism and the Schools 416

Chapter XVIII. Theory and Practice by the Middle
OF the Eighteenth Century

I. Pre-Eighteenth-Century Educational Theories . . 428
II. Mid-Eighteenth-Century Educational Conditions . 437

CONTENTS xiii

PART IV

MODERN TIMES

THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGE; THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY;

A NEW THEORY FOR EDUCATION EVOLVED-

THE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL

Chapter XIX. The Eighteenth a Transition Century

I. Work of the Benevolent Despots of Continental

Europe 473

11. The Unsatisfied Demand for Reform in France . .478
HI. England THE First Democratic Nation .... 486
IV. Institution of Constitutional Government and Re-
ligious Freedom in America 494

V. The French Revolution sweeps away Ancient Abuses 498

Chapter XX. The Beginnings of National Education

I. New Conceptions of the Educational Purpose . . 506

II. The New State Theory IN France 508

HI. The New State Theory IN America 519

Chapter XXI. A New Theory and Subject-Matter for
THE Elementary School

I. The New Theory stated 530

II. German Attempts to work out a New Theory . . 533

HI. The Work and Influence of Pestalozzi .... 539

IV. Redirection of the Elementary School .... 547

Chapter XXI I. National Organization in Prussia

I. The Beginnings of National Organization . . . 552
II. A State School System at last created . . . 566

Chapter XXIII. National Organization in France and

Italy

I. National Organization IN France 588

II. National Organization in Italy 603

Chapter XXIV. The Struggle for National Organiza-
tion IN England

I. The Charitable-Voluntary Beginnings . . . .613

II. The Period of Philanthropic Effort (1800-33) • .622

HI. The Struggle for National Education .... 633

IV. The Development of a National System .... 644

Chapter XXV. Awakening an Educational Conscious-
ness in the United States

I. Early National Attitudes and Interests . . . 653

II. Awakening an Educational Consciousness . . .658

xiv CONTENTS

Til. Social, Political, and Economic Influences . . . 667
IV. Alignment of Interests, and Propaganda . . . 672

Chapter XXVI. The American Battle for Free State

Schools

I. The Battle for Tax Support 676

II. The Battle to Eliminate the Pauper-School Idea . 679

III. The Battle to make the Schools entirely Free . . 684

IV. The Battle to establish School Supervision . . 687
V. The Battle to Eliminate Sectarianism . . . .691

VI. The Battle to Establish the American High School . 695
VII. The State University crowns the System . . . 702

Chapter XXVII. Education becomes a Great National

Tool

I. Spread OF THE State-Control Idea 711

II. New Modifying Forces 723

III. Effect OF These Changes ON Education . . . . 736

Chapter XXVIII. Nevv^ Conceptions of the Educational

Process

I. The Psychological Organization of Elementary In--

struction 745

II. New Ideas from Herbartian Sources .... 759

III. The Kindergarten, Play, and Manual Activities . 764

IV. The Addition of Science Study 772

V. Social Meaning of these Changes 779

Chapter XXIX. New Tendencies and Expansions

I. Political 787

II. Scientific 795

III. Vocational 805

IV. Sociological . 812

V. The Scientific Organization of Education . . . 824

Conclusion; The Future 833

Index 841

LIST OF PLATES

Facing

1. The Cloisters of a Monastery, near Florence, Italy . .140

2. The Library of the Church of Saint Wallberg, at Zutphfn,

Holland 140

3. Saint Thomas Aquinas in the School of Albertus Magnus 190

4. A Lecture on Theology by Albertus Magnus .... 22^!

5. Stratford-on-Avon Grammar School 278

6. Educational Leaders in Protestant Germany .... 308

7. The Free School at Harrow 322

8. Map showing the Spread of Jesuit Schools in Northern

Territory by the Year 1725 . . 340

9. Two Tablets on the West Gateway at Harvard University 364

10. John Amos CoMENius (1592-1670) 410

11. Pestalozzi Monument AT YvERDON 542

12. Fellenberg's Institute at Hofwyl 546

13. Two Leaders in the Regeneration of Prussia .... 568

14. Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787- 1874) . . . 598

15. John Pounds' Ragged School at Portsmouth .... 618

16. An English Village Voluntary School 618

17. Two Leaders in the Educational Awakening in the United

States 690

18. Two Leaders in the Reorganization of Educational Theory 762

LIST OF FIGURES

1 . The Greek Conception of the World ..... 5

2. Ancient Greece AND THE i^GE AN World 15

3. The City-State OF Attica 17

4. Distribution of the Population of Athens and Attica,

ABOUT 430 B.C. 21

5. A Greek Boy 25

6. An Athenian Inscription 26

7. Greek Writing-Materials 27

8. A Greek Counting-Board 27

9. An Athenian School 29

10. Greek School Lessons 31

11. Ground-Plan of the Gymnasium at Ephesos, in Asia Minor 33

12. Socrates (469-399 b.c.) 44

13. Evolution of the Greek University 45

14. The Greek University W^orld 47

15. The Known World about 150 a.d 48

16. The Early Peoples of Italy, and the Extension of the

Roman Power 53

17. The Principal Roman Roads 54

18. The Great Extent of the Roman Empire .... 56

19. A Roman Father instructing his Son 59

20. Cato the Elder (234-148 b.c.) 63

21. Roman Writing-Materials 64

22. A Roman Counting-Board 65

23. A Roman Primary School 66

24. A Roman School of Rhetoric 70

25. The Roman Voluntary Educational System, as finally

EVOLVED 72

26. Origin of our Alphabet 77

27. The Growth of Christianity to the End of the Fourth

Century 89

28. A Bishop 96

29. A Benedictine Monk, Abbot, and Abbess 99

30. Showing the Final Division of the Empire and the Church 103

31. A Bodyguard OF Germans no

32. The German Migrations 112

33. The Known World IN 800 114

34. A German War Chief 115

35.* Romans DESTROYING A German Village 116

36. A Page OF THE Gothic Gospels 119

37. A Typical Monastery OF Southern Europe .... 128

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

38. Bird's-Eye View of a Medieval Monastery . . . .130

39. Initial Letter from an Old Manuscript 133

40. A Monk in a Scriptorium 134

41. Charlemagne's Empire, and the Important Monasteries of

THE Time 136

42. Where the Danes ravaged England 145

43. An Outer Monastic School 150

44. The Medieval System of Education summarized . . .154

45. A School : A Lesson IN Grammar . 156

46. An Anglo-Saxon Map of the World 161

47. An Early Church Musician . . . . . . . . 162

48. A Squire being knighted 168

49. A Knight of the Time of the First Crusade . . . .169

50. Evolution of Education during the Early Middle Ages . 175

51. Showing Centers of Moslem Learning 183

52. Aristotle 185

53. The Cathedral of Notre Dame, at Paris 189

54. The City-States of Northern Italy 194

55. Fragment from the Recovered "Digest" of Justinian . 195

56. The Father of Medicine, Hippocrates of Cos .... 197

57. A Pilgrim of the Middle Ages 200

58. A Typical Medleval Town (Prussian) 203

59. The Educational Pyramid ... 205

60. Trade Routes and Commercial Cities 206

61. Showing Location of the Chief Universities founded be-

fore 1600 219

62. Seal of a Doctor, University of Parts 223

63. New College, at Oxford 224

64. A Lecture on Civil Law by Guillaume Benedicti . . . 227

65. Library of the University of Leyden, in Holland . . . 228

66. A University Disputation 231

67. A University Lecture and Lecture Room 232

68. Petrarch (1304-74) 244

69. Boccaccio (1313-75) 245

70. Demetrius Chalcondyles (1424-15 11) 249

71. Bookcase and Desk in the Medicean Library at Florence 251

72. Two Early Northern Humanists . . . . . . .253

73. An Early Sixteenth-Century Press 255

74. An Early Specimen of Caxton's Printing 256

75. The World as known to Christian Europe before Colum-

bus 258

76. Saint Antoninus and his Scholars . . . . . . 264

77. Two Early Italian Humanist Educators 266

•78. Guillaume Bud.^us (1467-1540) , . . . . . . 268

79. College de France 269

80. JOHANN ReUCHLIN (1455-1522) 27O

81. JoHANN Sturm (1507-89) 272

xviii LIST OF FIGURES

82. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536) 274

83. Saint Paul's School, London 276

84. GiGGLESwicK Grammar School 277

85. The Evolution OF Modern Studies 281

86. John Wycliffe (i320?-84) 290

87. Religious Warfare in Bohemia 291

88. Showing the Results of the Protestant Revolts . , , 296

89. huldreich zwingli (1487-i531) 297

90. John Calvin (1509-64) 299

91. A French Protestant (c. 1600) 301

92. Two Early Vernacular Schools 309

93. The First Page OF Wycliffe' s Bible 311

94. Luther giving Instruction 313

95. Johannes Bugenhagen (1485-1558) 314

96. Evolution of German State School Control . . . .319

97. A Chained Bible 321

98. A French School of the Seventeenth Century . . . 332

99. A Dutch Village School 334

too. John Knox (i 505 ?-72) 335

[Oi. Ignatius de Loyola (1491-1556) 337

[02. Plan of a Jesuit Schoolroom 342

[03. An Ursuline 346

[04. A School of La Salle at Paris, 1688 349

[05. The Brothers of the Christian Schools by 1792 . . . 350
[06. Tendencies in Educational Development in Europe, 1500

TO 1700 353

[07. Map showing the Religious Settlements in America . . 358
[08. Homes of the Pilgrims, and their Route to America . . 359
[09. New England Settlements, 1660 . 361

10. The Boston Latin Grammar School 362

11. Where Yale College was founded 367

12. An Old Quaker Meeting-House and School at Lampeter,
Pennsylvania 370

;i3. Nicholas Kopernik (Copernicus) (1473-1543) .... 386

14. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) 387

15. Galileo Galilei (1564- 1 642) 388

16. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 388

17. William Harvey ( 1 578-1 657) 389

;i8. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) 390

19. The Loss and Recovery OF THE Sciences 393

[20. Ren^ Descartes (i 596-1650) 394

f2i. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553) 399

[22. John Milton (1608-74) 400

[23. Michel de Montaigne (1533-92) 401*

[24. John Locke (1632-1704) 403

[25. An Academie des Armes 404

[26. A Sample Page from the "OrbiS Pictus" 414

LIST OF FIGURES xix

127. Part of a Page from a Latin-English Edition of the "Ves-

tibulum" 415

128. Augustus Hermann Francke (1663-1727) 419

129. A French School before the Revolution 431

130. A Horn Book 440

131. The Westminster Catechism 442

132. Thomas Dilworth (?-i78o) 443

133. Frontispiece to Noah Webster's ''American Spelling

Book" 444

134. Title-Page of Hodder's Arithmetic 445

135. A "Christian Brothers" School 447

136. An English Dame School 448

137. Gravel Lane Charity-School, Southwark 449

138. A Charity-School Girl in Uniform 450

139. A Charity-School Boy in Uniform 451

140. Advertisement for a Teacher to let 452

141. A School Whipping-Post 455

142. An Eighteenth-Century German School 455

143. Children as Miniature Adults 458

144. A Pennsylvania Academy 463

145. Frederick the Great 474

146. Maria Theresa 475

147. Montesquieu (1689-1755) . 480

148. TuRGOT (1727-81) 481

149. Voltaire (1694-1778) 481

150. Diderot (1713-84) 482

151. John Wesley (1707-82) 489

152. Nationality of the White Population, as shown by the

Family Names in the Census of 1790 494

153. The States-General in Session at Versailles .... 499

154. Rousseau (1712-78) 508

155. La Chalotais (1701-83) 510

156. Rolland (1734-93) 510

157. Count de Mirabeau (1749-91) 513

158. Talleyrand (1758-1838) 513

159. CONDORCET (1743-94) 514

160. The Institute of France 515

161. Lakanal (1762-1845) 516

162. Thomas Jefferson ( 1 743-1 826) 525

163. The Rousseau Monument at Geneva 531

164. Basedow (1723-90) 535

165. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 537

166. The Scene of Pestalozzi's Labors 541

167. Fellenberg (1771-1844) 547

168. The School of a Handworker 556

169. The Kingdom OF Prussia, 1740-86 . . . . „ .' . 559

170. A German Late Eighteenth-Century School .... 564

XX LIST OF FIGURES

[71. DiNTER (1760-1831) 570

[72. DiESTERWEG (179O-1866) 57 1

[73. The Prussian State School System created .... 577

[74. An Old Foundation transformed 589

[75. Count de Fourcroy (1755-1809) 590

[76. Victor Cousin (i 792-1 867) 597

{']'j. Outline of the Main Features of the French State

School System 598

[78. Europe in 1810 604

[79. The Unification of Italy, SINCE 1848 608

[80. Count of Cavour (1810-61) 609

ii . Outline of the Main Features of the Italian State School

System 610

[82. A Ragged-School Pupil 618

[83. Adam Smith (1723-90) 621

[84. The Reverend T. R. Malthus (1766-1834) 621

[85. The Creators of the Monitorial System 624

[86. The Lancastrian Model School in Borough Road, South-

WARK, London 626

[87. Monitors TEACHING Reading AT "Stations" .... 627

\. Proper Monitorial-School Positions 628

[89. Robert Owen (1771-1858) 630

[90. Lord Brougham (1778-1868) 636

[91. An English Village School in 1840 637

[92. Expenditure from the Education Grants, 1839-70 . . 639

[93. Lord T. B. Macaulay (1800-59) ^4^

[94. Work of the School Boards in providing School Accommo-
dations 643

[95. The English Educational System as finally evolved . . 649
[96. The First Schoolhouse built by the Free School Society

IN New York City 661

[97. "Model" School Building of the Public School Society . 665
[98. Evolution of the Essential Features of the American

Public School System 666

199. Dates of the Granting of Full Manhood Suffrage . . 670

200. The First Free Public School in Detroit .... 678

201. The Pennsylvania School Elections OF 1835 .... 682

202. The New York Referendum of 1850 685

203. Status of School Supervision in the United States by 1861 688

204. A Typical New England Academy 696

205. The Development of Secondary Schools in the United

States 699

206. The First High School in the United States .... 700

207. High Schools in the United States by i860 .... 701

208. Colleges and Universities established by i860 . . . 704

209. The American Educational Ladder 708

210. The School System of Denmark 713

LIST OF FIGITRES xxi

211. The Progress of Literacy in P3urope by the Close of the

Nineteenth Century -714

21^. The School System of the Argentine Republic . . . 718

213. The Japanese Two-Class School System 720

214. The Chinese Educational Ladder 721

215. Baron Justus VON LiEBiG (1803-73) 724

216. Charles Darwin (1809-82) 726

217. Louis Pasteur (1822-95) 727

218. Man Power before the Days of Steam 729

219. Threshing Wheat a Century Ago 730

220. A City Water-Supply, about 1830 731

221. The Great Trade Routes of the Modern World . . . 733

222. An Example of the Shifting of Occupations .... 734

223. The Philippine School System 740

224. The First Modern Normal School 749

225. Teacher-Training in the United States by i860 . . . 752

226. Evolution of the Elementary-School Curriculum, and of

Methods of Teaching 756

227. An "Usher" AND HIS Class 758

228. Redirected Manual Training 771

229. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 777

230. Thomas H. Huxley (1825-95) 778

231. A Reorganized Kindergarten 781

232. The Peking Union Medical College 804

233. The Destruction of the Trades in Modern Industry . 808

234. School Attendance of American Children, Fourteen to

Twenty Years of Age 810

235. Abbe DE l'Ep6e (1712-89) 819

236. The Reverend Thomas H. Gallaudet teaching the Deaf

and Dumb 819

237. Educational Institutions maintained by the State . . 820

238. Karl Georg von Raumer (1783-1865) 825

239. The Established and Experimental Nations of Europe . 835

240. The Educational Problems of the Future .... 838

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

In addition to the List of Readings and the Supplemental Ref-
erences given in the chapter bibliographies, the following works,
not cited in the chapter bibliographies, will be found in most
libraries and may be consulted, on all points to which they are
likely to apply, for additional material :

I. GENERAL HISTORIES OF EDUCATION

I. Davidson, Thomas. History of Education. 292 pp. New York,
1900.
Good on the interpretation of the larger movements of history.

*2. Monroe, Paul. Text Book in the History of Education. 772 pp. New
York, 1905.

Our most complete and scholarly history of education. This volume should
be consulted freely. See analytical table of contents.

3. Munroe, Jas. P. The Educational Ideal. 262 pp. Boston, 1895.
Contains very good short chapters on the educational reformers.

*4. Graves, F. P. A History of Education. 3 vols. New York, 1909-13.
Vol. I. Before the Middle Ages. 304 pp.
Vol. II. During the Middle Ages. 314 pp.
Vol. III. In Modern Times. 410 pp.

These volumes contain valuable supplementary material, and good chap-
ter bibhographies.

5. Hart, J. K. Democracy in Education. 418 pp. New York, 1918.

An interpretation of educational progress.

6. Quick, R. H. Essays on Educational Reformers. 568 pp. 2d ed.,
New York, 1890.

A series of well- written essays on the work of the theorists in education
since the time of the Renaissance.

*7. Parker, S. C. The History of Modern Elementary Education. 506 pp.
Boston, 191 2.

An excellent treatise on the development of the theory for our modern
elementary school, with some good descriptions of modern practice.

II. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION

I. Cubberley, E. P. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education.
358 pp. New York. First ed., 1902; 2d ed., 1905.

Gives detailed and classified bibliographies for all phases of the subject.
Now out of print, but may be found in most normal school and college
libraries, and many pubhc libraries.

XXIV GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

III. CYCLOPEDIAS

* I. Monroe, Paul, Editor. Cyclopedia oj Education. 5 vols. New York,
1911-13.

The most important Cyclopaedia of Education in print. Contains ex-
cellent articles on all historical points and events, with good selected bib-
liographies. A work that should be in all libraries, and freely consulted
in using this Text. Its historical articles are too numerous to cite in the
chapter bibliographies, but, due to the alphabetical arrangement and good
cross-referencing, they may be found easily.

*2. EncylopcBdia Britannica. nth ed., 29 vols. Cambridge, 1910-11.

Contains numerous important articles on all types of historical topics,
and excellent biographical sketches. Should be consulted freely in using this
Text.

IV. MAGAZINES

*i. BsLTnard's American Journal of Education. Edited by Henry Barnard.
31 vols. Hartford, 1855-81. Reprinted, Syracuse, 1902. Index
to the 31 vols, published by the United States Bureau of Education,
Washington, 1892.

A wonderful mine of all kinds of historical and educational information,
and should be consulted freely on all points relating to European or American
educational history.

In the chapter bibhographies, as above, the most important
references are indicated with an asterisk (*).

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

THE SOURCES OF OUR CIVILIZATION

The Civilization which we of to-day enjoy is a very complex
thing, made up of many different contributions, some large and
some small, from people in many different lands and different
ages. To trace all these contributions back to their sources would
be a task impossible of accompHshment, and, while specific
parts would be interesting, for our purposes they would not be im-
portant. Especially would it not be profitable for us to attempt
to trace the development of minor features, or to go back to the
rudimentary civilizations of primitive peoples. The early de-
velopment of civilization among the Chinese, the Hindoos, the
Persians, the Egyptians, or the American Indians all alike present
features which to some form a very interesting study, but our
western civilization does not go back to these as sources, and con-
sequently they need not concern us in the study we are about to
begin. While we have obtained the alphabet from the Phoenicians
and some of our mathematical and scientific developments through
the medium of the Mohammedans, the real sources of our present-
day civilization lie elsewhere, and these minor sources will be
referred to but briefly and only as they influenced the course of
western progress.

The civilization which we now know and enjoy has come down
to us from four main sources. The Greeks, the Romans, and the
Christians laid the foundations, and in the order named, and the
study of the early history of our western civilization is a study
of the work and the blending of these three main forces. It is
upon these three foundation stones, superimposed upon one an-
other, that our modern European and American civilization has
been developed. The Germanic tribes, overrunning the bound-
aries of the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries,
added another new force of largest future significance, and one

4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

which profoundly modified all subsequent progress and develop-
ment. To these four main sources we have made many additions
in modern times, building an entirely new superstructure on the
old foundations, but the groundwork of our civihzation is com-
posed of these four foundation elements. For these reasons a
history of even modern education almost of necessity goes back,
briefly at least, to the work and contributions of these ancient
peoples.

Starting, then, with the work of the Greeks, we shall state
briefly the contributions to the stream of civilization which have
come down to us from each of the important historic peoples or
groups or forces, and shall trace the blending and assimilating
processes of the centuries. While describing briefly the educa-
tional institutions and ideas of the different peoples, we shall be
far less concerned, as we progress down the centuries, with the
educational and philosophical theories advanced by thinkers
among them than with what was actually done, and with the last-
ing contributions which they made to our educational practices
and to our present-day civilization.

The work of Greece lies at the bottom and, in a sense, was the
most important of all the earlier contributions to our education
and civilization. These people, known as Hellenes, were the
pioneers of western civilization. Their position in the ancient
world is well shown on the map reproduced opposite. To the East
lay the older political despotisms, with their caste-type and in-
tellectually stagnant organization of society, and to the North
and West a little-known region inhabited by barbarian tribes.
It was in such a world that our western civilization had its birth.
These Greeks, and especially the Athenian Greeks, represented
an entirely new spirit in the world. In place of the repression
of all individuality, and the stagnant conditions of society that
had characterized the civilizations before them, they developed a
civilization characterized by individual freedom and opportunity,
and for the first time in world history a premium was placed on
personal and pohtical initiative. In time this new western spirit
was challenged by the older eastern type of civilization. Long
foreseeing the danger, and in fear of what might happen, the
little Greek States had developed educational systems in part de-
signed to prepare their citizens for what might come. Finally, in
a series of memorable battles, the Greeks, led by Athens, broke
the dread power of the Persian name and made the future of thi§

INTRODUCTION

new t3^e of civilization secure. At Marathon, Salamis, and
Plataea the fate of our western civiUzation trembled in the bal-
ance. Now followed the great creative period in Greek life, dur-
ing which the Athenian Greeks matured and developed a litera-
ture, philosophy, and art which were to be enjoyed not only by
themselves, but by all western peoples since their time. In these
lines of culture the world will forever remain debtor to this small
but active and creative people.

A m a I c h i 2t m Ma r e

'ndua F.

Fig. I . The Early Greek Conception of the World

The World according to Hecataeus, a geographer of Miletus, Asia Minor. Hecataeus
was the first Greek traveler and geographer. The map dates from about 500 B.C.

The next great source of our western civilization was the work
of Rome. Like the Greeks, the Romans also occupied a penin-
sula jutting southward into the Mediterranean, but in most re-
spects they were far different in type. Unlike the active, imagina-
tive, artistic, and creative Greeks, the Romans were a practical,
concrete, unimaginative, and executive people. Energy, person-
ality, and executive power were in greatest demand among them.

6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The work of Rome was political, governmental, and legal — not
artistic or intellectual. Rome was strong where Greece was
weak, and weak where Greece was strong. As a result the two
peoples supplemented one another well in laying the foundations
for our western civilization. The conquests of Greece were intel-
lectual; those of Rome legal and governmental. Rome absorbed
and amalgamated the whole ancient world into one Empire, to
which she gave a common language, dress, manners, religion,
literature, and political and legal institutions. Adopting Greek
learning and educational practices as her own, she spread them
throughout the then-known world. By her political organiza-
tion she so fixed Roman ideas as to law and government through-
out the Empire that Christianity built firmly on the Roman
foundations, and the German barbarians, who later swept over
the Empire, could neither destroy nor obliterate them. The Ro-
man conquest of the world thus decisively influenced the whole
course of western history, spread and perpetuated Greek ideas,
and ultimately saved the world from a great disaster.

To Rome, then, we are indebted most of all for ideas as to gov-
ernment, and for the introduction of law and order into an unruly
world. In all the intervening centuries between ancient Rome
and ourselves, and in spite of many wars and repeated onslaughts
of barbarism, Roman governmental law still influences and guides
our conduct, and this influence is even yet extending to other
lands and other peoples. We are also indebted to Rome for many
practical skills and for important engineering knowledge, which
was saved and passed on to Western Europe through the medium
of the monks. On the other side of the picture, the recent great
World War, with all its awful destruction of life and property, and
injury to the orderly progress of civilization, may be traced di-
rectly to the Roman idea of world empire and the sway of one
imperial government, imposing its rule and its culture on the rest
of mankind.

Into this Roman Empire, united and made one by Roman
arms and government, came the first of the modern forces in the
ancient world — that of Christianity — the third great foundation
element in our western civilization. Embracing in its early
development many Greek philosophical ideas, building securely
on the Roman governmental organization, and with its new mes-
sage for a decaying world, Christianity forms the connecting link
between the ancient and modern civilizations. Taking the

INTRODUCTION 7

conception of one God which the Jewish tribes of the East had
developed, Christianity changed and expanded this in such a way
as to make it a dominant idea in the world. Exalting the teach-
ings of the fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of man, the future
Hfe, and the need for preparation for a hereafter, Christianity
introduced a new type of religion and offered a new hope to the
poor and oppressed of the ancient world. In so doing a new
ethical force of first importance was added to the effective ener-
gies of mankind, and a basis for the education of all was laid, for
the first time, in the history of the world.

Christianity came at just the right time not only to impart new
energy and hopefulness to a decadent ancient civilization, but also
to meet, conquer, and in time civilize the barbarian hordes from
the North which overwhelmed the Roman Empire. A new and
youthful race of German barbarians now appeared upon the
scene, with resulting ravage and destruction, and anarchy and
ignorance, and long centuries ensued during which ancient civili-
zation fell prey to savage violence and superstition. Progress
ceased in the ancient world. The creative power of antiquity
seemed exhausted. The digestive and assimilative powers of the
old world seemed gone. Greek was forgotten. Latin was cor-
rupted. Knowledge of .the arts and sciences was lost. Schools
disappeared. Only the Christian Church remained to save civili-
zation from the wreck, and it, too, was almost submerged in the
barbaric flood. It took ten centuries partially to civilize, educate,
and mould into homogeneous units this heterogeneous horde of
new peoples. During this long period it required the strongest
energies of the few who understood to preserve the civilization
of the past for the enjoyment and use of a modern world.

Yet these barbarian Germans, great as was the havoc they
wrought at first, in time contributed much to the stream of our
modern civilization. They brought new conceptions of individual
worth and freedom into a world thoroughly impregnated with the
ancient idea of the dominance of the State over the individual.
The popular assembly, an elective king, and an independent and
developing system of law were contributions of first importance
which these peoples brought. The individual man and not the
State was, with them, the important unit in society. In the
hands of the Angles and Saxons, particularly, but also among the
Celts, Franks, Helvetii, and Belgae, this idea of individual free-
dom and of the subordination of the State to the individual has

8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

borne large fruit in modern times in the self-governing States
of France, Switzerland, Belgium, England and the English self-
governing dominions, and in the United States of America.
After much experimenting it now seems certain that the Anglo-
Saxon type of self-government, as developed first in England and
further expanded in the United States, seems destined to be the
type of government in future to rule the world.

It took Europe almost ten centuries to recover from the effects
of the invasion of barbarism which the last two centuries of the
Roman Empire witnessed, to save itself a little later from Moham-
medan conquest, and to pick up the lost threads of the ancient
life and begin again the work of civilization. Finally, however,
this was accomplished, largely as a result of the labor of monks
and missionaries. The barbarians were in time induced to settle
down to an agricultural life, to accept Christianity in name at
least, and to yield a more or less grudging obedience to monk and
priest that they might thereby escape the torments of a world to
come. Slowly the monasteries and the churches, aided here and
there by far-sighted kings, worked at the restoration of books and
learning, and finally, first in Italy, and later in the nations evolved
from the tribes that had raided the Empire, there came a period of
awakening and rediscovery which led to the development of the
early university foundations, a wonderful revival of ancient learn-
ing, a great expansion of men's thoughts, a great religious awak-
ening, a wonderful period of world exploration and discovery, the
founding of new nations in new lands, the reawakening of the
spirit of scientific inquiry, the rise of the democratic spirit, and
the evolution of our modern civilization.

By the end of the eleventh century it was clear that the long
battle for the preservation of civilization had been won, but it was
not until the fourteenth century that the Revival of Learning in
Italy gave clear evidence of the rise of the modern spirit. By
the year 1 500 much had been accomplished, and the new modern
questioning spirit of the Italian Revival was making progress in
many directions. Most of the old learning had been recovered;
the printing-press had been invented, and was at work multiply-
ing books; the study of Greek and Hebrew had been revived in
the western world; trade and commerce had begun; the cities and
the universities which had arisen had become centers of a new life ;
a new sea route to India had been found and was in use ; Colum-
bus had discovered a new world; the Church was more tolerant

INTRODUCTION 9

of new ideas than it had been for centuries; and thought was be-
ing awakened in the western world to a degree that had not taken
place since the days of ancient Rome. The world seemed about
ready for rapid advances in many directions, and great progress
in learning, education, government, art, commerce, and inven-
tion seemed almost within its grasp. Instead, there soon opened
the most bitter and vindictive religious conflict the world has
ever known; western Christian civilization was torn asunder;
a century of religious warfare ensued; and this was followed by
other centuries of hatred and intolerance and suspicion awak-
ened by the great conflict.

Still, out of this conflict, though it for a time checked the or-
derly development of civilization, much important educational
progress was ultimately to come. In promulgating the doctrine
that the authority of the Bible in religious matters is superior to
the authority of the Church, the basis for the elementary school
for the masses of the people, and in consequence the education of
all, was laid. This meant the creation of an entirely new type
of school — the elementary, for the masses, and taught in the
native tongue — to supplement the Latin secondary schools which
had been an outgrowth of the revival of ancient learning, and the
still earlier cathedral and monastery schools of the Church.

The modern elementary vernacular school may then be said to
be essentially a product of the Protestant Reformation. This
is true in a special sense among those peoples which embraced some
form of the Lutheran or Calvinistic faiths. These were the Ger-
mans, Moravians, Swedes, Norwegians, Finns, Danes, Dutch,
Walloons, Swiss, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, French Huguenots, and
the English Puritans. As the Renaissance gave a new emphasis
to the development of secondary schools by supplying them with
a large amount of new subject-matter and a new motive, so the
Reformation movement gave a new motive for the education of
children not intended for the service of the State or the Church,
and the development of elementary vernacular schools was the
result. Only in England, of all the revolting countries, did this
Protestant conception as to the necessity of education for salva-
tion fail to take deep root, with the result that elementary edu-
cation in England awaited the new political and social and in-
dustrial impulses of the latter half of the nineteenth century for
its real development.

The rise of the questioning and inferring spirit in the Italian

10 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Renaissance marked the beginnings of the transition from mediae-
val to modern attitudes, and one of the most important out-
growths of this was the rise of scientific inquiry which in time
followed. This meant the application of human reason to the
investigation of the phenomena of nature, with all that this
eventually implied. This, slowly to be sure, turned the energies
of mankind in a new direction, led to the substitution of inquiry
and patient experimentation for assumption and disputation, and
in time produced a scientific and industrial revolution which has
changed the whole nature of the older problems. The scientific
spirit has to-day come to dominate all lines of human thinking,
and the applications of scientific principles have, in the past cen-
tury, completely changed almost all the conditions surrounding
human life. Applied to education, this new spirit has transformed
the instruction and the methods of the schools, led to the crea-
tion of entirely new types of educational institutions, and intro-
duced entirely new aims and methods and purposes into the edu-
cational process.

From inquiry into religious matters and inquiry into the
phenomena of nature, it was but a short and a natural step to
inquiry into the nature and functions of government. This led
to a critical questioning of the old established order, the rise of
new types of intellectual inquiry, the growth of. a consciousness
of national problems, and the bringing to the front of questions of
political interest to a degree unknown since the days of ancient
Rome. The eighteenth century marks, in these directions, a
sharp turning-point in human thinking, and the end of mediaeval-
ism and the ushering in of modern forms of intellectual liberty.
The eighteenth century, too, witnessed a culmination of a long
series of progressive changes which had been under way for cen-
turies, and the flood time of a slowly but steadily rising tide of
protest against the enslavement of the intellect and the limita-
tion of natural human liberties by either Church or State. The
flood of individualism which characterized the second half of the
eighteenth century demanded outlet, and, denied, it rose and
swept away ancient privileges, abuses, and barriers — religious,
intellectual, social, and political — and opened the way for the
marked progress in all lines which characterized the nineteenth
century. Out of this new spirit was to come the American and the
French Revolutions, the establishment of constitutional liberty
and religious freedom, the beginnings of the abolition of privilege,

INTRODUCTION II

the rise of democracy, a great extension of educational advan-
tages, and the transfer of the control of the school from the Church
to the State that the national welfare might be better promoted
thereby.

Now arose the modern conception. of the school as the great
constructive instrument of the State, and a new individual and
national theory as to both the nature and the purpose of education
was advanced. Schools were declared to be essentially civil af-
fairs; their purpose was asserted to be to promote the common
welfare and advance the interests of the political State; minis-
ters of education began to be appointed by the State to take over
and exercise control; the citizen supplanted the ecclesiastic in
the organization of education and the supervision of classroom
teaching; the instruction in the school was changed in direction,
and in time vastly broadened in scope; and the education of all
now came to be conceived of as a birthright of the child of every
citizen.

Since the middle of the nineteenth century a great world move-
ment for the realization of these new aims, through the taking-
over of education from religious bodies and the establishment of
state-controlled school systems, has taken place. This move-
ment is still going on. Beginning in the nations which were
earliest in the front of the struggle, to preserve and extend what
was so well begun by little Greece and Imperial Rome, the state-
control conception of education has, in the past three quarters
of a century, spread to every continent on the globe. For ages
a Church and private affair, of no particular concern to govern-
ment and of importance to but a relatively small number of the
people, education has to-day become, with the rise and spread of
modern ideas as to human freedom, political equality, and in-
dustrial progress, a prime essential to the maintenance of good
government and the promotion of national welfare, and it is now
so recognized by progressive nations everywhere. With the
spread of the state-control idea as to education have also gone
western ideas as to government, human rights, social obligations,
political equality, pure and applied science, trade, industry,
transportation, intellectual and moral improvement, and human-
itarian influences which are rapidly transforming and modern-
izing not only less progressive western nations, but ancient civili-
zations as well, and along the lines so slowly and so painfully
worked out by the inheritors of the conceptions of human free-

12 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

dom first thought out in Httle Greece, and those of poUtical
equahty and government under law so well worked out by an-
cient Rome. Western civilization thus promises to become the
dominant force in world civilization and human progress, with
general education as its agent and greatest constructive force.

Such is a brief outline sketch of the history of the rise and
spread and progress of our western civilization, as expressed in
the history of the progress of education, and as we shall trace it
in much more detail in the chapters which are to follow. The
road that man has traveled from the days when might made right,
and when children had no claims which the State or parents were
bound to respect, to a time when the child is regarded as of first
importance, and adults represented in the State declare by law
that the child shall be protected and shall have abundant educa-
tional advantages, is a long road and at times a very crooked
one. Its ups and downs and forward movements have been those
of the progress of the race, and in consequence a history of edu-
cational progress must be in part a history of the progress of
civilization itself. Human civilization, though, represents a
more or less orderly evolution, and the education of man stands
as one of the highest expressions of a belief in the improvability
of the race of which mankind is capable.

It is such a development that we propose to trace, and, having
now sketched the broader outlines of the treatment, we next turn
to a filling-in of the details, and begin with the Ancient World and
the first foundation element as found in the little City-States
of ancient Greece.

PART I
THE ANCIENT WORLD

•

THE FOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR

WESTERN CIVILIZATION

GREECE — ROME — CHRISTIANITY

CHAPTER I
THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

I. GREECE AND ITS PEOPLE

The land. Ancient Greece, or Hellas as the Greeks called their
homeland, was but a small country. The map given below shows
the /Egean world superimposed on the States of the old Northwest
Territory, from which it may be seen that the Greek mainland
was a little less than half as large as the State of Illinois. Greece
proper was about the size of the State of West Virginia, but it was

Fig. 2. Ancient Greece and the ^gean World

Superimposed on the East-North-Central Group of American States, to show rela-
tive size. Dotted lines indicate the boundaries of the American States — Illinois,
Indiana, Kentucky, etc. All of Greece will be seen to be a little less than half the
size of the State of Illinois,' the ^Egean Sea about the size of the State of Indiana,
and Attica not quite so large as two average-size Illinois counties.

1 6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

a much more mountainous land. No spot in Greece was over
forty miles from the sea. Attica, where a most wonderful intel-
lectual life arose and flourished for centuries, and whose contri-
butions to civilization were the chief glory of Greece, was smaller
than two average -size Illinois counties, and about two thirds the
size of the little State of Rhode Island.^ The country was
sparsely populated, except in a few of the City-States, and prob-
ably did not, at its most prosperous period, contain much more
than a million and a half of people — citizens, foreigners, and
slaves included.

The land was rough and mountainous, and deeply indented by
the sea. The climate and vegetation were not greatly unlike the
climate and vegetation of Southern, California. Pine and fir on
the mountain-slopes, and figs, olives, oranges, lemons, and grapes
on the hillsides and plains below, were characteristic of the land.
Fishing, agriculture, and the raising of cattle and sheep were the
important industries. A temperate, bracing climate, short, mild
winters, and a long, dry summer gave an opportunity for the de-
velopment of this wonderful civilization. Like Southern Cali-
fornia or Florida in winter, it was essentially an out-of-doors
country. The high mountains to the rear, the sun-steeped skies,
and the brilliant sea in front were alike the beauty of the land
and the inspiration of the people. Especially was this true of
Attica, which had the seashore, the plain, the high mountains,
and everywhere magnificent views through an atmosphere of
remarkable clearness. A land of incomparable beauty and charm,
it is little wonder that the Greek citizen, and the Athenian
in particular, took pride in and loved his country, and was
willing to spend much time in preparing himself to govern and
defend it.

The government. Politically, Greece was composed of a num-
ber of independent City-States of small size. They had been set-
tled by early tribes, which originally held the land in common.
Attica, with its approximately seven hundred square miles of
territory, was an average-size City-State. The central city, the
surrounding farming and grazing lands, and the coastal regions
all taken together, formed the State, the citizens of which — city-
residents, farmers, herdsmen, and fishermen — controlled the

^ The average size of an Illinois county is 550 square miles, or an area 22X 25 miles
square. The State of West Virginia contains 24,022 .square miles, and Rhode
Island 1067 square miles. Rhode Island would be approximately 30X36 miles
square, which would make Attica approximately 20X36 miles square in area.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

government. There were in all some twenty of these City-States
in mainland Greece, the most important of which were Attica,
of which Athens was the central city; Laconia, of which Sparta
was the central city; and Boeotia, of which Thebes was the central
city. Some of the States developed democracies, of which class
Athens became the most notable example, while some were gov-
erned as oligarchies. Of all the different States but few played
any conspicuous part in the history of Greece. Of these few
Attica stands clearly above them all as the leader in thought and
art and the most progressive in government. Here, truly, was a
most wonderful people, and it

Scale of Miles

is with Attica that the student
of the history of education is
most concerned. The, best of
all Greece was there.

The little City-States of
Greece, as has just been said,
were independent States, just
like modern nations. While
all the Greeks regarded them-
selves as tribes of a single
family, descended from a com-
mon ancestor, Hellen, and the
bonds of a common race, lan-
guage, and religion tended to
unite them into a sort of
brotherhood, the different City-
States were held apart by their
tribal origins, by narrow polit-
ical sympathies, and by petty laws. A citizen of one city, for
example, was an alien in another, and could not hold property or
marry in a city not his own. Such attitudes and laws were but
natural, the time and age considered.

Sometimes, in case of great danger, as at the time of the Persian
invasions (492-479 B.C.), a number of the States would combine to
form a defensive league ; at other times they made war on one an-
other. The federal principle, such as we know it in the United
States in our state and national governments, never came into
play. At different times Athens, Sparta, and Thebes aspired to
the leadership of Greece and tried to unite the Httle States into a
Hellenic Nation, but the mutual jealousies and the extreme indi-

Fig. 3. The City-State of Attica

1 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

vidualism of the people, coupled with the isolation of the States
and the difficulties of intercommunication through the mountain
passes, stood in the way of any permanent union. ^ What Rome
later accomplished with relative ease and on a large scale, Greece
was unable to do on even a small scale. A lack of capacity to
unite for cooperative undertakings seemed to be a fatal weakness
of the Greek character.

The people. The Greeks were among the first of the European
peoples to attain to any high degree of civilization. Their story
runs back almost to the dawn of recorded history. As early as
3500 B.C. they were in an advanced stone age, and by 2500 B.C. had
reached the age of bronze. The destruction of Homer's Troy
dates back to 1200 B.C.. and the Homeric poems to iioo B.C., while
an earlier Troy (Schliemann's second city) goes back to 2400 B.C.
This history concerns the mainland of Asia Minor. By 1000 B.C.
the southern peninsula of Greece had been colonized, between 900
and 800 B.C. Attica and other portions of upper Greece had been
settled, and by 650 B.C. Greek colonization had extended to many
parts of the Mediterranean.^

The lower part of the Greek peninsula, known as Laconia, was
settled by the Dorian branch of the Greek family, a practical,
forceful, but a wholly unimaginative people. Sparta was their
most important city. To the north were the Ionic Greeks, a
many-sided and a highly imaginative people. Athens was their

^ The nearest analogy we have to the Greek City-States exists in the local town
governments of the New England States, particularly Massachusetts, and the local
county-unit governmental organizations of a number of the Southern States, though
in each of these cases we have a state and a federal government above to unify and
direct and control these small local governments, which did not exist, except tempo-
rarily, in Greece.

If an area the size of West Virginia were divided into some twenty independent
counties, which could arrange treaties, make alliances, and declare war, and which
sometimes united into leagues for defense or offense, but which were never able to
unite to form a single State, we should have a condition analogous to that of main-
land Greece.

2 A sea-faring people, the Greeks became to the ancient Mediterranean world
what the English have been to the modern world. Southern Italy became so
thickly set with small Greek cities that it was known as Magna Grcecia. On the
island of Sicily the city of Syracuse was founded (734 B.C.), and became a center of
power and a home of noted Greeks. The city of Marseilles, in southern France,
dates from an Ionic settlement about 600 B.C. The presence of another seafaring
people, the Phcenicians, along the northern coast of Africa and southern and eastern
Spain, probably checked the further spread of Greek colonies to the westward. ,The
city of Gyrene, in northern Africa, dates from about 630 B.C. Greek colonists also
went north and east, through the Dardanelles and on into the Black Sea. (See map,
Figure 2.) Salonica and Constantinople date back to Greek colonization. Many of
the colonies reflected great honor and credit on the motherland, and served to
spread Greek manners, language, and religion over a wide area.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION 19

chief city. In the settlement of Laconia the Spartans imposed
themselves as an army of occupation on the original inhabitants,
whom they compelled to pay tribute to them, and established a
military monarchy in southern Greece. The people of Attica, on
the other hand, absorbed into their own body the few earlier set-
tlers of the Attic plain. They also established a monarchy, but,
being a people more capable of progress, this later evolved into a
democracy. The people of Attica were in consequence a some-
what mixed race, which possibly in part accounts for their greater
intellectual ability and versatility.^

It accounts, though, only in part. Climate, beautiful surround-
ings, and contact with the outside world probably also contrib-
uted something, but the real basis underneath was the very su-
perior quality of the people of Attica. In some way, just how we
do not know, these people came to be endowed with a superior
genius and the rather unusual ability to make those progressive
changes in living and government which enabled them to make
the most of their surroundings and opportunities, and to advance
while others stood still. Far more than other Greeks, the people
of Attica were imaginative, original, versatile, adaptable, pro-
gressive, endowed with rare mental ability, keenly sensitive to
beauty in nature and art, and possessed of a wonderful sense of
proportion and a capacity for moderation in all things. Only
on such an assumption can we account for their marvelous
achievements in art, philosophy, literature, and science at this
very early period in the development of the civilization of the
world.

Classes in the population. Greece, as was the ancient world in
general, was built politically on the dominant power of a ruling
class. In consequence, all of course could not become citizens
of the State, even after a democracy had been evolved. Citizen-
ship came with birth and proper education, and, before 509 B.C.,
foreigners were seldom admitted to privileges in the State. Only
a male citizen might hold ofhce, protect himself in the courts, own
land, or attend the public assemblies. Only a citizen, too, could
participate in the religious festivals and rites, for religion was an
affair of the ruling families of the State. In consequence, family,
rehgion, and citizenship were all bound up together, and educa-

^ It is the great mixed races that have counted for most in history. The strength
of England is in part due to its wonderful mixture of peoples — Britons, Angles,
Saxons, Jutes, Danes, Northmen, to mention only the more important earlier peo-
ples which have been welded together to form the English people.

20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion and training were chiefly for citizenship and religious (moral)
ends.

Even more, citizenship everywhere in the earlier period was a
degree to be attained to only after proper education and prelim-
inary military and political training. This not only made some
form of education necessary, but confined educational advantages
to male youths of proper birth. There was of course no purpose
in educating any others.^ From Figure 4 it will be seen what a
small percentage of the total population this included. Educa-
tion in Greece was essentially the education of the children of the
ruling class to perpetuate the rule of that class.

Attica almost alone among the Greek States adopted anything
approaching a liberal attitude toward the foreign-bom ; in Sparta,
and generally elsewhere in Greece, they were looked upon with
deep suspicion. As a result most of the foreign residents of Greece
were to be found in Athens, or its neighboring port city (the
Piraeus), attracted there by the hospitality of the people and
the intellectual or commercial advantages of these cities. After
Athens had become the center of world thought, many foreigners
took up their residence in the city because of the importance of its
intellectual life. Foreigners, though, they remained up to 509 B.C.
(See page 40.) Only rarely before this date, and then only for
some conspicuous act of patriotism, and by special vote of the citi-
zens, was a foreigner admitted to citizenship. Unlike Rome, which
received those of alien birth freely into its citizenship, and opened
up to them large opportunities of every kind, the Greeks persist-
ently refused to assimilate the foreign-bom. Regarding them-
selves as a superior people, descended from the gods, they held
themselves apart rather exclusively as above other peoples. This
kept the blood pure, but, from the standpoint of world usefulness,
it was a serious defect in Greek life.-

Beneath both citizens and foreign residents was a great founda-
tion mass of working slaves, who rendered all types of menial and
intellectual services. Sailors, household servants, field workers,

^ Athens, however, permitted the children of foreigners to attend its schools,
particularly in the later period of Athenian education.

2 "When I compare the customs of the Greeks with these (the Romans), I can
find no reason to extol either those of the Spartans, or the Thebans, or even of the
Athenians, who value themselves the most for their wisdom; all who, jealous of their
nobihty and communicating to none or to very few the privileges of their cities . . .
were so far from receiving any advantage from this haughtiness that they became
the greatest sufferers by it." (Dionysius of Halicamassus, in his Roman Antiquities,
book II, chap, xvii.)

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

clerks in shops and offices, accountants, and pedagogues were
among the more common occupations of slaves in Greece. Many
of these had been citizens and learned
men of other City-States or countries,
but had been carried off as captives in
some war. This was a common prac-
tice in the ancient world, slavery being
the lot of alien conquered people almost
without exception. The composition of
Attica, just before the outbreak of the
Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.) is shown
in Figure 4. The great number of
slaves and foreigners is clearly seen,
even though the citizenship had by this
time been greatly extended. In Sparta
and in other City-States somewhat
similar conditions prevailed as to num-
bers,^ but there the slaves (Helots)
occupied a lower status than in Athens,
being in reality serfs, tied to and being
sold with the land, and having no rights
which a citizen was bound to respect.

Education, then, being only for the
male children of citizens, and citizen-
ship a degree to be attained to on the
basis of education and training, let us
next see in whafthat education consisted, and what were its most
prominent characteristics and results.

Fig. 4. Distribution of the

Population of Athens and

Attica, about 430 b;c.

(After Gulick)

II. EARLY EDUCATION IN GREECE

Some form of education that would train the son of the citizen
for participation in the religious observances and duties of a citi-
zen of the State, and would prepare the State for defense against
outward enemies, was everywhere in Greece recognized as a public
necessity, though its provision, nature, and extent varied in the
different City-States. We have clear information only as to
Sparta and Athens, and will consider only these two as types.
Sparta is interesting as representing the old Greek tribal training,

^ In Sparta the number of citizens was still less. At the time of the formulation
of the Spartan constitution by Lycurgus (about 850 B.C.) there were but 9000
Spartan famiUes in the midst of 250,000 subject people. This disproportion in-
creased rather than diminished in later centuries.

22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

from which Sparta never progressed. Many of the other Greek
City-States probably maintained a system of training much like
that of Sparta. ^ Such educational systems stand as undesirable
examples of extreme state socialism, contributed little to our
western civilization, and need not detain us long. It was Athens,
and a few other City-States which followed her example, which
presented the best of Greece and passed on to the modern world
what was most valuable for civilization.

I. Education in Sparta

The people. The system of training which was maintained in.
Sparta was in part a reflection of the character of the people, and
in part a result of its geographical location. A warlike people by
nature, the Spartans were for long regarded as the ablest fighters
in Greece. Laconia, their home, was a plain surrounded by
mountains. They represented but a small percentage of the total
population, which they held in subjection to them by their mih-
tary power. ^ The slaves (Helots) were often troublesome, and
were held in check by many kinds of questionable practices.
Education for citizenship with the Spartans meant education for
usefulness in an intensely military State, where preparedness was
a prerequisite to safety. Strength, courage, endurance, cunning,
patriotism, and obedience were the virtues most highly prized,
while the humane, literary, and artistic sentiments were ne-
glected (R. i). Aristotle well expressed it when he said that
" Sparta prepared and trained for war, and in peace rusted like a.
sword in its scabbard."

The educational system. At birth the child was examined by
a council of elders (R. i), and if it did not appear to be a promising
child it was exposed to die in the mountains. If kept, the mother
had charge of the child until seven if a boy, and still longer if a
girl. At the beginning of the eighth year, and until the boy
reached the age of eighteen, he lived in a public barrack, where he
was given little except physical drill and instruction in the Spar-
tan virtues. His food and clothing were scant and his bed hard.
Each older man was a teacher. Running, leaping, boxing, wres-
tling, military music, mihtary drill, ball-playing, the use of the
spear, fighting, stealing, and laconic speech and demeanor con-

^ The Austrian-Magyar combination, which held together and dominated the
many tribes of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, is an analogous modern situa-
tion, though on a much larger scale.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION 23

stituted the course of study. From eighteen to twenty was spent
in professional training for war, and frequently the youth was
publicly whipped to develop his courage and endurance. For the
next ten years — that is, until he was thirty years old — he was
in the army at some frontier post. At thirty the young man was
admitted to full citizenship and compelled to marry, though con-
tinuing to live at the public barrack and spending his energies in
training boys (R. i). Women and girls were given gymnastic
training to make them strong and capable of bearing strong chil-
dren. The family was virtually suppressed in the interests of
defense and war.^ The intellectual training consisted chiefly in
committing to memory the Laws of Lycurgus, learning a few
selections from Homer, and listening to the conversation of the
older men.

As might naturally be supposed, Sparta contributed little of
anything to art, literature, science, philosophy, or government.
She left to the world some splendid examples of heroism, as for
example the sacrifice of Leonidas and his Spartans to hold the pass
at Thermopylae,^ and a warning example of the brutalizing effect
on a people of excessive devotion to military training. It is a
pleasure to turn from this dark picture to the wonderful (for the
time) educational system that was gradually developed at Athens.

2. The old Athenian education

Schools and teachers. Athenian education divides itself nat-
urally into two divisions — the old Athenian training which pre-
vailed up to about the time of the close of the Persian Wars
(479 B.C.) and was an outgrowth of earlier tribal observances and
practices, and later Athenian education, which characterized the

^ Two Greek poems illustrate the Spartan mother, who was said to admonish her
sons to come back with their shields, or upon them. The first is:
"Eight sons Daementa at Sparta's call
Sent forth to fight: one tomb received them all.
No tears she shed, but shouted, 'Victory!
Sparta, I bore them but to die for thee.'"

The second:

"A Spartan, his companion slain,
Alone from battle fled:
His mother, kindhng with disdain
That she had borne him, struck him dead;
For courage and not birth alone
In Sparta testifies a son."

"Go, tell at Sparta, thou that passest by,
That here, obedient to her laws, we lie."

(Epitaph on the three hundred who fell at Thermopylae.)

24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

period of maximum greatness of Athens and afterward. We shall
describe these briefly, in order.

The state military socialism of Sparta made no headway in
more democratic Attica. The citizens were too individualistic,
and did their own thinking too well to permit the estabHshment
of any such plan. While education was a necessity for citizen-
ship, and the degree could not be obtained without it, the State
nevertheless left every citizen free to make his own arrangements
for the education of his sons, or to omit such education if he saw
lit. Only instruction in reading, writing, music, and gymnastics
were required. If family pride, and the sense of obligation of a
parent and a citizen were not sufficient to force the father to edu-
cate his son, the son was then by law freed from the necessity of
supporting his father in his old age. The State supervised edu-
cation, but did not establish it.

The teachers were private teachers, and derived their livelihood
from fees. These naturally varied much with the kind of teacher
and the wealth of the parent, much as private lessons in music or
dancing do to-day. As was common in antiquity, the teachers
occupied but a low social position (R. 5), and only in the higher
schools of Athens was their standing of any importance. Greek
literature contains many passages which show the low social
status of the schoolmaster. ^ Schools were open from dawn to
dark. The school discipline was severe, the rod being freely used
both in the school and in the home. There were no Saturday
and Sunday holidays or long vacations, such as we know, but
about ninety festival and other state holidays served to break the
continuity of instruction (R. 3). The schoolrooms were provided
by the teachers, and were wholly lacking in teaching equipment,
in any modem sense of the term. However, but little was needed.
The instruction was largely individual instruction, the boy com-
ing, usually in charge of an old slave known as a pedagogue, to re-
ceive or recite his lessons. The teaching process was essentially
a telling and a leaming-by -heart procedure.

For the earlier years there were two schools which boys at-

^ An Athenian saying, of a man who was missing, was: "Either he is dead or has
become a schoolmaster." To call a man a schoolmaster was to abuse him, according
to Epicurus. Demosthenes, in his attack on ^schines, ridicules him for the fact that
his father was a schoolmaster in the lowest type of reading and writing school.
"As a boy," he says, "you were reared in abject poverty, waiting with your father
on the school, grinding the ink, sponging the benches, sweeping the room, and doing
the duty of a menial rather thanl of a freeman's son." Lucian represents kings as
being forced to maintain themseves in hell by teaching reading and writing.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

tended — the music and literary school, and a school for physical
training. Boys probably spent part of the day at one school and
part at the other, though this is not certain. They may have
attended the two schools on alternate days. From sixteen to
eighteen, if his parents were able, the boy
attended a state-supported gymnasium,
where an advanced type of physical train-
ing was given. As this was preparatory for
the next two years of army service, the
gymnasia were supported by the State more
as preparedness measures than as educa-
tional institutions, though they partook of
the nature of both.

Early childhood. As at Sparta the in-
fant was examined at birth, but the father,
and not a council of citizens, decided
whether or not it was to be ''exposed" or
preserved. Three ceremonies, of ancient
tribal origin, marked the recognition and
acceptance of the child. The first took
place five days after birth, when the child
was carried around the family hearth by the
nurse, followed by the household in procession. This ceremony,
followed by a feast, was designed to place the child forever under
the care of the family gods. On the tenth day the child was named
by the father, who then formally recognized the child as his own
and committed himself to its rearing and education. The third
ceremony took place at the autumn family festival, when all chil-
dren born during the preceding year were presented to the father's
clansmen, who decided, by vote, whether or not the boy or girl
was the legitimate and lawful child of Athenian parents. If
approved, the child's name was entered on the registry of the
clan, and he might then aspire to citizenship and inherit property
from his parent (R. 4) .

Up to the age of seven both boys and girls grew up together in
the home, under the care of the nurse and mother, engaging in
much the same games and sports as do children anywhere. From
the first they were carefully disciplined for good behavior and for
the establishment of self-control (R. 3). After the age of seven
the boy and girl parted company in the matter of their education,
the girl remaining closely secluded in the home (women and chil-

FiG. V A Greek Boy

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

dren were usually confined to the upper floor of the house) and
being instructed in the household arts by her mother, while the
boy went to different teachers for his education. Probably many
girls learned to read and write from their mothers or nurses, and
the daughters of well-to-do citizens learned to spin, weave, sew, and
embroider. Music was also a common accomplishment of women. ^

The school of the grammatist. A Greek boy, unlike a mod-
em school child, did not go to one teacher. Instead he had at
least two teachers, and sometimes three. To the grammatist, who
was doubtless an evolution from an earlier tribal scribe, he went
to learn to read and write and count. The grammatist repre-
sented the earliest or primary teacher. To the music teacher,
who probably at first taught reading and writing also, he went
for his instruction in music and literature. Finally, to the
paliBstra he went for instruction in physical training (R. 3).

Reading was taught by first learning the letters, then syllables,

and finally words. ^ Plaques

PYTANEYCNEOK^
MATFYEAANOAL;,

A O E M <^ A ^T E ^;ife

P' I I-fl F r E A if^TF ^A O E M ^ A ^. T t , - /
-- r'^ rp. AA/1/' N^^ EMTH I C THJ

A r'K '^A/^KP F7A< IT fj
tsjf i^MMNCz-j;. TH I I F,;

v^'

of baked earth, on which
the alphabet was written,
like the more modem horn-
book (see Figure 130), were
frequently used."' The ease
with which modern children
leam to read was unknown in
Greece . Reading was very dif-
ficult to leam, as accentuation,
punctuation, spacing between
words, and small letters had
not as yet been introduced.
As a result the study required

' Women were not supposed to possess any of the privileges of citizenship, be-
longing rather to the alien class. They lived secluded lives, were not supposed to
take any part in pubHc affairs, and, if their husbands brought company to the house,
they were expected to retire from view. In their attitude toward women the Greeks
were an oriental rather than a modern or western people.

^ " We learn first the names of the elements of speech, which are called grammata;
then their shape and functions; then the syllables and their affections; lastly, the
parts of speech, and the piarticular mutations connected with each, as inflection,
number, contraction, accents, position in the sentence; then we begin to read and
write, at first in syllables and slowly, but when we have attained the necessary cer-
tainty, easily and quickly." (Dionysiusof Halicarnassus, /)e C'ow/'o^. Verh.ca.\i 25.)

^ Fragments of a tile found in Attica have stamped upon them the syllables ar,
bar, gar; er, ber, ger; etc. A bottle-shaped vase has also been found which, in addi-
tion to the alphabet, contains pronouncing exercises as follows:

bi-ba-bu-be zi-za-zu-ze pi-pa-pu-pe

gi-ga-gn-ge mi-ma-niu-mr etc.

Fig. 6. An Athenian Inscription

A decree of the Council and Assembly,
dating from about 450 B.C. Note the diffi-
culty of trying to read, without any punc-
tuation, and with only capital letters.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

Greek Writing-Materials

Five Times

Unity

Thou

Hun

sands

4 red 8

much time,^ and much personal ingenuity had to be exercised
in determining the meaning of a sentence. The inscription
:shown in Figure 6 will illustrate the difficulties ciuite well.
T'he Athenian accent, too, was hard to acquire.

The pupil learned to write
by first tracing, with the
stylus, letters cut in wax
tablets, and later by copy-
ing exercises set for him by
his teacher, using the wax
tablet and writing on his
knee. Still later the pupil

learned to write with ink on papyrus or parchment, though, due
to the cost of parchment in ancient times, this was not greatly
used. Slates and paper were of course unknown in Greece.
There was little need for arithmetic, and but little was taught.

Arithmetic such as we teach would
have been impossible with their cum-
brous system of notation.^ Only the
elements of counting were taught, the
Greek using his fingers or a counting-
board, such as is shown in Figure 8,
to do his simple reckoning.

Great importance of reading and
literature. After the pupil had learned
to read, much attention was given to
accentuation and articulation, in or-
der to secure beautiful reading. Still
more, in reading or reciting, the parts
were acted out. The Greeks were a
nation of actors, and the recitations
in the schools and the acting in the
theaters gave plenty of opportunity
for expression. There were no schoolbooks, as we know them.
The master dictated and the pupils wrote down, or, not uncom-

^ "Learning to read must have been a difficult business in Hellas, for books were
written only in capitals at this time. There were no spaces between the words, and
no stops were inserted. Thus the reader had to exercise his ingenuity before he could
arrive at the meaning of a sentence." (Freeman, K. J., Schools of Hellas, p. 87.)

^ The Greeks had no numbers, but only words for numbers, and used the letters
of the Greek alphabet with accents over them to indicate the words they knew as
numbers. Counting and bookkeeping would of course be very difficult with such a,
system.

its

Fig. 8
A Greek Counting-Board

Pebbles of different size or color
were used for thousands, hun-
dreds, tens, and units. Their
position on the board gave them
their values. The board now
shows the total 15,379.

28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

monly, learned by heart what the master dictated. Ink and
parchment were now used, the boy making his own schoolbooks.
Homer was the first and the great reading book of the Greeks,
the Iliad and the Odyssey being the Bible of the Greek people.
Then followed Hesiod, Theognis, the Greek poets, and the fables
of iEsop.^ Reading, declamation, and music were closely inter-
related. To appeal to the emotions and to stir the will along
moral and civic lines was a fundamental purpose of the instruc-
tion (R. 5). A modern writer well characterizes the ancient
instruction in literature in the following words:

By making the works of the great poets of the Greek people the
material cf their education, the Athenians attained a variety of objects
difficult of attainment by any other one means. The fact is, the an-
cient poetry of Greece, with its finished form, its heroic tales and char-
acters, its accounts of peoples far removed in time and space, its man-
liness and pathos, its directness and simplicity, its piety and wisdom,
its respect for law and order, combined with its admiration for personal
initiative and worth, furnished, in the hands of a careful and genial
teacher, a material for a complete education such as could not well be
matched even in our own day. What instruction in ethics, politics,
social life, and manly bearing could not find a fitting vehicle in the
Homeric poems, not to speak of the geography, the grammar, the
literary criticism, and the history which the comprehension of them
involved? Into what a wholesome, unsentimental, free world did these
poems introduce the imaginative Greek boy! What splendid ideals
of manhood and womanhood did they hold up for his admiration and
imitation ! From Hesiod he would learn all that he needed to know
about his gods and their relation to him and his people. From the
elegiac poets he would derive a fund of political and social wisdom, and
an impetus to patriotism, which would go far to make him a good man
and a good citizen. From the iambic poets he would learn to express
with energy his indignation at meanness, feebleness, wrong, and
tyranny, w^hile from the lyric poets he would learn the language suit-
able to every genial feeling and impulse of the human heart. And in
reciting or singing all these, how would his power of terse, idiomatic
expression, his sense of poetic beauty and his ear for rhythm and
music be developed ! With what a treasure of examples of every virtue
and vice, and with what a fund of epigrammatic expression would his
memory be furnished! How familiar he would be with the character
and ideals of his nation, how deeply in sympathy with them! And all

^ "These poems, especially Homer, Hesiod, and Theognis, served at the same
time for drill in language and for recitation, whereby on the one hand the memory
was developed and the imagination strengthened, and on the other the heroic forms
of antiquity and healthy primitive utterances regarding morality, and full of homely
common sense, were deeply engraved on the young mind. Homer was regarded
not merely as a poet, but as an inspired moral teacher, and great portions of his
poems were learned by heart. The Iliad and the Odyssey were in truth the Bible of
the Greeks." (Laurie, S. S., Pre-Christian Education, p. 258.)

A Lesson in Music and Language

Explanation: At the right is the paidagogos; he is seated, and turns his head to look
at his pupil, who is standing before his master. The latter holds a writing-tablet
and a stylus; he is perhaps correcting a task. At the left a pupil is taking a music
lesson. On the wall are hung a roll of manuscript, a folded writing- tablet, a lyre,
and an unknown cross-shaped object.

A Lesson in Music and Poetry

Ex planalion: At the right sits, cross-legged, the paidagogos, who has just brought
in his pupil. The boy stands before the teacher of poetry and recites his lesson.
The master, in a chair, holds in his hand a roll which he is unfolding, upon which
we see Greek letters. Above these three figures we see on the wall a cup, a lyre,
and a leather case of flutes. To the bag is attached the small box containing mouth-
pieces of different kinds for the flutes. Farther on a pupil is receiving a lesson in
music. The master and pupil are both seated on seats without backs. The master,
with head erect, looks at the pupil who, bent over his lyre, seems absorbed in his
playing. Above are hanging a basket, a lyre, and a cup. On the wall is an inscrip-
tion in Greek.

Fig. q. An Athenian School

(From a cup discovered at Caere, signed by the painter Duris, and now in the

Museum of Berlin)

30 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

this was possible even before the introduction of letters. With this
event a new era in education begins. The boy now not only learns
and declaims his Homer, and sings his Simonides or Sappho; he learns
also to write down their verses from dictation, and so at once to read
and to write. This, indeed, was the way in which these two (to us)
fundamental arts were acquired. As soon as the boy could trace with
his finger in sand, or scratch with a stylus on wax, the forms of the
letters, and combine them into syllables and words, he began to write
poetry from his master's dictation. The writing-lesson of to-day was
the reading, recitation, or singing-lesson of to-morrow. Every boy
made his own reading book, and, if he found it illegible, and stumbled
in reading, he had only himself to blame. The Greeks, and especially
the Athenians, laid the greatest stress on reading well, reciting well,
and singing well, and the youth who could not do all three was looked
upon as uncultured. Nor could he hide his want of culture, since
young men were continually called upon, both at home and at more or
less public gatherings, to perform their part in the social entertain-
ment. ^

The music school. The teacher in this school gradually separ-
ated himself from the grammatist, and often the two were found
in adjoining rooms in the same school. In his functions he suc-
ceeded the wandering poet or minstrel of earlier times. Music
teachers were common in all the City-States of Greece. To this
teacher the boy went at first to recite his poetry, and after the
thirteenth year for a special music course. The teacher was
known as a citharist, and the instrument usually used was the
seven-stringed lyre. This resembled somewhat our modern guitar.
The flute was also used somewhat, but never grew into much
favor, partly because it tended to excite rather than soothe, and
partly because of the contortions of the face to which its playing
gave rise. Rhythm, melody, and the feeling for measure and
time were important in instruction, whose office was to soothe,
purge, and harmonize man within and make him fit for moral
instruction through the poetry with which their music was ever
associated. Instead of being a distinct art, as with us, and taught
by itself, music with the Greeks was always subsidiary to the
expression of the spirit of their literature, and in aim it was for
moral- training ends.- Both Aristotle and Plato advocate state

^ Davidson, Thos., Aristotle, pp. 73-75.

2 Plutarch later expressed well the Greek conception of musical education in
these words: "Whoever be he that shall give his mind to the study of music in his
youth, if he meet with a musical education proper for the forming and regulating
his inclinations, he will be sure to applaud and embrace that which is noble and gen-
erous, and to rebuke and blame the contrary, as well in other things as in what
belongs to music. And by that means he will become clear from all reproachful
actions, for now having reaped the noblest fruit of music, he may be of great use,

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

control of school music to insure sound moral results. Inferior as
their music was to present-day music, it exerted an influence over
their lives which it is difficult for an American teacher to appreci-
ate.

The first lessons taught the use of the instrument, and the sim-
ple chants of the religious services were learned. As soon as the
pupil knew how to play, the master taught him to render the
works of the great lyric poets of Greece. Poetry and music to-

^ ' « '

The Singing Lesson

The Literature Lesson

The boy is singing, to the accompani-
ment of a flute. On the wall hangs a
bag of flutes.

Fig. 10. Greek School Lessons

The boy is reciting, while the teacher
follows him on a roll of manuscript.

gether thus formed a single art. At thirteen a special music
course began which lasted until sixteen, but which only the sons
of the more well-to-do citizens attended. Every boy, though,
learned some music, not that he might be a musician, but that he
might be musical and able to perform his part at social gatherings
and participate in the religious services of the State. Profes-
sional playing was left to slaves and foreigners, and was deemed
unworthy a free man and a citizen. Professionalism in either
music or athletics was regarded as disgraceful. The purpose of
both activities was harmonious personal development, which the
Greeks believed contributed to moral worth.

The palaestra; gymnastics. Very unlike our modern educa-
tion, fully one half of a boy's school life, from eight to sixteen, was
given to sports and games in another school under different teach-
not only to himself, but to the commonwealth; while music teaches him to abstain
from everything that is indecent, both in word and deed, and to observe decorum,
temperance, and regularity." (Monroe, Paul, History of Education, p. 92.)

32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ers, known as the palcestra. The work began gradually, but by
fifteen had taken precedence over other studies. As in music,
harmonious physical development and moral ends were held to
be of fundamental importance. The standards of success were
far from our modern standards. To win the game was of little
significance; the important thing was to do the part gracefully
and, for the person concerned, well. To attain to a graceful and
dignified carriage of the body, good physical health, perfect con-
trol of the temper, and to develop quickness of perception, self-
possession, ease, and skill in the games were the aims — not mere
strength or athletic prowess (R. 2). Only a few were allowed to
train for participation in the Olympian games.

The work began with children's games, contests in running, and
ball games of various kinds. Deportment — how to get up, walk,
sit, and how to achieve easy manners — was taught by the mas-
ters. After the pupils came to be a little older there was a definite
course of study, which included, in succession: (i) leaping and
jumping, for general bodily and lung development; (2) running
contests, for agility and endurance; (3) throwing the discus,^ for
arm exercise; (4) casting the javelin, for bodily poise and coordi-
nation of movement, as well as for future use in hunting; (5) boxing
and wrestling, for quickness, agility, endurance, and the control of
the temper and passions. Swimming and dancing were also in-
cluded for all, dancing being a slow and graceful movement of the
body to music, to develop grace of motion and beauty of form, and
to exercise the whole human being, body and soul. The minuet
and some of our folk-dancing are our nearest approach to the
Greek type of dancing, though still not like it. The modern part-
ner dance was unknown in ancient Greece.

The exercises were performed in classes, or in small groups.
They took place in the open air, and on a dirt or sandy floor.
They were accompanied by music — usually the flute, played by
a paid performer. A number of teachers looked after the boys,
examining them physically, supervising the exercises, directing
the work, and giving various forms of instruction.

The gymnasia! training, sixteen to eighteen. Up to this point
the education provided was a private and a family affair. In the
home and in the school the boy had now been trained to be a gen-
tleman, to revere the gods, to be moral and upright according to
Greek standards, and in addition he had been given that training

1 A flat circle of polished bronze, or other metal, eight or nine inches in diameter.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION

in reading, writing, music, and athletic exercises that the State
required parents to furnish. It is certain that many boys, whose
parents could ill afford further expense for schooling, were allowed
to quit the schools at from thirteen to fifteen. Those who ex-
pected to become full citizens, however, and to be a part of the
government and hold office, were required to continue until
twenty years of age. Two years more were spent in schooling,
largely athletic, and two years additional in military service. Of
this additional training, if his parents chose and could afford it,
the State now took control.

Vl>r, i-r, „„, ^, ,,, „J}7y>^»i>iiu„„, ,,,,,„„,„>,> I ti 1,111} irmrrTm !).!,» t>»>n[^^

Fig. II. Ground-Plan of the Gymnasium
AT Ephesos, in Asia Minor

Explanation: A, B, C, pillared corridors, or portico; D, an
open space, possibly a palaestra, evidently intended to supply
the peristylium; E, a long, narrow hall used for games of ball;
F, a large hall with seats; G, in which was suspended a sack
tilled with chaff for the use of boxers; H, where the young men
sprinkled themselves with dust; /, the cold bath; K, where the
wrestling-master anointed the bodies of the contestants; L,
the cooling-off room; M, the furnace-room; N, the vapor bath;
O, the dry-sweating apartment; P, the hot bath; Q, Q' , rooms
for games, for the keepers, or for other uses; R, R', covered
stadia, for use in bad weather; S, S', S, S, S, rows of seats, look-
ing upon T, the uncovered stadium; U, groves, with seats and
walks among the trees; V, V, recessed seats for the use of
philosophers, rhetoricians, and others.

34 HISTORY OV EDUCATION

For the years from sixteen to eighteen the boy attended a state
gymnasium, of which two were erected outside of Athens by the
State, in groves of trees, in 590 B.C. Others were erected later in
other parts of Greece. Figure 1 1 shows the ground plan of one of
these gymnasia, and a study of the explanation of the plan will re-
veal the nature of these establishments. The boy now had for
teachers a number of gymnasts of ability. The old exercises of
the palcBslra were continued, but running, wrestling, and boxing
were much emphasized. The youth learned to run in armor,
while wrestling and boxing became more severe. He also learned
to ride a horse, to drive a chariot, to sing and dance in the public
choruses, and to participate in the public state and religious
processions.

Still more, the youth now passed from the supervision of a fam-
ily pedagogue to the supervision of the State. For the first time
in his life he was now free to go where he desired about the city;
to frequent the streets, market-place, and theater; to listen to
debates and jury trials, and to witness the great games; and to
mix with men in the streets and to mingle somewhat in public
affairs. He saw little of girls, except his sisters, but formed deep
friendships with other young men of his age.^ Aside from a re-
quirement that he learn the laws of the State, his education during
this period was entirely physical and civic. If he abused his lib-
erty he was taken in hand by public officials charged with the
supervision of public morals. He was, however, still regarded as
a minor, and his father (or guardian) was held responsible for his
public behavior.

The citizen-cadet years, eighteen to twenty. The supervision
of the State during the preceding two years had in a way been
joint with that of his father; now the State took complete control.
At the age of eighteen his father took him before the proper au-
thorities of his district or ward in the city, and presented him as a
candidate for citizenship. He was examined morally and physi-
cally, and if sound, and if the records showed that he was the
legitimate son of a citizen, his name was entered on the register of

^ "There were no home influences in Hellas. The men-folk lived out of doors.
The young Athenian from his sixth year onward spent his whole day away from
home, in the company of his contemporaries, at school or palaestra, or in the streets.
When he came home there was no home life. His mother was a nonentity, living
in the woman's apartments; he probably saw little of her. His real home was the
palaestra, his companions his contemporaries and his paidagogos. He learned to
disassociate himself from his family and associate himself with his fellow citizens.
No doubt he lost much by this system, but. the solidarity of the State gained."
(Freeman, K. J., Schools oj Hellas, p. 282.)

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION 35

his ward as a prospective member of it (R. 4) . His long hair was
now cut, he donned the black garb of the citizen, was presented to
the people along with others at a public ceremony, was publicly
armed with a spear and a shield, and then, proceeding to one
of the shrines of the city, on a height overlooking it, he solemnly
took the Ephebic oath :

I will never disgrace these sacred arms, nor desert my companion
in the ranks. I will fight for temples and public property, both alone
and with many. I will transmit my fatherland, not only not less, but
greater and better, than it was transmitted to me. I will obey the
magistrates who may at any time be in power. I will observe both the
existing laws and those which the people may unanimously hereafter
make, and, if any person seek to annul the laws or to set them at
naught, I will do my best to prevent him, and will defend them both
alone and with many. I will honor the religion of my fathers. And
I call to witness Aglauros, Enyalios, Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo, and
Hegemone.

He was now an Ephebos, or citizen-cadet, with still two years of
severe training ahead of him before he could take up the full
duties of citizenship. The first year he spent in and near Athens,
learning to be a soldier. He did what recruits do almost every-
where — drill, camp in the open, learn the army methods and dis-
cipline, and march in public processions and take part in religious
festivals. This first year was much like that of new troops in camp
being worked into real soldiers. At the end of the year there was
a public drill and inspection of the cadets, after which they were
sent to the frontier. It was now his business to come to know his
country thoroughly — its topography, roads, springs, seashores,
and mountain passes. He also assisted in enforcing law and order
throughout the country districts, as a sort of a state constabulary
or rural police. At the end of this second year of practical train-
ing the second examination was held, the cadet was now admitted
to full citizenship, and passed to the ranks of a trained citizen in
the reserve army of defense, as does a boy in Switzerland to-day

(R. 4).

Results under the old Greek system. Such was the educa-
tional system which was in time evolved from the earlier tribal
practices of the citizens of old Athens. If we consider Sparta as
representing the earlier tribal education of the Greek peoples, we
see how far the Athenians, due to their wonderful ability to make
progress, were able to advance beyond this earlier type of prepa-
ration for citizenship (R. 5). Not only did Athens surpass all

36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Greece, but, for the first time in the history of the world, we find
here, expressing itself in the education of the young, the modern,
western, individualistic and democratic spirit, as opposed to the
deadening caste and governmental systems of the East. Here first
we find a free people living under pohtical conditions which favored
liberty, culture, and intellectual growth, and using their liberty
to advance the culture and the knowledge of the people (R. 6).

Here also we find, for the first time, the thinkers of the State
deeply concerned with the education of the youth of the State,
and viewing education as a necessity to make life worth living and
secure the State from dangers, both within and without. To pre-
pare men by a severe but simple and honest training to fear the
gods, to do honest work, to despise comfort and vice, to obey the
laws, to respect their neighbors and themselves, and to reverence
the wisdom of their race, was the aim of this old education. The
schooling for citizenship was rigid, almost puritanical, but it pro-
duced wonderful results, both in peace and in war.^ Men thus
trained guided the destinies of Athens during some two centuries,
and the despotism of the East as represented by Persia could not
defeat them at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea.

The simple and effective curriculum. The simplicity of the
curriculum was one of its marked features. In a manner seldom
witnessed in the world's educational history, the Greeks used
their religion, literature, government, and the natural activities
of young men to impart an education of wonderful effectiveness.-
The subjects we have valued so highly for training were to them
unknown. They taught no arithmetic or grammar, no science,
no drawing, no higher mathematics, and no foreign tongue.
Music, the literature and religion of their own people, careful
physical training, and instruction in the duties and practices of
citizenship constituted the entire curriculum.

^ "No doubt the Athenian public was by no means so learned as we modems are;
they were ignorant of many sciences, of much history, — in short of a thousand
results of civilization which have since accrued. But in civilization itself, in mental
power, in quickness of comprehension, in correctness of taste, in accuracy of judg-
ment, no modern nation, however well instructed, has been able to equal by labored
acquirements the inborn genius of the Greeks." (Mahaffy, J. P., Old Greek Education.)

^ The great institutions of the Greek City-State were in themselves highly educa-
tive. The chief of these were:

1. The Assembly, where the laws were proposed, debated, and made.

2. The Juries, on which citizens sat and where the laws were applied.

3. The Theater, where the great masterpieces of Greek literature were performed.

4. The Olympian and other Games, which were great religious ceremonies of a
literary as well as an athletic and artistic character, and to which Greeks from
all over Hellas came.

5. The city life itself, among an inquisitive, imaginative, and disputatious people.

THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION 37

It was an education by doing; not one of learning from books.
That it was an attractive type of education there is abundant
testimony by the Greeks themselves. We have not as yet come
to value physical education as did the Greeks, nor are we nearly
so successful in our moral education, despite the aid of the Chris-
tian religion which they did not know. It was, to be sure, class
education, and limited to but a small fraction of the total popu-
lation. In it girls had no share. There were many features of
Greek life, too, that are repugnant to modem conceptions. Yet,
despite these limitations, the old education of Athens still stands
as one of the most successful in its results of any system of edu-
cation which has been evolved in the history of the world. Con-
sidering its time and place in the history of the world and that it
was a development for which there were nowhere any precedents,
it represented a very wonderful evolution.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why are imaginative ability and many-sided natures such valuable
characteristics for any people?

2. Why is the ability to make progressive changes, possessed so markedly
by the Athenian Greeks, an important personal or racial character-
istic?

3. Are the Athenian characteristics, stated in the middle of page 19, charac-
teristics capable of development by training, or are they" native, or
both?

4. How do you explain the Greek failure to achieve political unity?

5. Would education for citizenship with us to-day possess the same defects
as in ancient Greece? Why? Do we give an equivalent training?

6. Which is the better attitude for a nation to assume toward the foreigner
— the Greek, or the American? Why?

7. Why does a state military sociaHsm, such as prevailed at Sparta, tend
to produce a people of mediocre intellectual capacity?

8. How do you account for the Athenian State leaving literary and musical
education to private initiative, but supporting state gymnasia?

9. Would the Athenian method of instruction have been possible had all
children in the State been given an education? Why?

10. How did the education of an Athenian girl differ from that of a girl in
the early American colonies?

11. Why did the Greek boy need three teachers, whereas the American boy
is taught all and more by one primary teacher?

12. Contrast the Greek method of instruction in music, and the purposes
of the instruction, with our own.

13. How could we incorporate into our school instruction some of the im-
portant aspects of Greek instruction in music?

14. What do you think of the contentions of Aristotle and Plato that the
State should control school music as a means of securing sound moral
instruction?

15. Does the Greek idea that a harmonious personal development contrib-
utes to moral worth appeal to you? Why?

38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1 6. Contrast the Greek ideal as to athletic training with the conception of
athletics held by an average American schoolboy.

17. Contrast the education of a Greek boy at sixteen with that of an Ameri-
can boy at the same age.

18. Contrast the emphasis placed on expression as a method in teaching in
the schools of Athens and of the United States.

19. Do the needs of modern society and industrial hfe warrant the greater
emphasis we place on learning from books, as opposed to the learning
by doing of the Greeks?

20. Compare the compulsory-school period of the Greeks with our own.
If we were to add some form of compulsory military training, for all
youths between eighteen and twenty, and as a preparedness measure,
would we approach still more nearly the Greek requirements?

21. Explain how the Athenian Greeks reconciled the idea of social service to
the State with the idea of individual Hberty, through a form of education
which developed personality. Compare this with our American ideal.

22. The Greek schoolboy had no long summer vacation, as do American
children. Is there any special reason why we need it more than did
they?

23. Do we believe that virtue can be taught in the way the Hellenic peoples
did? Do we carry such a behef into practice?

SELECTED RP:ADINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

1. Plutarch: Ancient Education in Sparta.

2. Plato: An Athenian Schoolboy's Life.

3. Lucian: An Athenian Schoolboy's Day.

4. Aristotle: Athenian Citizenship and the Ephebic Years.

5. Freeman: Sparta and Athens compared.

6. Thucydides: Athenian Education summarized.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Describe and characterize the Laws which Lycurgus framed for Spartan
training (i).

2. Describe and characterize the instruction of the Irens at Sparta. Com-
pare with the training given among the best of the American Indian
tribes (i).

3. Contrast the type of education given an Athenian and a Spartan boy,
as to nature and purpose and character (i and 2).

4. What degree of State supervision of education is indicated by Plato (2)?
By Freeman (5)?

5. Compare an Athenian school day as described by Lucian (3) with a
school day in a modern Gary-type school.

6. Compare the Ephebic years of an Athenian youth (4) with those of a
Spartan youth (i).

7. What were some of the chief defects of Athenian schools (5)?

8. What was the position of the State in the matter of the education of
youth (5)?

9. What were the great merits of the Athenian educational and political
system of training (6)?

(For Supplemental References, see following chapter.)

CHAPTER II
LATER GREEK EDUCATION

III. THE NEW GREEK EDUCATION

Political events: The Golden Age of Greece. The Battle of
Marathon (490 B.C.) has long been considered one of the "decisive
battles of the world." Had the despotism of the East triumphed
here, and in the subsequent campaign that ended in the defeat of
the Persian fleet at Salamis (480 B.C.) and of the Persian army at
Plataea (479 B.C.), the whole history of our western world would
have been different. The result of the war with Persia was the
triumph of this new western democratic civilization, prepared
and schooled for great national emergencies by a severe but effec-
tive training, over the uneducated hordes led to battle by the au-
tocracy of the East. This was the first, but not the last, of the
many battles which western democracy and civilization has had
to fight to avoid being crushed by autocracy and despotism. "^
Marathon broke the dread spell of the Persian name and freed the
more progressive Greeks to pursue their intellectual and political
development. Above all it revealed the strength and power of the
Athenians to themselves, and in the half century following the most
wonderful political, literary, and artistic development the world
had ever known ensued, and the highest products of Greek civili-
zation were attained. Attica had braved everything for the com-
mon cause of Greece, even to leaving Athens to be burned by the
invader, and for the next fifty years she held the position of politi-
cal as well as cultural preeminence among the Greek City-States.
Athens now became the world center of wealth and refinement
and the home of art and literature (R. 7), and her influence along
cultural lines, due in part to her mastery of the sea and her grow-
ing commerce, was now extended throughout the Mediterranean
world.

From 479 to 431 B.C. was the Golden Age of Greece, and '' dur-
ing this short period Athens gave birth to more great men —
poets, artists, statesmen, and philosophers — than all the world
beside had produced ^ in any period of equal length." Then,

^ The culmination came in what is known as the Age of Pericles, who was the
master mind at Athens from 459 to 431 B.C. During the fifth century B.C. such

40 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

•

largely as a result of the growing jealousy of military Sparta,
came that cruel and vindictive civil strife, known as the Pelopon-
nesian War, which desolated Greece, left Athens a wreck of her
former self, permanently lowered the moral tone of the Greek peo-
ple, and impaired beyond recovery the intellectual and artistic life
of Hellas. For many centuries Athens continued to be a center of
intellectual achievement, and to spread her culture throughout a
new and a different world, but her power as a State had been im-
paired forever by a revengeful war between those who should have
been friends and allies in the cause of civilization.

Transition from the old to the new. As early as 509 B.C. a new
constitution had admitted all the free inhabitants of Attica to
citizenship, and the result was a rapid increase in the prestige,
property, and culture of Athens. Citizenship was now open to
the commercial classes, and no longer restricted to a small, prop-
erly born, and properly educated class. Wealth now became im-
portant in giving leisure to the citizen, and was no longer looked
down upon as it had been in the earlier period. After the Pelo-
ponnesian War the predominance of Attica among the Greek
States, the growth of commerce, the constant interchange of em-
bassies, the travel overseas of Athenian citizens, and the presence
of many foreigners in the State all alike led to a tolerance of new
ideas and a criticism of old ones which before had been unknown.
A leisure class now arose, and personal interest came to have a
larger place than before, with a consequent change in the earlier
conceptions as to the duty of the citizen to the State. Literature
lost much of its earlier religious character, and the religious basis
of morality ^ began to be replaced by that of reason. Philosophy
was now called upon to furnish a practical guide for life to replace
the old religious basis. A new philosophy in which '' man was the
measure of all things" arose, and its teachers came to have large
followings. The old search for an explanation of the world of
matter ^ was now replaced by an attempt to explain the world of
ideas and emotions, with a resulting evolution of the sciences of

names as Themistocles and Pericles in government, Phidias and Myron in art,
Herodotus and Thucydides in historical narrative, ^schylus, Sophocles, and
Euripides in tragic drama, and Aristophanes in comedy, graced Athens.

^ With the Greeks, morality and the future life never had any connection.

2 The early Greek philosophers tried to explain the physical world about them by
trying to discover what they called the "first principle," from which all else had
been derived. Thales (c. 624-548 B.C.), the father of Greek science, had concluded
that water was the original source of all matter; Anaximenes (c. 588-524 B.C.), that
air was the first principle; Heraclites (c. 525-475 B.C.), fire; and Pythagoras (c. 580-
500 B.C.), number.

LATER GREEK EDUCATION 41

philosophy, ethics, and logic. It was a period of great intellectual
as well as political change and expansion, and in consequence the
old education, which had answered well the needs of a primitive
and isolated community, now found itself but poorly adapted to
meet the larger needs of the new cosmopolitan State. '^ The result
was a material change in the old education to adapt it to the needs
of the new Athens, now become the intellectual center of the
civilized world.

Changes in the old education. A number of changes in the
character of the old education were now gradually- introduced.
The rigid drill of the earlier period began to be replaced by an
easier and a more pleasurable type of training. Gymnastics for
personal enjoyment began to replace drill for the service of the
State, and was much less rigid in type. The old authors, who had
rendered important service in the education of youth, began to be
replaced by more modern writers, with a distinct loss of the earlier
religious and moral force. New musical instruments, giving a
softer and more pleasurable effect, took the place of the seven-
stringed lyre, and complicated music replaced the simple Doric
airs of the earlier period. Education became much more indi-
vidual, literary, and theoretical. Geometry and drawing were
introduced as new studies. Grammar and rhetoric began to be
studied, discussion was introduced, and a certain glibness of
speech began to be prized. The citizen-cadet years, from sixteen
to twenty, formerly devoted to rather rigorous physical training,
were now changed to school work of an intellectual type.

New teachers; the Sophists. New teachers, known as Sophists,
who professed to be able to train men for a political career," began
to offer a more practical course designed to prepare boys for the

^ "There was now demanded ability to discuss all sorts of social, political, eco-
nomic, and scientific or metaphysical questions; to argue in public in the market-
place or in the law courts; to declaim in a formal manner on almost any topic; to
amuse or even instruct the populace upon topics of interest or questions of the day;
to take part in the many diplomatic embassies and political missions of the times —
the ability, in fact, to shine in a democratic society much Hke our own and to con-
trol the votes and command the approval of an intelligent populace where the
function of printing-press, telegraph, railroad, and all modern means of communica-
tion were performed through public speech and private discourse, and where the
legal, ecclesiastical, and other professional classes of teachers did not exist." (Mon-
roe, Paul, History of Education, pp. log-io.)

2 The importance of a political career in the new Athens will be better under-
stood if we remember that the influence on public opinion to-day exerted by the
pulpit, bar, public platform, press, and scholar was then concentrated in the public
speaker, and that the careers now open to promising youths in science, industry,
commerce, politics, and government were then concentrated in the political career.
It must also be remembered that the Greeks had always been a nation of speakers,
both the content and the form of the address being important.

42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

newer type of state service. These in time drew many Ephebes
into their private schools, where the chief studies were on the
content, form, and practical use of the Greek language. Rhetoric
and grammar before long became the master studies of this new
period, as they were felt to prepare boys better for the new politi-
cal and intellectual life of Hellas than did the older type of train-
ing. In the schools of the Sophists boys now spent their time in
forming phrases, choosing words, examining grammatical struc-
ture, and learning how to secure rhetorical effect. Many of these
new teachers made most extravagant claims for their instruction
(R. 8) and drew much ridicule from the champions of the older
type of education, but within a century they had thoroughly es-
tablished themselves, and had permanently changed the character
of the earlier Greek education.

By 350 B.C. we find that Greek school education had been
differentiated into three divisions, as follows:

I. Primary education, covering the years from seven or eight to
thirteen, and embracing reading, writing, arithmetic, and chant-
ing. The teacher of this school came to be known as a gram-
matist.

2.. Secondary education, covering the years from thirteen to sixteen,
and embracing geometry, drawing, and a special music course.
Later on some grammar and rhetoric were introduced into this
school. The teacher of this school came to be known as a gram-
maticus.

3. Higher or university education, covering the years after sixteen.

The flood of individualism. This period of artistic and intel-
lectual brilliancy of Greece following the Peloponnesian War
marked the beginning of the end of Greece politically. The war
was a blow to the strength of Greece from which the different
States never recovered. Greece was bled white by this needless
civil strife. The tendencies toward individualism in education
were symptomatic of tendencies in all forms of social and political
life. The philosophers — Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle —
proposed ideal remedies for the evils of the State,\but in vain.
The ^ old ideal of citizenship died out. Service to the State be-

^ Each of these philosophers proposed an ideal educational system designed to
remedy the evils of the State. Xenophon (c. 410-362 B.C.), in his Cyropcedia, pur-
porting to describe the education of Cyrus of Persia, proposed a Spartan modifica-
tion of the old Athenian system. Plato (429-348 B.C.), in his Republic, proposed an
aristocratic socialism as a means of securing individual virtue and state justice. He
first presents the super-civic man, an ideal destined for great usefulness among the
Christians later on. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), in his Ethics, and in his Politics, out-
lined an ideal state and a system of education for it.

LATER CxREEK EDUCATION 43

came purely subordinate to personal pleasure and advancement.
Irreverence and a scofi&ng attitude became ruling tendencies.
Family morality decayed. The State in time became corrupt and
nerveless. Finally, in 338 B.C., Philip of Macedon became master
of Greece, and annexed it to the world empire which he and his
son Alexander created. Still later, in 146 B.C., the new world
power to the west, Rome, conquered Greece and made of it a
Roman province.

Though dead politically, there now occurred the unusual spec-
tacle of "captive Greece taking captive her rude conqueror," and
spreading Greek art, literature, philosophy, science, and Greek
ideas throughout the Mediterranean world. It was the Greek
higher learning that now became predominant and exerted such
great influence on the future of our world civilization. It remains
now to trace briefly the development and spread of this higher
learning, and to point out how thoroughly it modified the thinking
of the future.

New schools ; Socrates. In the beginning each Sophist teacher
was a free lance, and taught what he would and in the manner
he thought best. Many of them made extraordinary efforts to
attract students and win popular approval and fees. Plato repre-
sents the Sophist Protagoras as saying, with reference to a youth
ambitious for success in political life, "If he comes to me he will
learn that which he comes to learn." At first the instruction was
largely individual, but later classes were organized. Isocrates,
who lived from 393 to 338 B.C., organized the instruction for the
first time into a well-graded sequence of studies, with definite aims
and work (R. 8). He shifted the emphasis in instruction from
training for success in argumentation, to training to think clearly
and to express ideas properly. His pupils were unusually success-
ful, and his school did much to add to the fame of Athens as an
intellectual center. From his work sprang a large number of so-
called Rhetorical Schools, much like our better private schools
and academies, offering to those Ephebes who could aff'ord to
attend a very good preparation for participation in the public life
of the period.

In contrast with the , Sophists, a series of schools of philosophy
also arose in Athens. These in a way were the outgrowth of the
work of Socrates. Accepting the Sophists' dictum that "man is
the measure of all things," he tried to turn youths froin the baser
individualism of the Sophists of his day to the larger general

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

truths which measure the Hfe of a true man. In particular he
tried to show that the greatest of all arts — the art of Hving a good
life — called for correct individual thinking and a knowledge of
the right. ''Know thyself" was his great guiding principle. His
emphasis was on the problems of everyday morality. Frankly
accepting the change from the old education as a change that
could not be avoided, he sought to formulate a new basis for edu-
cation in personal morality and virtue, and as a substitute for the
old training for service to the State. He taught by conversation,
engaging men in argument as he met them in the street, and show-
ing to them their ignorance (R. 9). Even in Athens, where free
speech 'was enjoyed more than anywhere else in the world at that

time, such a shrewd questioner would
naturally make enemies, and in 399 B.C.
at the age of seventy-one, he was con-
demned to death by the Athenian popu-
lace on the charge of impiety and corrupt-
ing the youth of Athens.

Socrates' greatest disciple was a citizen
of wealth by the name of Plato, who had
abandoned a political career for the charms
of philosophy, and to him we owe our
chief information as to the work and aims
of Socrates. In 386 B.C. he founded the
Academy, where he passed almost forty
years in lecturing and writing. His school,
which formed a model for others, consisted
of a union of teachers and students who
possessed in common a chapel, library, lecture-rooms, and living-
rooms. Philosophy, mathematics, and science were taught, and
women as well as men were admitted.

Other schools of importance in Athens were the Lyceum,
founded in 335 B.C. by a foreign-bom pupil of Plato's by the name
of Aristotle, who did a remarkable work in organizing the known
knowledge of his time; ^ the school of the Stoics, founded by Zeno
in 308 B.C. ; and the school of the Epicureans, founded by Epicurus
in 306 B.C. Each of these schools offered a philosophical solution

1 "It is beyond all conception what that man espied, saw, beheld, remarked,
observed." (Goethe.)

"One of the richest and most comprehensive geniuses that has ever appeared —
a man beside whom no age has an equal to place." (Hegel.)

"Aristotle, Nature's private secretary, dipping his pen in intellect." (Eusebius.)

Fig. 12
Socrates (469-399 b.c.)

(After a marble bust in the
Vatican Gallery, at Rome)

LATER CREEK EDUCATION

of the problem of life, and Plato and Aristotle wrote treatises on
education as well. Each school evolved into a form of religious
brotherhood which perpetuated the organization after the death
of the master. In time these became largely schools for expound-
ing the philosophy of the founder.

The- University of Athens. Coincident with the founding of
these schools and the political events we have previously recorded,
certain further changes in Athenian education were taking place.
The character of the changes in the education before the age of
sixteen we have described. As a result in part of the development
of the schools of the Sophists, which were in themselves only

SOPHISTS

5th C. B.C.

PHILOSOPHICAL
SCHOOLS

386-306 B.C.

RHETORICAL
SCHOOLS

4th and 3rd Cs. B.C.

UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

About 200 B.C.

Fig. 13. Evolution of the Greek University

attempts to meet fundamental changes in Athenian Hfe, the edu-
cation of youths after sixteen tended to become literary, rather
than physical and military. The Ephebic period of service (from
eighteen to twenty) was at first reduced from two years to one,
and after the Macedonian conquest, in 338 B.C., when there was
no longer an Athenian State to serve or protect, the entire period
of training was made optional. The Ephebic corps was now
opened to foreigners, and in time became merely a fashionable
semi-military group. Instead of the military training, attendance
at the lectures of the philosophical schools was now required, and
attendance at the rhetorical schools was optional. Later the
philosophical schools were granted public support by the Athe-
nian Assembly, professorships were created over which the Assem-
bly exercised supervision, the rhetorical and philosophical schools
were gradually merged, the study years were extended from two to
six, or seven, a form of university Ufe as regards both students and

46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

professors was developed, and what has since been termed "The
University of Athens" was evolved. Figure 13 shows how this
evolution took place.

As Athens lost in political power her citizens turned their atten-
tion to making their city a center of world learning. This may be
said to have been accomphshed by 200 B.C. Though Greece had
long since become a Macedonian province, and was soon to pass
under the control of Rome, the so-called University of Athens was
widely known and much frequented for the next three hundred
years, and continued in existence until finally closed, as a center
of pagan thought, by the edict of the Roman- Christian Emperor,
Justinian, in 529 a.d. Though reduced to the rank of a Roman
provincial town, Athens long continued to be a city of letters and
a center of philosophic and scientific instruction.

Spread and influence of Greek higher education. Alexander
the Great rendered a very important service in uniting the west-
em Orient and the eastern Mediterranean into a common world
empire, and in establishing therein a common language, literature,
philosophy, a common interest, and a common body of scientific
knowledge and law. It was his hope to create a new empire, in
which the distinction between European and Asiatic should pass
away. No less than seventy cities were established with a view
to holding his empire together. These served to spread Hellenic
culture. Greek schools, Greek theaters, Greek baths, and Greek
institutions of every type were to be found in practically all of
them, and the Greek tongue was heard in them all. With Alex-
ander the Great the history of Greek life, culture, and learning
merges into that of the history of the ancient world. Everywhere
throughout the new empire Greek philosophers and scientists,
architects and artists, merchants and colonists, followed behind
the Macedonian armies, spreading Greek civilization and becom-
ing the teachers of an enlarged world. ^ '' Greek cities stretched
from the Nile to the Indus, and dotted the shores of the Black and
the Caspian seas. The Greek language, once the tongue of a
petty people, grew to be a universal language of culture, spoken
even by barbarian lips, and the art, the science, the literature,
the principles of politics and philosophy, developed in isolation

^ "As Alexander passed conquering through Asia, he restored to the East, as
garnered grain, that Greek civilization whose seeds had long ago been received from
the East. Each conqueror in turn, the Macedonian and the Roman bowed before
conquered Greece and learnt lessons at her feet." (Butcher, S. H., Some Aspects
of the Greek Genius, p. 43.)

LATER GREEK EDUCATION

by the Greek mind, henceforth became the heritage of many
nations." ^

Greek universities were established at Pergamum and Tarsus in
Asia Minor; at Rhodes on the island of that name in the ALgean;
and at the newly founded city of Alexandria in Egypt. Antioch,
in Syria, became another im-

FiG. 14
The Greek University World

portant center of Greek influ-
ence and learning. A large
library was developed at
Pergamum. and it was here
that writing on prepared
skins of animals-' was be-
gun, from which the term
''parchment " (originally " per-
gament") comes. It was also
at Pergamum that Galen (born
c. 130 A.D.) organized what
was then known of medical
science, and his work remained
'the standard treatise for more
than a thousand years. Rhodes
became a famous center for

instruction in oratory. During Roman days many eminent men,
among whom were Cassius, Caesar, and Cicero, studied oratory here.
Mingling of Orient and Occident at Alexandria. The most
famous of all these Greek institutions, however, was the Univer-
sity of Alexandria, which gradually sapped Athens as a center of
learning and became the intellectual capital of the world. The
greatest library of manuscripts the world had ever known was
collected together here.^ It is said to have numbered over
700,000 volumes. These included Greek, Jewish, Egyptian, and
Oriental works. In connection with the library was the museum,
where men of letters and investigators were supported at royal
expense. These two constituted an institution so like a university
that it has been given that name. Alexandria became not only a

^ Webster, D. H., Ancient History, p. 302.

2 Previous to this, paper had been made from the papyrus plant, but Egypt,
having forbidden its export, necessity again became the mother of invention.

' With this exception, never before the Italian Renaissance was there such interest
in collecting books. Almost every book written in antiquity was gathered here,
and the library at Alexandria became the British Museum or the BibHotheque
Nationale of the ancient world. Every book entering Egypt was required to be
brought to this library.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

great center of learning, but, still more important, the chief min-
gling place for Greek, Jew, Egyptian, Roman, and Oriental, and
here Greek philosophy, Hebrew and Christian religion, and Ori-
ental faith and philosophy met and mixed. It was this mingled
civilization and culture, all tinged through and through with the
Greek, with which the Romans came in contact as they pushed
their conquering armies into the eastern Mediterranean (R. lo).
Character of Alexandrian Learning. The great advances in
knowledge made at Alexandria were in mathematics, geography,
and science. The method of scientific investigation worked out
b}^ Aristotle at Athens was introduced and used. Instead of spec-
ulating as to phenomena and causes, as had been the earlier Greek
practice, observation and experiment now became the rule.

UNKNOWN LAND

Fig. 15. The Known World about 150 a.d.

A map by Ptolemy, geographer and astronomer at Alexandria. Compare this with
the map on page 4, and note the progress in geographical discovery which had
been made during the intervening centuries.

Euclid (c. 323-283 B.C.) opened a school at Alexandria as early as
300 B.C., and there worked out the geometry which is still used
in our schools. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), who studied under
Euclid, made many important discoveries and advances in me-
chanics and physics. Eratosthenes (226-196 B.C.), librarian at
Alexandria, is famous as a geographer ^ and astronomer, and made

^ He founded the science of geography. Before his time Greek students had
concluded that the world was round, instead of flat, as stated in the Homeric poems.
By careful measurements he determined its size, within a few thousand miles of its
actual circumference, and predicted that one might sail from Spain to the Indie§
along the same parallel of latitude.

LATER GREEK EDUCATION 49

some studies in geology as well. Ptolemy (b. ?; d. 168 A. d.) here
completed his Mechanism of the Heavens {Syntaxis) in 138 a.d.,
and this became the standard astronomy in Europe for nearly fif-
teen hundred years, while his geography was used in the schools
until well into the fifteenth century. The map of the known
world, shown in Figure 15, was made by him. Hipparcus, the
Newton of the Greeks, studied the heavens both at Alexandria
and Rhodes, and counted the stars and arranged them in constel-
lations. Many advances also were made in the study of medicine,
the Alexandrian schools having charts, models, and dissecting
rooms for the study of the human body. The functions of the
brain, nerves, and heart were worked out there.

Except in science and mathematics, though, the creative ability
of the earlier Greeks was now largely absent. Research, organi-
zation, and comment upon what had previously been done rather
was the rule. Still much important work was done here. Books
were collected, copied, and preserved, and texts were edited and
purified from errors. Here grammar, criticism, prosody, and
mythology were first developed into sciences. The study of
archaeology was begun, and the first dictionaries were made.
The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was begun
for the benefit of the Alexandrian Jews who had forgotten their
mother tongue, this being the origin of the famous Septuagint ^
version of the Old Testament. It is owing to these Alexandrian
scholars, also, that we now possess the theory of Greek accents,
and have good texts of Homer and other Greek writers.

Alexandria sapped in turn. In 30 B.C. Alexandria, too, came
under Roman rule and was, in turn, gradually sapped by Rome.
Greek influence continued, but the interest became largely philo-
sophical. Ultimately Alexandria became the seat of a metaphys-
ical school of Christian theology, and the scene of bitter religious
controversies. In 330 a.d., Constantinople was founded on the
site of the earlier Byzantium, and soon thereafter Greek scholars
transferred their interest to it and made it a new center of Greek
learning. There Greek science, literature, and philosophy were
preserved for ten centuries, and later handed back to a Europe
just awakening from the long intellectual night of the Middle
Ages. In 640 A.D. Alexandria was taken by the Mohammedans,
and the university ceased to exist. The great library was de-
stroyed, furnishing, it is said, "fuel sufficient for four thousand
^ From the tradition that seventy scholars labored on it.

50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

public baths for a period of six months," and Greek learning was
extinguished in the western world.

Our debt to Hellas. As a poHtical power the Greek States left
the world nothing of importance. As a people they were too in-
dividualistic, and seemed to have a strange inability to unite for
pohtical purposes. To the new power slowly forming to the west-
ward — Rome — was left the important task, which the Greek
people were never able to accomplish, of uniting civilization into
one political whole. The world conquest that Greece made was
intellectual. As a result, her contribution to civilization was
artistic, literary, philosophical, and scientific, but not political.
The Athenian Greeks were a highly artistic and imaginative
rather than a practical people. They spent their energy on other
matters than government and conquest. As a result the world
will be forever indebted to them for an art and a literature of
incomparable beauty and richness which still charms mankind ; a
philosophy which deeply influenced the early Christian religion,
and has ever since tinged the thinking of the western world; and
for many important beginnings in scientific knowledge which were
lost for ages to a world that had no interest in or use for science.
So deeply has our whole western civilization been tinctured by
Greek thought that one enthusiastic writer has exclaimed, —
''Except the blind forces of Nature, nothing moves in this world
which is not Greek in its origin." ^ (R. ii.)

In education proper the old Athenian education offers us many
lessons of importance that we of to-day may well heed. In the
emphasis they placed on moral worth, education of the body as
well as the mind, and moderation in all things, they were much
ahead of us. Their schools became a type for the cities of the
entire Mediterranean world, being found from the Black Sea south
to the Persian Gulf and westward to Spain. When Rome became
a world empire the Greek school system was adopted, and in modi-
fied form became dominant in Rome and throughout the prov-
inces, while the universities of the Greek cities for long furnished
the highest form of education for ambitious Roman youths. In
this way Greek influence was spread throughout the Mediter-
ranean world. The higher learning of the Greeks, preserved first at
Athens and Alexandria, and later at Constantinople, was finally
handed back to the western world at the time of the Italian Revival
of Learning, after Europe had in part recovered from the effects
of the barbarian deluge which followed the downfall of Rome.

^ Henry Sumner Maine.

LATER GREEK EDUCATION 51

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Try to picture what might have been the result for western civiHzation
had the small and newly-developed democratic civilization of Greece
been crushed by the Persians at the time they overran the Greek
peninsula.

2. Do periods of great political, commercial, and intellectual expansion
usually subject old systems of morality and education to severe strain?
Illustrate.

3. Why was the change in the type of Athenian education during the
Ephebic years a natural and even a necessary one for the new Athens?

4. Do you understand that the system of training before the Ephebic years
was also seriously changed, or was the change largely a re-shaping and
extension of the education of youths after sixteen?

5. Were the Sophists a good addition to the Athenian instructing force, or
not? Why?

6. How may a State establish a corrective for such a flood of individualism
as overwhelmed Greece, and still allow individual educational initiative
and progress?

7. Do we as a nation face danger from the flood of individualism we have
encouraged in the past? How is our problem like and unlike that of
Athens after the Peloponnesian War?

8. What is the place in Greek life and thought of the ideal treatises on edu-
cation written by Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle, after the flood of
individualism had set in?

9. In what ways was the conquest of Alexander good for world civilization?

10. Of what importance is it, in the history of our western civihzation, that
Greek thought had so thoroughly permeated the eastern Mediterranean
world before Roman armies conquered the region?

11. Picture for yourself the great intellectual advances of the Greeks by
contrasting the tribal preparedness-type of education of the early Greek
States and the learning possessed by the scholars of the University at
Alexandria.

12. Compare the spread of Greek language and knowledge throughout the
eastern Mediterranean world, following the conquests of Alexander,
with the spread of the English language and ideas as to government
throughout the modern world.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

7. Wilkins: Athens in the Time of Pericles.

8. Isocrates: The Instruction of the Sophists.

9. Xenophon: An Example of Socratic Teaching.

10. Draper: The Schools of Alexandria.

11. Butcher: What we Owe to Greece.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the many educational influences of Athens, as pictured by
Wilkins (7).

2. Were the evils of the Sophist teachers, which Isocrates points out (8),
natural ones? Compare with teachers of vocal training to-day.

52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

3. What would be necessary for the proper training of one for eloquence?
Could any Sophist teacher have trained any one?

4. Would it be possible to-day for any one city to become such a center of
the world's intellectual life as did Alexandria (10)? Why?

5. Could the Socratic method (9) be applied to instruction in psychology,
ethics, history, and science equally well? Why? To what class of sub-
jects is the Socratic quiz applicable?

6. How do you account for the fact that the wonderful promise of Alexan-
drian science was not fulfilled?

7. State our debt to the Greeks (11).

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES

The most important references are indicated by an *

* Bevan, J. O. University Life in Olden Time.

* Butcher, S. H. Some Aspects of the Greek Genius.

* Davidson, Thos. Aristotle, and Ancient Educational Ideals.

* Freeman, K. J. Schools of Hellas.

Gulick, C. B. The Life of the Ancient Greeks.

* Kingsley, Chas. Alexandria and her Schools.

Laurie, S. S. Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education.

* Mahaffy, J. P. Old Greek Education.

Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i.

Walden, John W. H. The Universities of Ancient Greece.

Wilkins, A. S. National Education in Greece in the Fourth Century, B.C.

CHAPTER III
THE EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

I. THE ROMANS AND THEIR MISSION

Development of the Roman State. About the time that the
Hellenes, in the City-States of the Greek peninsula, had brought
their civilization to its Golden Age, another branch of the great
Aryan race, which had previously settled in the Italian peninsula,
had begun the creation of a new civilization there which was
destined to become extended and powerful. At the beginning of

Growth of Rome
up to .201 B.C.

At 509 B.C.

At end of Latin War. 338 B.C.

By 264 B.C.

By 201 B.C.

Fig. 1 6. The Early Peoples of Italy, and the Extension of the

Roman Power

In 509 B.C. Attica opened her citizenship to all free inhabitants, and half a century
later the Golden Age of Greece was in full swing. By 338 B.C. Greece's glory had
departed. Philip of Macedon had become master, and its political freedom was
over. By 264 B.C. the center of Greek life and thought had been transferred to
Alexandria, and Rome's great expansion had begun.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

recorded history we find a number of tribes of this branch of the
Aryan race settled in different parts of Italy, as is shown in Figure
1 6. Slowly, but gradually, the smallest of these divisions, the
Latins, extended its rule over the other tribes, and finally over
the Greek settlements to the south and the Gauls to the north, so
that by 201 B.C. the entire Italian peninsula had become subject
to the City-State government at Rome.

By a wise policy of tolerance, patience, conciliation, and assim-
ilation the Latins gradually became the masters of all Italy. Un-
Hke the Greek City-States, Rome seemed to possess a natural
genius for the art of government. Upon the people she con-
quered she bestowed the great gift of Roman citizenship, and she
attached them to her by granting local government to their towns

and by interfering as little as
possible with their local manners,
speech, habits, and institutions.
By founding colonies among them
and by building excellent military
roads to them, she insured her
rule, and by kindly and generous
treatment she bound the different
Italian peoples ever closer and
closer to the central government at
Rome. By a most wonderful un-
derstanding of the psychology of
other peoples, new in the world
before the work of Rome, and not
seen again until the work of the English in the nineteenth cen-
tury, Rome gradually assimilated the peoples of the Italian
peninsula and in time amalgamated them into a single Roman
race. In speech, customs, manners, and finally in blood she
Romanized the different tribes and brought them under her
leadership. Later this same process was extended to Spain, Gaul,
and even to far-off Britain.

A concrete, practical people. The Roman people were a con-
crete, practical, constructive nation of farmers and herdsmen
(R. 14), merchants and soldiers, governors and executives. The
whole of the early struggle of the Latins to extend their rule and
absorb the other tribes of the peninsula called for practical rulers
— warriors who were at the same time constructive statesmen
and executives who possessed power and insight, energy, and

Fig. 17
The Principal Roman Roads

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 55

personality. The long struggle for political and social rights/
carried on by the common people (plebeians) with the ruling class
(patricians), tended early to shape their government along rough
but practical lines, ^ and to elevate law and orderly procedure
among the people. The later extension of the Empire to include
many distant lands — how vast the Roman Empire finally be-
came may be seen from the map on the following page — called
still more for a combination of force, leadership, tolerance, pa-
tience, executive power, and insight into the psychology of subject
people to hold such a vast empire together. Only a great, creative
people, working along very practical lines, could have used and
used so well the opportunity which came to Rome ^ to create a
great world empire.

The great mission of Rome. Had Rome tried to impose her
rule and her ways and her mode of thought on her subject people,
and to reduce them to complete subjection to her, as the modern
German and Austrian Empires, for example, tried to do with the
peoples who came under their control, the Roman Empire could
never have been created, and what would have saved civilization

^ This struggle of the common people (plebeians) for an equal place with the ruling
class {patricians) before the law, in religious matters, and in politics, covered two and
a half centuries, the old restrictions being broken down but gradually. The most
important steps in the process were:

509 B.C. Magistrates forbidden to scourge or execute a Roman citizen without
giving him a chance to appeal to the people in their popular assembly. This " right
of appeal" was regarded as the Magna Charta of Roman liberty.

494 B.C. Plebeian soldiers granted officers of their own (Tribunes) to protect
them against patrician cruelty and injustice.

451-449 B.C. Laws must be written — Code commission appointed. Result,
the Laws of the Twelve Tables (R. 12); these mark the beginning of the great Roman
legal system.

445 B.C. Intermarriage between the two orders legalized.

367 B.C. Right to hold office granted, and one of the Consuls elected each year
to be a plebeian.

250 B.C. By this date the distinctions between the two orders had disappeared;
patricians and plebeians intermarried and formed one compact body of citizens in
the Roman State.

2 "The scholar who compares carefully the Greek constitutions with the Roman
will undoubtedly consider the former to be finer and more finished specimens of
political work. The imperfect and incomplete character which the Roman consti-
tution presents, at almost any point of its history, the number of institutions it
exhibits which appear to be temporary expedients merely, are necessary results of
its method of growth to meet demands as they rose from time to time; they are
evidence, indeed, of its highly practical character." (Adams, G. B., Civilization
during the Middle Ages, 2d ed., p. 20.)

* The same opportunity came to Athens after the Persian Wars and to Sparta
after the Peloponnesian War, but neither possessed the creative power along polit-
ical and governmental lines, or the tolerance for the ideas and feelings of subject
peoples, to accomplish anything permanent. Rome succeeded where previous
States had failed because of her larger insight, tolerance, patience, and constructive
power.

Fig. 1 8. The Great Extent of the Roman Empire

The map shows the Roman Empire as it was by the end of the first century a.d.,
and the tribes shown beyond the frontier are as they were at the beginning of the
fourth century a.d. It was 2500 miles, air line, from the eastern end of the Black
Sea to the western coasts of Spain, 1400 miles from Rome to Palestine, and iioo
miles from Rome to northern Britain. To maintain order in this vast area Rome
depended on the loyalty of her subjects, the strength of her armies, her military
roads, and a messenger service by horse, yet throughout this vast area she imposed
her law and a unified government for centuries.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 57

from complete destruction during the period of the barbarian
invasions is hard to see. Instead, Rome treated her subjects as
her friends, and not as conquered peoples; led them to see that
their interests were identical with hers; gave them large local inde-
pendence and freedom in government, under her strong control
of general affairs ; opened up her citizenship ^ and the line of pro-
motion in the State to her provincials; ^ and won them to the
peace and good order which she everywhere imposed by the ad-
vantages she offered through a common language, common law,
common coinage, common commercial arrangements, common
state service, and the common treatment of all citizens of every
race.'^ In consequence, the provincial was willingly absorbed into
the common Roman race ^ — absorbed in dress, manners, religion,
poHtical and legal institutions, family names, and, most impor-
tant of all, in language. As a result, race pride and the native
tongues very largely disappeared, and Latin became the spoken
language of all except the lower classes throughout the whole of
the Western Empire. Only in the eastern Mediterranean, where
the Hellenic tongue and the Hellenic civilization still dominated,
did the Latin language make but little headway, and here Rome
had the good sense not to try to impose her speech or her culture.
Instead she absorbed the culture of the East, while the East ac-
cepted in return the Roman government and Roman law, and
Latin in time became the language of the courts and of govern-
ment.

Having stated thus briefly the most prominent characteristics
of the Roman people, and indicated their great work for civiliza-
tion, let us turn back and trace the development of such educa-

^ Caesar extended Roman citizenship to certain communities in Gaul and in Sicily,
and began the further extension of the process of assimilation by taking the con-
quered provincial into citizenship in the Empire. This was carried on and extended
by. succeeding Emperors until finally, in 212 a.d., Roman citizenship was extended
to all free-born inhabitants in all the provinces.

2 For example, Balbus, a Spaniard, was Consul in Rome forty years before the
Christian era, and another Spaniard, Nerva, had become Emperor before the close
of the first century a.d. Many commanders in the army and governors in the
provinces were provincials by birth.

^ Roman citizenship was much more than a mere name. A Roman citizen could
not be maltreated or punished without a legal trial before a Roman court. If ac-
cused in a capital case he could always protect himself from what he considered an
unjust decision by an "appeal to Caesar"; that is, to the Emperor at Rome. The
protection of law was always extended to his property and himself, wherever in the
Roman Empire he might live or travel.

^ Both literature and inscriptions testify abundantly to the affectionate regard
in which Roman rule was held. The rule may have been far from perfect, judged
from a modern point of view, but it was so much better and so much more orderly
than anything that had gone before that it was accepted in all quarters.

58 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tional system as existed among them, see in what it consisted,
how it modified the Hfe and habits of thinking of the Roman peo-
ple, and what educational organization or traditions Rome passed
on to western civilization.

II. THE PERIOD OF HOME EDUCATION

The early Romans and their training. In the early history of
the Romans there were no schools, and it was not until about
300 B.C. that even primary schools began to develop. What edu-
cation was needed was imparted in the home or in the field and in
the camp, and was of a very simple type. Certain virtues were
demanded — modesty, firmness, prudence, piety, courage, seri-
ousness, and regard for duty — and these were instilled both by
precept and example. Each home was a center of the religious
life, and of civic virtue and authority. In it the father was a high
priest, with power of life and death over wife and children. He
alone conversed with the gods and prepared the sacrifices. The
wife and mother, however, held a high place in the home and in
the training of the children, the marriage tie being regarded as
very sacred. She also occupied a respected position in society,
and was complete mistress of the house (R. 17).

The religion of the city was an outgrowth of that of the home.
Virtue, courage, duty, justice — these became the great civic vir-
tues. Their religion, both family and state, lacked the beauty
and stately ceremonial of the Greeks, lacked that lofty faith and
aspiration after virtue that characterized the Hebrew and the
later Christian faith, was singularly wanting in awe and mystery,
and was formal and mechanical and practical ^ in character, but
it exercised a great influence on these early peoples and on their
conceptions of their duty to the State.

The father trained the son for the practical duties of a man

^ Every house was protected from the evil spirits of the outside world by Janus,
and had its sacred fire presided over by Vesta. Every house had its protecting
Lares. The cupboard where the food was stored was blest by and under the
charge of the Penates. The daily worship of these household deities took place at
the family meal, the father offering a little food and a Httle wine at the sacred hearth,
livery house father, too, had his guardian Genius, whose festival was celebrated on
the master's birthday. In a similar fashion the State had its temples, its sacred fire
and votive offerings, and various divinities ruled the elements and sent or withheld
success.

Almost every activity in life was presided over by some deity, whom it was
necessary to propitiate before engaging in it. Davidson says, with reference to
the practical nature of their religion, that "V/hile the Athenians rejoiced before
their gods, the Romans kept a debtor and creditor account v/ith theirs, and were
very anxious that the balance should be on the right side."

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

Fig. 19. a Roman Father

instructing his son
(From a Roman Sarcophagus)

and a citizen; the mother trained the daughter to become a good
housekeeper, wife, and mother. MoraHty, character, obedience
to parents and to the State, and whole-hearted service were em-
phasized. The boy's father taught him to read, write, and count.
Stories of those who had done great deeds for the State were told,
and martial songs were learned and sung.
After 450 B.C. every boy had to learn
the Laws of the Twelve Tables (R. 12),
and be able to explain their meaning
(R. 13). As the boy grew older he fol-
lowed his father in the fields and in the
public place and listened to the con-
versation of men.^ If the son of a pa-
trician he naturally learned much more
from his father, by reason of his larger
knowledge and larger contact with men
of affairs and public business, than if he
were the son of a plebeian. Through
games as a boy, and later in the exercises of the fields and the
camps, the boy gained what physical training he received.-

Education by doing. It was largely an education by doing, as
was that of the old Greek period, though entirely different in
character. Either by apprenticeship to the soldier, farmer, or
statesman, or by participation in the activities of a citizen, was
the training needed imparted. Its purpose was to produce good
fathers, citizens, and soldiers.^ Its ideals were found in the real
and practical needs of a small State, where the ability to care for
one's self was a neecssary virtue. To be healthy and strong, to

^ "Among our ancestors," says Pliny, "one learned not only through the ears,
but through the eyes. The young, in observing the elders, learned what they would
soon have to do themselves, and what they would one day teach to their successor."
- Such careful physical training as was given in a Greek palastra and gymnasium
would have been regarded by the Romans as most effeminate. Unlike the (Greeks,
who strove for a harmonious bodily development, the Romans exercised for useful-
ness in war. Cicero exclaims, with reference to Greek gymnasial training: "What
an absurd system of training youth is exhibited in their gymnasia! What a frivo-
lous preparation for the labors and hazards of war!"

3 Macaulay, in his Horatius, describes the results of the education of this early
period as follows:

"Then none were for the party,
But all were for the State;
And the rich man loved the poor,

And the poor man loved the great.
Then lands were fairly portioned
. And spoils were fairly sold;
For the Romans were like brothers
In the brave days of old,"

60 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

reverence the gods and the institutions of the State, to obey his
parents and the laws, to be proud of his family connections and his
ancestors, to be brave and efficient in war, to know how to farm
or to manage a business, were the aims and ends of this early train-
ing. It produced a nation of citizens who willingly subordinated
themselves to the interests of the State, ^ a nation of warriors who
brought all Italy under their rule, a calculating, practical people
who believed themselves destined to become the conquerors and
rulers of the world, and a reserved and proud race, trained to
govern and to do business, but not possessed of lofty ideals or
large enthusiasms in life (Rs. 15, 16).

III. THE TRANSITION TO SCHOOL PIDUCATION

Beginnings of school education. Up to about 3C0 B.C. educa-
tion had been entirely in the home, and in the activities of the
fields and the State. It was a period of personal valor and stern
civic virtue, in a rather primitive type of society, as yet but little in
contact with the outside world, and little need of any other type
of training had been felt. By the end of the third century B.C., the
influence of contact with the Greek cities of southern Italy and
Sicily (Magna Croecia), and the influence of the extensive con-
quests of Alexander the Great in the eastern Mediterranean (334-
323 B.C.), had begun to be felt in Italy. By that time Greek had
become the language of commerce and diplomacy throughout the
Mediterranean, and Greek scholars and tradesmen had begun to
frequent Rome. By 303 B.C. it seems certain that a few private
teachers had set up primary schools at Rome to supplement the
home training, and had begun the introduction of the pedagogue
as a fashionable adjunct to attract attention to their schools.
These schools, however, were only a fad at first, and were patron-
ized only by a few of the wealthy citizens. Up to about 250 B.C.,
at least, Roman education remained substantially as it had been
in the preceding centuries. Reading, writing, declamation,
chanting, and the Laws of the Twelve Tables still constituted the
subject-matter of instruction, and the old virtues continued to be
emphasized.

By the middle of the third century B.C. Rome had expanded its

^ "The Romans," says the historian, Wilhelm Ihne, "were distinguished from
all other nations, not only by the extre^ne earnestness and precision with which they
conceived their law and worked out the consequences of its fundamental principles,
but by the good sense which made them submit to the law, once established, as an
absolute necessity of political health and strength. It was this severity in thinking
and acting which, more than any other cause, made Rome great and powerful."

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 6l

rule to include nearly all the Italian peninsula (see Figure i6),
and was transforming itself politically from a little rural City-
State into an Empire, with large world relationships. A knowl-
edge of Greek now came to be demanded both for diplomatic and
for business reasons, and the need of a larger culture, to corre-
spond with the increased importance of the State, began to be felt
by the wealthier and better-educated classes. Greek scholars,
brought in as captured slaves from the Greek colonies of southern
Italy, soon began to be extensively employed as teachers and as
secretaries.

About 233 B.C., Li\ ius Andronicus, who had been brought to
Rome as a slave when Tarentum, one of the Greek cities of south-
ern Italy, was captured,^ and who later had obtained his freedom,
made a translation of the Odyssey into Latin, and became a teacher
of Latin and Greek at Rome. This had a wonderful effect in
developing schools and a literary atmosphere at Rome. The
Odyssey at once became the great school textbook, in time sup-
planting the Twelve Tables, and literary and school education
now rapidly developed. The Latin language became crystallized
in form, and other Greek works were soon translated. The be-
ginnings of a native Latin literature were now made. Greek
higher schools were opened, many Greek teachers and slaves
offered instruction, and the Hellenic scheme of culture, as it had
previously developed in Attica, soon became the fashion at Rome.

Changes in national ideals. The second century B.C. was even
more a period of rapid change in all phases and. aspects of Roman
hfe. During this century Rome became a world empire, annexing
Spain, Carthage, Illyria, and Greece, and during the century that
followed she subjugated northern Africa, Egypt, Asia Minor, and
Gaul to the Elbe and the Danube (see Figure 18). Rome soon
became mistress of the whole Mediterranean world. Her ships
plied the seas, her armies and governors ruled the land. The
introduction of wealth, luxuries, and slaves from the new prov-
inces, which followed their capture, soon had a very demoralizing
influence upon the people. Private and public religion and moral-
ity rapidly declined; religion came to be an empty ceremonial;

^ The lot of a captive in war, everywhere throughout the ancient world, was to
be taken and sold as a slave by his captors. Many educated Greeks were thus taken
in the capture of Greek cities in southern Italy and sold as slaves in Rome. These
were let out by their masters as teachers of the new learning. Even the thrifty
Cato, who vigorously opposed the new learning on principle, was not averse to per-
mitting his educated Greek slaves to conduct schools and thus add to his private
fortune.

62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

divorce became common; wealth and influence ruled the State;
slaves became very cheap and abundant, and were used for almost
every type of service. From a land of farmers of small farms,
sturdy and self-supporting, who lived simply, reared large fam-
ilies, feared the gods, respected the State, and made an honest
living, it became a land of great estates and wealthy men, and
the self-respecting peasantry were transformed into soldiers for
foreign wars, or joined the rabble in the streets of Rome.^ Wealth
became the great desideratum, and the great avenue to this was
through the public service, either as army commanders and gov-
ernors, or as public men who could sway the multitude and com-
mand votes and influence. Manifestly the old type of education
was not intended to meet such needs, and now in Rome, as pre-
viously in Athens, a complete transformation in the system of
training for the young took place. The imaginative and creative
Athenians, when confronted by a great change in national ideals,
evolved a new type of education adapted to the new needs of the
time; the unimaginative and practical Romans merely adopted
that which the Athenians had created.

The Hellenization of Rome. The result was the Hellenization
of the intellectual life of Rome, making complete the Helleniza-
tion of the Mediterranean world. After the fall of Greece, in 146
B.C., a great influx of educated Greeks took place. As the Latin
poet Horace expressed it:

Captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror,
And brought the arts to Latium.

So completely did the Greek educational system seem to meet the
needs of the changed Roman State that at first the Greek schools
were adopted bodily — Greek language, pedagogue, higher schools
of rhetoric and philosophy, and all — and the schools were in
reality Greek schools but slightly modified to meet the needs of
Rome. Gymnasia were erected, and wealthy Romans, as well as
youths, began to spend their leisure in studying Greek and in
trying to learn gymnastic exercises.

In time the national pride and practical sense of the Romans

^ These men had little choice otherwise. Grain from Spain and Africa became
so cheap that a farmer could not raise enough on his small farm to pay his taxes and
support his family, so he was obliged to sell his land to men who turned it into large
cattle and sheep ranches. He would not emigrate to the provinces, as Englishmen
have done to Canada and Australia, but instead went to the cities, where he led a
hand-to-mouth existence in a type of tenement house. It was from such sources
that the Roman mob, demanding free grain and entertainment in return for its
votes, was made up.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

led them to open so-called "culture schools" of their own, mod-
eled after the Greek. The Latin language then replaced the
Greek as the vehicle of instruction, though Greek was still studied
extensively, and Rome began the development of a system of
private-school instruction possessing some elements that were
native to Roman life and Roman needs.

Struggle against, and final victory. That this great change in
national ideals and in educational practice was accepted without
protest should not be imagined. Plutarch
and other writers appealed to the family
as the center for all true education. Cato
the elder, who died in 149 B.C., labored
hard to stem the Hellenic tide. He wrote
the first Roman book on education, in
part to show what education a good citi-
zen needed as an orator, husbandman,
jurist, and warrior, and in part as a pro-
test against Hellenic innovations. In 167
B.C., the first library was founded in
Rome, with books brought from Greece
by the conqueror Paulus Emilius. In
161 B.C., the Roman Senate directed the
Praetor to see "that no philosophers or
rhetoricians be suffered in Rome" (R. 20 a), but the edict could
not be enforced. In 92 B.C., the Censors issued an edict ex-
pressing their disapproval of such schools (R. 20 b). By 100
B.C., the Hellenic victory was complete, and the Graeco-Roman
school system had taken form. In 27 B.C., Rome ceased to be
a Republic and became an Empire, and under the Emperors the
professors of the new learning were encouraged and protected,
higher schools were established in the provinces, literature and
philosophy were opened as possible careers, and the Greek lan-
guage, literature, and learning were spread, under Roman imperial
protection, to every corner of the then civilized world. This vic-
tory of Hellenic thought and learning at Rome, viewed in the
light of the future history of the civilization of the world, was an
event of large importance.

IV. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM AS FINALLY ESTABLISHED

The ludus, or primary school. The elementary school, known
as the Indus, or ludus liter arum, the teacher of which was known

Fig. 20. Cato the Elder

(234-148 B.C.)

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 21. Roman Writing-Materials

Inkstand, pen, letter, box of manuscripts, wax
tablets, stylus.

as a ludi magister, was the beginning or primary school of the
scheme as finally evolved. This corresponded to the school of
the Athenian grammatist, and like it the instruction consisted of
reading, writing, and counting. These schools were open to both
sexes, but were chiefly frequented by boys. They were entered
at the age of seven, sometimes six, and covered the period up

to twelve. Reading and
writing were taught by
much the same methods
as in the Greek schools,
and approximately the
same writing materials
were used. Something of
the same difficulty was
experienced also in mas-
tering the reading art (R.
2i). Dionysius of Ha-
licarnassus, a Greek his-
torian who lived in Rome for twenty-two years, during the first
century B.C., has left us a clear description of the Roman method
of teaching reading:

When we learned to read was it not necessary at first to know the
name of the letters, their shape, their value in syllables, their differ-
ences, then the words and their case, their quantity long or short, their
accent, and the rest?

Arrived at this point we began to read and write, slowly at first and
syllable by syllable. Some time afterwards, the forms being sufficiently
engraved on our memory, we read more cursorily, in the elementary
book, then in all sorts of books, finally with incredible quickness and
without making any mistake.

Writing seems rather to have followed reading, and, as in the
Greek schools, the pupils copied down from dictation and made
their own books {dictatd) . Literature received no such emphasis
in the elementary schools of Rome as in those of the Greeks, and
the palcBstra of the Greeks was not reproduced at Rome.

Due in part to the practical character of the Roman people,
to the established habit of keeping careful household accounts,
to the difficulties of their system of calculation,^ to the practice

^ Arithmetic was not easy for the Romans, partly because they had no figure or
other sign for zero, partly because they used a decimal system for counting and a
duodecimal for their money, and partly because the Roman system of notation

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

of finger reckoning, and to the vast commercial and financial
interests that the Romans formed throughout the world which
they conquered, arithmetic became a subject of fundamental
importance in their schools, and much time was given to securing
perfection in calculation and finger reckoning.^ Hence it occu-
pied a place of large importance in the
primary school. An abacus or counting-
board was used, similar to the one shown
in Figure 22, and Horace mentions a bag
of stones {calculi) as a part of a school-
boy's equipment.

The ludi magister. The ludi magister at
Rome held a position even less enviable
than that held by the grammatist at
Athens. "The starveling Greek," who
was glad to barter his knowledge for the
certainty of a good dinner, was sneered at
by many Roman writers. Many slaves
were engaged in this type of instruction,
bringing in fees for their owners. It was
not regarded as of importance that the
teachers of these schools be of high grade.
The establishment of and attenda.nce at
these primary schools was wholly volun-
tary, and the children in them probably
represented but a small percentage of those of school age in the
total population. These schools became quite common in the
Italian cities, and in time were found in the provincial cities of the
Empire as well. They remained, however, entirely private-adven-

(I, V, X, L, C. D, M) did not adapt itself to quick calculation. Try, for example,
these simple sums:

Add: CCLVII Subtract: LXVIII

CIX XXXIV

•

•
•
•

•

•
•

•

•
•
•

0
•
•

•
•

•
•
•
•

•
•

•

Fig. 22. a Roman
Counting-Board

Pebbles were used, those
nearest the numbered di-
viding partition being
counted. Each pebble above-,
when moved downward
counted five of those in the
same division below. The
board now shows 8,760,254.

Multiply:

CXXV
XII

Divide: XII ICXXXII

1 Finger reckoning (whence digits) with the Romans attained a prominence
probably never reached with any other people. Bills and accounts were reckoned
up on the fingers, in the presence of the patron. Eighteen positions of the fingers
of the left hand stood for the nine units and the nine tens, and eighteen positions
of the fingers of the right hand stood for the nine hundreds and the nine thousands.
For larger sums, such as ten thousand and more, various parts of the body were
touched. Any one who betrayed, according to Quintilian, "by an uncertain or
awkward movement of his fingers, a want of confidence in his calculations," was
thought to be but imperfectly trained in arithmetic.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ture undertakings, the State doing nothing toward encouraging
their estabUshment, supervising the instruction in them, or
requiring attendance at them. They were in no sense free schools,
nor were the prices for instruction fixed, as in our private schools
of to-day. Instead, the pupil made a present to the master, usu-
ally at some understood rate, though some masters left the size
of the fee to the liberality of their pupils.^ The pedagogue,
copied from Greece, was nearly always an old or infirm slave of
the family.

The schools were held anywhere ■ — in a portico (see Figure 23),
in a shed or booth in front of a house, in a store, or in a recessed

Fig. 2$. A Roman Primary School {Ludus)

(From a fresco found at Herculaneum)

This shows a school held in a portico of a house.

corner shut in by curtains. A chair for the master, benches for
the pupils, an outer room for cloaks and for the pedagogues to
wait in, and a bundle of rods {ferula) constituted the necessary
equipment. The pupils brought with them boxes containing

^ There was much complaint that parents were slow with their fees, and at times
forgot them entirely if the boy did not turn out well. Finally, in the reign of
Diocletian (284-305 a.d.), in an effort to reheve the distress of schoolmasters, prices
were legally fixed at approximately the equivalent of $1.20 per month per pupil for
teaching reading and $1.80 for arithmetic, measured in money values of a decade
ago. These were regarded as "hard times prices."

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 67

writing-materials, book-rolls, and reckoning-stones. Schools
began early in the morning, pupils in winter going with lanterns
to their tasks. There was much flogging of children, and in
Martial we find an angry epigram which he addressed to a school-
master who disturbed his sleep (R. 23 a).

The secondary schools. Secondary or Latin grammar schools,
under a grammaticus, and covering instruction from the age of
twelve to sixteen, had become clearly differentiated from the
primary schools under a ludi magister by the time of the death of
Cato, 148 B.C. At first this higher instruction began in the form
of private tutors, probably in the homes of the wealthy, and
Greek was the language taught. By the beginning of the first
century B.C., however, Latin secondary schools began to arise,
and in time these too spread to all the important cities of the
Empire. Attendance at them was wholly voluntary, and was
confined entirely to the children of the well-to-do classes. The
teachers were Greeks, or Latins who had been trained by the
Greeks. Each teacher taught as he wished, but the schools
throughout the Empire came to be much the same in character.
The course of study consisted chiefly of instruction in grammar
and literature, the purpose being to secure such a mastery of the
Latin language and Greek and Latin literatures as might be most
helpful in giving that broader culture now recognized as the mark
of an educated man, and in preparing the young Roman to take
up the life of an orator and public official (R. 24). Both Greek
and Latin secondary schools were in existence, and Quintilian,
the foremost Roman writer on educational practice, recommends
attendance at the Greek school first.

Grammar was studied first, and was intended to develop cor-
rectness in the use of speech. With its careful study of words,
phonetic changes, drill on inflections, and practice in composing
and paragraphing, this made a strong appeal to the practical
Roman and became a favorite study. Literature followed, and
was intended to develop an appreciation for literary style, elevate
thought, expand one's knowledge, and, by memorization and
repetition, to train the powers of expression. The method prac-
ticed was much as follows : The selection was carefully read first
by the teacher, and then by the pupils.^ After the reading the

^ "Reading aloud, with careful attention to pronunciation, accent, quantity,
and expression, formed an, important part of the training in literature of a Latin
youth. Correct reading of Latin was a much more diificult art, as practiced, than

68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

selection was gone over again and the historical, geographical,
and mythological allusions were carefully explained by the
teacher.^ The text was next critically examined, to point out
where and how it might be improved and its expressions strength-
ened, and much paraphrasing of it was engaged in. Finally the
study of the selection was rounded out by a judgment — that is,
a critical estimate of the work, a characterization of the author's
style, and a resume of his chief merits and defects. The founda-
tions were here laid for Grammar and Rhetoric as the great
studies of the Middle Ages.

Homer and Neander were the favorite authors in Greek, and
Vergil, Horace, Sallust, and Livy in Latin, with much use of
iEsop's Fables for work in composition. The pupils made their
own books from dictation, though in later years educated slave
labor became so cheap that the copying and sale of books was
organized into a business at Rome, and it was possible for the
children of wealthy parents to own their own books. Grammar,
composition, elocution, ethics, history,, mythology, and geography
were all comprehended in the instruction in grammar and litera-
ture in the secondary schools. A little music was added at times,
to help the pupil intone his reading and declamation. A little
geometry and astronomy were also included, for their practical
applications. The athletic exercises of the Greeks were rejected,
as contributing to immorality and being a waste of time and
strength. In a sense these schools were finishing schools for
Roman youths who went to any school at all, much as are our
high schools of to-day for the great bulk of American children.
The schools were better housed than those of the ludi, and the
masters were of a better quality and received larger fees. Like
the elementary schools, the State exercised no supervision or con-
trol over these schools or the teachers or pupils in them.

is the reading of English, as all of us well know who learned properly to intone our
''Arma virumqtie cano, Trojce qui primus ah oris
Ilaliam, falo profugus, Lavinaqtie venii."

The lack of use of small letters and spacing between the words (R. 21), as well as
poor punctuat'on, also added to the difficulty.

^ A nonsensical minuteness was followed here, and many trivialities were empha-
sized. Juvenal tells us, in his Seventh Satire, written about 130 a.d., that " a teacher
was expected to read all histories and know all authors as well as his finger ends.
That, if questioned, he should be able to tell the name of Anchises' nurse, and the
name and native land of the stepmother of Anchemotus — tell how many years
Ancestes lived — how many flagons of wine the Sicilian king gave to the Phrygians."
This reminds us of some of the dissected study of English and Latin until recently
given in our colleges and high schools.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 69

The schools of rhetoric. Up to this point the schools estab-
lished had been for practical and useful information (the primary
schools) or cultural (the grammar or secondary schools). On top
of these a higher and professional type of school was next devel-
oped, to train youths in rhetoric and oratory, preparatory to the
great professions of law and pubhc hfe at Rome.^ These schools
were direct descendants of the Greek rhetorical schools, which
evolved from the schools of the Sophists. Suetonius ^ tells us
that:

Rhetoric, also, as well as grammar, was not introduced amongst us
till a late period, and with still more difficulty, inasmuch as we find
that, at times, the practice of it was even prohibited. ^ . . . However,
by slow degrees, rhetoric manifested itself to be a useful and honorable
study, and many persons devoted themselves to it both as a means of
defense and of acquiring a reputation. In consequence, public favor
was so much attracted to the study of rhetoric that a vast number of
professional and learned men devoted themselves to it; and it flour-
ished to such a degree that some of them raised themselves by it to the
rank of senators and to the highest offices.

These schools, the teachers of which were known as rhetors, fur-
nished a type of education representing a sort of collegiate educa-
tion for the period. They were oratorical in purpose, because the
orator had become the Roman ideal of a well-educated man
(R. 24). During the life of the Republic the orator found many
opportunities for the constructive use of his ability, and all
young men ambitious to enter law or politics found the training
of these schools a necessary prerequisite. They were attended
for two or three years by boys over sixteen, but only the wealthier
and more aristocratic families could afford to send their boys to
them.

In addition to oratorical and some legal training, these schools
included a further linguistic and literary training, some mathe-

^ Quintilian well states the aim of this higher education when he says that "the
man who can duly sustain his character as a citizen, who is qualified for the manage-
ment of public and private affairs, and who can govern communities by his counsels,
settle them by means of laws, and improve them by judicial enactments, can cer-
tainly be nothing else but an orator."

2 In his Lives of Eminent Grammarians and Rhetoricians, chap. i. Suetonius lived
from 75 to 160 A.D., and was an advocate at Rome and private secretary to the
Emperor Hadrian.

* There was a general dread of Greek higher learning on the part of the older
Romans, and this found expression in many ways. Among these was an edict of
the Senate, in i6i B.C., directing the Praetor to see that "no philosophers or rhetori-
cians be' suffered at Rome" (R. 20), a decree which could not be enforced, and the
edict of the Censors, in 92 B.C. (R. 20), expressing their disapproval of the Latin
schools of rhetoric,

70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

matical and scientific knowledge, and even some philosophy. The
famous "Seven Liberal Arts" of the Middle Ages — Grammar,
Rhetoric, and Dialectic; Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and
Astronomy — all seem to have been included in the instruction of
thes6 schools.^ The great studies, though, were the first three

Fig. 24. A Roman School of Rhetoric

This picture, which has been drawn from a description, shows a much better
t>T3e of school than that of the ludi.

and some Law, Music being studied largely to help with gestures
and to train the voice, Geometry to aid in settling lawsuits re-
lating to land. Dialectic (logic) to aid in detecting fallacies, and
Astronomy to understand the movements of the heavenly bodies
and the references of literary writers.^ There was much work in
debate and in the declamation of ethical and political material,
the fine distinctions in Roman Law and Ethics were brought out,*^
and there was much drill in preparing and delivering speeches and
much attention given to the factors involved in the preparation
and delivery of a successful oration (R. 25).

1 These seven studies became the famous studies of tlie church schools of the
Middle Ages, with Grammar as the greatest and most important study (see chap,
vri; R. 74). The curriculum of the Middle Ages was a direct inheritance from
Rome.
■ 2 See Quintilian, Institutes of Oratory, book i, chap, x, 22, 37, and 46. This chap-
ter is devoted largely to a description of the use of these studies.

•'' Sample questions which were debated to bring out the fine distinctions in Roman
Law and Ethics were :

(c) Was a slave about whose neck a master had hung the leather or golden token
(worn by free youths only), in order to smuggle him past the boundary, freed when
he reached Roman soil wearing this insignia of freedom?

(b) If a stranger buys a prospective clraught of fishes and the fisherman draws
up a casket of jewels, does the stranger own the jewels?

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 71

These schools became very popular as institutions of higher
learning, and continued so even after the later Emperors, by
seizing the power of the State, had taken away the inspiration
that comes from a love of freedom and had thus deprived the
rhetorical art of practical value. The work of the schools then
became highly stilted and artificial in character, and oratory then
came to be cultivated largely as a fine art.^ Men educated in
these schools came to boast that they could speak with equal
effectiveness on either side of any question, and the art came to
depend on the use of many and big words and on the manners of
the stage. Such ideals naturally destroyed the value of these
schools, and stopped intellectual progress so far as they con-
tributed to it.

Much was done by the later Emperors to encourage these
schools, and they too came to exist in almost every provincial
city in the Empire. Often they were supported by the cities in
which they were located. The Emperor Vespasian, about 75 a.d.
began the practice of paying, from the Imperial Treasury, the sala-
ries of grammarians and rhetoricians - at Rome. Antoninus Pius,
who ruled as Emperor from 138 to 161 a.d., extended payment to
the provinces, gave to these teachers the privileges of the sena-
torial class, and a certain number in each city were exempted from
payment of taxes, support of soldiers, and obligations to military
service. Other Emperors extended these special privileges (R. 26)
which became the basis for the special rights afterwards granted
to the Christian clergy (R. 38) and, still later, to teachers in the
universities (Rs. 101-04).

University learning. Roman youths desiring still further
training could now journey to the eastward and attend the Greek
universities (see Figure 14). A few did so, much as American
students in the middle of the nineteenth century went to Germany
for higher study. Athens and Rhodes were most favored. Bru-
tus, Horace, and Cicero, among others, studied at Athens; Caesar,

^ In the later centuries of the Empire, people went to hear a man who could orate
or declaim, as people now do to hear a great political orator, a revivalist preacher,
or a popular actor or singer. A form of amusement for distinguished travelers pass-
ing through a city was to have some one orate before them. "This power of using
words for mere pleasurable effect," says Professor Dill, in his Roman Socieiy in the
Last Century of the Western Empire, "on the most trivial or the most extravagantly
absurd themes, was for many ages, in both West and East, esteemed the highest
proof of talent and cultivation."

- Each Greek rhetorician in Rome was given one hundred sestertia (about $4000)
yearly from the Imperial Treasury, Quintilian probably being one of the first to
receive a state salary.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Cicero, and Cassius at Rhodes. Later Alexandria was in favor.
In a library founded in the Temple of Peace by Vespasian (ruled
69 to 79 A.D.) the University at Rome had its origin, and in time
this developed into an institution with professors in law, medicine,
architecture, mathematics and mechanics, and grammar and
rhetoric in both the Latin and Greek languages. In this many
youths from provincial cities came to study. The lines of instruc-
tion represented nothing, however, in the way of scientific investi-
gation or creative thought; the instruction was formal and dog-
matic, being largely a further elaboration of what had previously
been well done by the Greeks.

Nature of the educational system developed. Such was the
educational system which was finally evolved to meet the new

cultural needs of the Roman
Empire. In all its foundation
elements it was Greek. Hav-
ing borrowed — conquered one
might almost say — Greek re-
ligion, philosophy, literature,
and learning, the Romans
naturally borrowed also the
school system that had been
evolved to impart this culture.
Never before or since has any
people adapted so completely
to their own needs the system
of educational training evolved
by another. To the Greek
basis some distinctively Ro-
man elements were added to
adapt it better to the peculiar
needs of their own people,
while on the other hand many
of the finer Greek character-
istics were omitted entirely.
Having once adopted the Greek plan, the constructive Roman
mind organized it into a system superior to the original, but in so
doing formalized it more than the Greeks had ever done (R. 19).
That the system afforded an opportunity to wealthy Romans
to obtain for their children some understanding and appreciation
of the culture of the Greek world with which their Empire was

u
>

(Greek
Universities)

University of

Rome
(Professor)

Law

Medicine

Architecture

Mathematics

Grammar

Rhetoric

v
.2

0
u

Schools of
Rhetoric

(Rhetor)

Grammar
Rhetoric
Dialectic
Law

Latin
Grammar
Schools

(Grammaticus)

Grammar and
Literature

0
tt

B
c
u

Ludi, or
Primary-
Schools

(iLuii m^ister)

Readi4ig
Writing
ReckoninfiT

Fig. 25. The Roman Voluntary
Educational System, as finally

EVOLVED

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME ']2>

now in contact, and answered fairly well the preparatory needs
along political and governmental lines of those Romans who could
afford to educate their boys for such careers, can hardly be
doubted (R. 22). Roman writers on education, especially Cicero
(R. 24) and QuintiHan (R. 25), give us abundant testimony as to
the value and usefulness of the system evolved in the training of
orators and men for the public service. In the provinces, too, we
know that the schools were very useful in inculcating Roman
traditions and in helping the Romans to assimilate the sons of
local princes and leaders.^ During the days of the Republic the
schools were naturally more useful than after the establishment
of the Empire, and especially after the later Emperors had
stamped out many of the political and civic liberties for the
enjoyment of which the schools prepared. On the other hand,
the schools reached but a small, selected class of youths, trained
for only the political career, and cannot be considered as ever
having been general or as having educated any more than a small
percentage of the future citizens of the State. Many of the
important lines of activity in which the Romans engaged, and
which to-day are regarded as monuments to theii' constructive
skill and practical genius, such as architectural achievements,
the building of roads and aqueducts, the many skilled trades, and
the large commercial undertakings, these schools did nothing to
prepare youths for. The State, unlike Athens, never required
education of any one, did not make what was offered a prepara-
tion for citizenship, and made no attempt to regulate either
teachers or instruction until late in the history of the Empire.
Education at Rome was from the first purely a private-adventure
affair, most nearly analogous with us to instruction in music and
dancing. Those who found the education offered of any value
could take it and pay for it; those who did not could let it alone.
A few did the former, the great mass of the Romans the latter.
For the great slave class that developed at Rome there was, of
course, no education at all.

Results on Roman life and government. Still, out of this pri-
vate and tuition system of schools many capable political leaders
and executives came — men who exercised great influence on the

^ "He [Claudius] was also attentive to provide a liberal education for the sons
of their chieftains; . . . and his attempts were attended with such success that they,
who lately disdained to make use of the Roman language, were now ambitious of
becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit began to be held in honor, and the
toga was fpequently worn." Tacitus's Account of Britain, Agricola, chap. 21.

74 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

history of the State, fought out her poHtical battles, organized
and directed her government at home and in the provinces, and
helped build up that great scheme of government and law and
order which was Rome's most significant contribution to future
civilization.^ It was in this direction, and in practical and con-
structive work along engineering and architectural lines, that
Rome excelled. The Roman genius for government and law and
order and constructive undertakings must be classed, in impor-
tance for the future of civilization in the world, along with the
ability of Greece in literature and philosophy and art. 'Tf,"
says Professor Adams, "as is sometimes said, that in the course of
history there is no literature which rivals the Greek except the
English, it is perhaps even more true that the Anglo-Saxon is the
only race which can be placed beside the Romans in creative
power and in politics." The conquest of the known world by this
practical and constructive people could not have otherwise than
decisively influenced the whole course of human history, and,
coming at the time in world affairs that it did, the influence on all
future civilization of the work of Rome has been profound. The
great political fact which, dominated all the Middle Ages, and
shaped the religion and government and civilization of the time,
was the fact that the Roman Empire had been and had done its
work so well.

V. ROME'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION

Greece and Rome contrasted. The contrast between the
Greeks and the Romans is marked in almost every particular.
The Greeks were an imaginative, subjective, artistic, and idealistic
people, with little administrative ability and few practical ten-
dencies. The Romans, on the other hand, were an unimagina-
tive, concrete, practical, and constructive nation. Greece made
its great contribution to world civilization in Hterature and phil-
osophy and art; Rome in law and order and government. The
Greeks hved a Kfe of aesthetic enjoyment of the beautiful in nature
and art, and their basis for estimating the worth of a thing was
intellectual and artistic; to the Romans the aesthetic and the

^ England offers us the nearest modern analogy. This was one of the last of the
great European, nations to establish popular education, but for centuries previous
thereto the great private, tuition, grammar schools of England — Eton, Harrow,
Rugby, Winchester, and others — together with the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, prepared a succession of leaders for the State — men who have steered
England's destinies at home and abroad and made her a great world power.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 75

beautiful made little appeal, and their basis for estimating the
worth of a thing was utilitarian. The Greeks worshiped "the
beautiful and the good," and tried to enjoy life rationally and
nobly, while the Romans worshiped force and effectiveness, and
lived by rule and authority. The Greeks thought in personal
terms of government and virtue and happiness, while the Romans
thought in general terms of law and duty, and their happiness
was rather in present denial for future gain than in any immediate
enjoyment.

As a result the Romans developed no great scholarly or literary
atmosphere, as the Greeks had done at Athens. They built up
no great speculative philosophies, and framed no great theories
of government. Even their literature was, in part, an imitation
of the Greek, though possessing many elements of native strength
and beauty. They were a people who knew how to accomplish
results rather than to speculate about means and ends. Useful-
ness and effectiveness were with them the criteria of the worth of
any idea or project. They subdued and annexed an empire, they
gave law and order to a primitive world, they civilized and Roman-
ized barbarian tribes, they built roads connecting all parts of their
Empire that were the best the world had ever known, their aque-
ducts and bridges were wonders of engineering skill, their public
buildings and monuments still excite admiration and envy, in
many of the skilled trades they developed tools and processes of
large future usefulness, and their agriculture was the best the
world had known up to that time. They were strong where the
Greeks were weak, and weak where the Greeks were strong.

By reason of this difference the two peoples supplemented one
another well in the work of laying the foundations upon which
our modern civilization has been built. Greece created the
intellectual and aesthetic ideals and the culture for our life, while
Rome developed the political institutions under which ideals may
be realized and culture may be enjoyed. From the Greeks and
Hebrews our modern life has drawn its great inspirations and its
ideals for life, while from the Romans we have derived our ideals
as to government and obedience to law. One may say that the
Romans as a people specialized in government, law, order, and
constructive practical undertakings, and bequeathed to posterity
a wonderful inheritance in governmental forms, legal codes, com-
mercial processes, and engineering undertakings, while the Greeks
left to us a philosophy, Hteraturc, art, and a world culture which

76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the civilized world will never cease to enjoy. The Greeks were an
imaginative, impulsive, and a joyous people; the Romans sedate,
severe, and superior to the Greeks in persistence and moral force.
The Greeks were ever young; the Romans were always grown and
serious men.

Rome's great contribution. Rome's great contribution, then,
was along the lines just indicated. To this, the school system
which became established in the Roman State contributed only
indirectly and .but little. The unification of the ancient world
into one Empire, with a common body of traditions, practices,
coinage, speech, and law, which made the triumph of Christianity
possible; the formulation of a body of law ^ which barbarian tribes
accepted, which was studied throughout the Middle Ages, which
formed the basis of the legal system of the mediaeval Church, and
which has largely influenced modern practice; the development
of a language from which many modern tongues have been de-
rived, and which has modified all western languages; and the
perfection of an alphabet which has become the common property
of all nations whose civilization has been derived from the Greek
and Roman — these constitute the chief contributions of Rome
to modern civilization.

Roman city government, too, had been established throughout
all the provincial cities, and this remained after the Empire had
passed away. The municipal corporation, with its charter of
rights, has ever since been a fixed idea in the western world.
Roman law, organized into a compact code, and studied in the
law schools of the Middle Ages, has rriodified our modern ideas
and practices to a degree we scarcely realize. It was accepted
by the German rulers as a permanent thing after they had over-
run the Empire, and it remained as the law of the courts wherever
Roman subjects were tried. Preserved and codified at Constanti-
nople under Justinian in the sixth century, and re-introduced into
western Europe when the study of law was revived in the newly
founded universities in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries,

^ This grew up, as all law grows, by enacted laws and decisions of the courts, and
in time came to be an enormous body of law. Lacking the printed law books and
indices of to-day, to obtain a knowledge of Roman law became a formidable task.
Finally the practical Roman mind codified it, and reduced it to system and order.
The Theodosian Code, of 438 a.d., and the Justinian Code, of 528 and 534 a.d., were
the final results. These codes were compact, capable of duplication with relative
ease, and later became the standard textbooks throughout the Middle Ages. The
great importance of these codifications may be appreciated when we know that
almost all the original laws and decisions from which they were compiled have been
lost.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME

Roman law has greatly modified all modern legal practices and
has become the basis of the legal systems of a number of modern
states.^

Of all the Roman contributions to mod-
ern civilization perhaps the one that most
completely permeates all our modern life
is their alphabet and speech. Figure 26
shows how our modern alphabet goes back
to the old Roman, which they obtained from
the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and
which the Greeks obtained from the still
earlier Phcenicians. This alphabet has be-
come the common property of almost all
the civilized world.'- In speech, the French,
Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian tongues
go back directly to the Latin, and these are
the tongues of Mexico and South America
as well. The English language, which is
spoken throughout a large part of the civ-
ilized world, and by two thirds of its inhab-
itants, has also received so many additions
from Romanic sources that we to-day
scarcely utter a sentence without using
some word once used by the citizens of
ancient Rome.

Among the smaller but nevertheless
important contributions which we owe to
Rome, and which were passed on to med-
iaeval and modern Europe, should be men-

1 The Romanic countries — France, Spain, Italy —
have drawn their law most completely from the Jus-
tinian Code. Due to Spanish and French occupation
of parts of x\merica, Roman legal ideas also entered
here, the Louisiana Code of 1824 being Roman in law
and technical expressions and spirit, though English in
language. Spanish and Portuguese settlement of the
South American continent has carried Roman law there.

2 The Roman alphabet is the alphabet of all North
and South x\merica, Australia, Africa, and all of Europe
except Russia, Greece, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
a few minor Slavic and Teutonic peoples. Even in
Germany and Austria, Roman letters were rapidlysu-
perseding the more difficult German letters in the print-
ing of papers and books for the better-educated classes
before the Great War. In India, Siam, China, and
Japan, Roman letters are also being increasingly used.

c'
.5
0

c
8

E
0
a

■D

odern Rom
nglish, etc.

5uj 0

1
J

\a\

T
U

X
Y

K
?)

Fig. 26. Origin or Our
Alphabet

The German type, like the
so-called Old English (see
Fig. 45), illustrates the
corruption of letter forms
through the copying of
manuscripts during the
Middle Ages.

78 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tioned certain practical knowledge in agriculture and the me-
chanic arts; many inventions and acquired skills in the arts and
trades; an organized sea and land trade and commerce; cleared
and improved lands, good houses, roads and bridges; great ar-
chitectural and engineering remains, scattered all through the
provinces; the beginnings of the transformation of the slave into
the serf, from which the great body of freemen of modern Europe
later were evolved; and certain educational conceptions and prac-
tices which later profoundly influenced educational methods and
procedure.

How large these contributions were we shall appreciate better
as we proceed with our history. Of the negative contributions,
the most dangerous has been the idea of the rule of one imperial
government, which has inspired the autocratic governments of
modern Europe to try to imitate the world-wide rule of Imperial
Rome.

The way paved for Christianity. It was the great civilizing and
unifying work of the Roman State that paved the way for the
next great contribution to the foundations of the structure of our
modern civilization — the contribution of Christianity. Had
Italy never been consolidated; had the barbarian tribes to the
north never been conquered and Romanized; had Spain and
Africa and the eastern Mediterranean never known the rule of
Rome; had the Latin language never become the speech of the
then civilized peoples; had Roman armies never imposed law and
order throughout an unruly world; had Roman governors and
courts never established common rights and security; had Roman
municipal government never come to be the common type in
the cities of the provinces; had Roman schools in the provincial
cities never trained the foreign citizen in Roman ways and to
think Roman thoughts; had Rome never established free trade
and intercourse throughout her Empire; had Rome never devel-
oped processes and skills in agriculture and the creative arts;
had there been no Roman roads and common coinage; and had
Rome not done dozens of other important things to unify and
civilize Europe and reduce it to law and order, it is hard to
imagine the chaos that would have resulted when the Empire
gave way to the barbarian hordes which finally overwhelmed
it. Where we should have been to-day in the upward march
of civilization, without the work of Rome, it is impossible
to say.

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 79

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Contrast the Romans as a colonizing power with the modern Germans.
The EngHsh. The French.

2. At what period in our national development did home education with
us occupy substantially the same place as it did in Rome before 300 B.C.?
In what respects was the education given boys and girls similar? Dif-
ferent?

3. What was the most marked advance over the Greeks in the early Roman
training?

4. Contrast the education of the Athenian, Spartan, and Roman boy,
during the early period in each State.

5. To what extent does early Roman education indicate the importance of
the parent and of study of biography in the education of the young?

6. Was the change in character of the education of Roman youths, after
the expansion of the Roman State and the establishment of world con-
tacts, preventable, or was it a necessary evolution? Why? Have we
ever experienced similar changes?

7. As a State increases in importance and enlarges its world contacts, is a
correspondingly longer training and enlarged culture necessary at home?

8. What idea do you get as to the extent to which the Latinized Odyssey
was read from the fact that the Latin language was crystallized in form
shortly after the translation was made?

9. What does the rapid adoption of the Greek educational system, and the
later evolution of a native educational system out of it, indicate as to
the nature of Roman expansion?

10. Was the introduction of the Greek pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct
natural? Why?

11. Why is a period of very rapid expansion in a State Ukely to be demoraliz-
ing? How may the demoralization incident to such expansion be antici-
pated and minimized?

12. Why does the coming of large landed estates introduce important social
problems? Have we the beginnings of a social problem of this type?
What correctives have we that Rome did not have?

13. State the economic changes which hastened the introduction of a new
type of higher training at Rome.

14. Was the Hellenization of Rome which ensued a good thing? Why?

15. How do you account for Rome not developing a state school system in
the period of great national need and change, instead of leaving the
matter to private initiative? Do you understand that any large percent-
age of youths in the Roman State ever attended any school?

16. Why do older people usually oppose changes in school work manifestly
needed to meet changing national demands?

17. Compare the difficulties met with in learning to read Greek and Latin.
Either and English.

18. How do you account for the much smaller emphasis on literature and
music in the elementary instruction at Rome than at Athens? How for
the much larger emphasis on formal grammar in the secondary schools
at Rome?

19. What subjects of study as we now know them were included in the
Roman study of grammar and rhetoric?

20. How do you explain the greater emphasis placed by the Romans on
secondary education than on elementary education?

21. What particular Roman need did the higher schools of oratory and
rhetoric supply?

8o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

22. What does the exclusive devotion of these schools to such studies indi-
cate as to professional opportunities at Rome?

23. How do you account for the continuance of these schools in favor, and
for the aid and encouragement they received from the later Emperors,
when the very nature of the Empire in large part destroyed the careers
for which they trained?

24. Compare Rome and the United States in their attitudes toward foreign-
born peoples.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

12. The Laws of the Twelve Tables.

13. Cicero: Importance of the Twelve Tables in Education.

14. Schreiber: A Roman Farmer's Calendar.

15. Polybius: The Roman Character.

16. Mommsen: The Grave and Severe Character of the Earlier Romans.

17. Epitaph: The Education of Girls.

18. Marcus Aurelius: The Old Roman Education described.

19. Tacitus: The Old and the New Education contrasted.

20. Suetonius: Attempts to Prohibit the Introduction of Greek Higher
Learning.

{a) Decree of the Roman Senate, 161 B.C.
{h) Decree of the Censor, 92 B.C.

21. Vergil: Difficulty experienced in Learning to Read.

22. Horace: The Education given by a Father.

23. Martial: The Ludi Magister.

{a) To the Master of a Noisy School.
(6) To a Schoolmaster.

24. Cicero: Oratory the Aim of Education.

25. QuintiHan: On Oratory.

26. Constantine: Privileges granted to Physicians and Teachers.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Give reasons why the Laws of the Twelve Tables (12) were considered
of such fundamental importance (13) in the education of the early Roman
boy? How do you explain their being supplanted later by the Latinized
Odyssey?

2. What does the Farmer's Calendar (14) reveal as to the character of
Roman life?

3. Contrast the Roman character (15, 16) with that of the Athenian.

4. Compare the education of a Roman matron, as revealed by the epitaph
(17), with that of a girl in later American colonial times.

5. After reading Marcus Aurelius (18) and Tacitus (19), what is your judg-
ment as to the relative merits of the old and the new education: {a) as a
means of training youths? {h) as adapted to the changed conditions of
Imperial Rome?

6. How do you account for the attempts of the conservative officials of the
State to prohibit the introduction of Greek higher schools (20 a-b)
proving so unsuccessful?

7. Compare the difficulties involved in learning to read Greek (Fig. 6) and
Latin (21). Either and English.

8. What type of higher educational advantages does the selection from

EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME 8 1

Horace (22) indicate as prevailing in Roman cities? Compare with
present-day advanced education.
9. What do Martial's Epigrams to the Roman schoolmasters (23 a-b) indi-
cate as to the nature of the schools, school discipHne, and social status of
the Roman primary teacher?

10. Do the selections from Cicero (24) and Quintilian (25) satisfy you that
oratory was a sufficiently broad idea for the higher education of youths
under the Empire? Why?

11. What does the decree of Constantine (26) indicate as to the social status
of the higher teachers under the Empire?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Abbott, F. F. Society and Politics in Ancient Rome.

* Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.

Anderson, L. F. "Some Facts regarding Vocational Education among
the Greeks and Romans"; in School Review] vol. 20, pp. 191-201.

* Clarke, Geo. Education of Children at Rome.

* Dill, Sam'l. Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire.

* Laurie, S. S. Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Educatiofi.
Mahaffy, J. P. The Silver Age of the Greek World.

Ross, C. F. "The Strength and Weakness of Roman Education"; in

School and Society, vol. 6, pp. 457-63.
Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i.
Thorndike, Lynn. History of Mediceval Europe.
Westermann, W. L. Vocational Training in Antiquity; in School Review,

vol. 22, pp. 601-10.

CHAPTER IV
THE RISE AND CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY

I. THE RISE AND VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY

Religions in the Roman world. As was stated in the preceding
chapter (p. 58), the Roman state reHgion was an outgrowth of
the religion of the home. Just as there had been a number of
fireside deities, who were supposed to preside over the different
activities of the home, so there were many state deities who were
supposed to preside over the different activities of the State. In
addition, the Romans exhibited toward the religions of all other
peoples that same tolerance and willingness to borrow which they
exhibited in so many other matters. Certain Greek deities were
taken over and temples erected to them in Rome, and new deities,
to guard over such functions as health, fortune, peace, concord,
sowing, reaping, etc., were established.^ Extreme tolerance also
was shown toward the special religions of other peoples who had
been brought within the Empire, and certain oriental divinities
had even been admitted and given their place in Rome.

Like many other features of Roman life, their religion was
essentially of a practical nature, dealing with the affairs of every-
day life, and having little or no relation to personal morality.-
It promised no rewards or punishments or hopes for a future life,
but rather, by uniting all citizens in a common reverence and fear
of certain deities, helped to unify the Empire and hold it together.
After the death of Augustus (14 a.d.), the Roman Senate deified
the Emperor and enrolled his name among the gods, and Emperor
worship was added to their ceremonies. This naturally spread
rapidly throughout the Empire, tended to unite all classes in

^ The Farmer's Calendar, given in the accompanying Book of Readings (R. 14),
illustrates very well the gods and sacrifices for one phase of Roman life. Petronius.
in his Satires, says, "Our country is so full of divinities that it is much easier to find
a god than a man."

- "The chief objects of pagan religion were to foretell the future, lo explain the
universe, to avert calamity, and to obtain the assistance of the gods. They con-
tained no instruments of moral teaching analogous to our institution of preaching,
or to the moral preparation for the reception of the sacrament, or to confession, or
to the reading of the Bible, or to religious education, or to united prayer for spiritual
benefits. To make men virtuous was no more the function of the priest than of the
physician." (Lecky, W. F. H., History of European Morals, chap, iv.)

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 83

allegiance to the central government at Rome, and seemed to form
the basis for a universal religion for a universal empire.

Feeling of need for something more. As an educated class
arose in Rome, this mixture of diverse divinities failed to satisfy ;
the Roman religion, made up as it was of state and parental duties
and precautions, lost with them its force; and the religious cere-
monies of the home and the State lost for them their meaning.
The mechanical repetition of prayers and sacrifices made no
appeal to the emotions or to the moral nature of individuals, and
offered no spiritual joy or consolation as to a life beyond. The
educated Greeks before had had this same feeling, and had in-
dulged in much speculation as to the moral nature of man. Many
educated Romans now turned to the Greek philosophers for some
more philosophical explanation of the great mystery of life and
death .

Of all the philosophies developed in the philosophical schools
of Athens, the one that made the deepest appeal to the practical
Roman mind was that of the Stoics, founded by Zeno, 308 B.C.
Virtue, claimed the Stoics, consists in so living that one's life is in
accordance with that Universal Reason which rules the world.
Riches, position, fame, success — these count for but little. He
who trains himself to be above grief, hope, joy, fear, and the ills of
life — be he slave or peasant or king — may be happy because he
is virtuous. Reason, rather than the feelings, is the proper rule
of life. The Stoics also preached the brotherhood of man, and to
a degree expressed a humble reliance on a providence which con-
trolled affairs. This philosophy in a way met the need for a
religion among the better-educated Romans, and made consider-
able headway during the early days of the Empire.^ While serv-
ing as a sort of religion for those capable of embracing it, it was
too intellectual to reach more than a few, and was not adapted to
become a universal religion for all sorts and conditions of men.
What was needed was a new moral philosophy or rehgion that
would touch all mankind. To do this it must appeal to the emo-
tions more than to the intellect. Such a religion was at this time
taking shape and gathering force and strength in a remote corner
of the Empire.

^ Seneca (4-65 a.d.), the tutor of the Emperor Nero, and the Greek freedman
Epictetus (d. 100 a.d.) both expounded Stoicism at Rome during the first Christian
century, and the Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 a.d.) repre-
sents one of the finest expositions of the application of this philosophy to the
problems of human life.

84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Where this new religion arose. Far to the eastern end of the
Mediterranean there had long lived a branch of the Semitic race,
which had developed a national character and made a contribu-
tion of first importance to the religious thought of the world.
These were the Hebrew people who, leaving Egypt about 1500
B.C., in the Exodus, had come to inhabit the land of Canaan,
south of Phoenicia and east and north of Egypt. From a wander-
ing, pastoral people they had gradually changed to a settled,
agricultural people, and had begun the development of a regular
State. Unwilling, however, to bear the burdens of a political
State, and objecting to taxation, a standing army, and forced
labor for the State, the nationality which promised at one time
fell to pieces, and the land was overrun by hostile neighbors and
the people put under the yoke. After a sad and tempestuous
history, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem by the
Romans in 70 A.D., the inhabitants were sold into slavery and
dispersed throughout the Roman Empire.

These people developed no great State, and made no contribu-
tions to government or science or art. Their contribution was
along religious lines, and so magnificent and uplifting is their
religious literature that it is certain to last for all time. Alone
among all eastern people they early evolved the idea of one
omnipotent God. The religion that they developed declared
man to be the child of God, erected personal morality and service
to God as the rule of life, and asserted a life beyond the grave.
It was about these ideas that the whole energy of the people
concentrated, and religion became the central thought of their
lives. This religion, unlike the other religions of the Mediter-
ranean world, emphasized duty to God, service, personal moral-
ity, chastity, honesty, and truth as its essential elements. The
Law of Moses became the law of the land. Woman was elevated
to a new place in the life of the ancient world. ^ Children became
sacred in the eyes of the people. Their literary contribution, the
Old Testament — written by a series of patriarchs, lawgivers,
prophets, and priests — pictures, often in sublime language, the
various migrations, deliverances, calamities, and religious hopes,
aspirations, and experiences of this Chosen People.

The unity of this people. Just before their country was over-
run and they were carried captive to Babylon, in 588 B.C., the

1 See Proverbs, xxxi, for a good statement of the ancient Hebrew ideal of woman-
hood.

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 85

Pentateuch ^ had been reduced to writing and made an authori-
tative code of laws for the people. This served as a bond of
union among them during the exile, and after their return to
Palestine, in 538 B.C., the study and observance of this law became
the most important duty of their lives. The synagogue was
established in every village for its exposition, where twice on
every Sabbath day the people were to gather to hear the law ex-
pounded. A race of Scribes^ or scripture scholars, also arose to
teach the law^, as well as means for educating additional scribes.
They were to interpret the law, and to apply it to the daily lives
of the people. As the law was a combination of religious, cere-
monial, civil, and sanitary law, these scribes became both teach-
ers and judges for the people. In time they became the deposi-
taries of all learning, superseded the priesthood, and became the
leaders (rabbins, whence rabbi) of the people. " The voice of the
rabbi is the voice of God," says the Talmud, a collection of
Hebrew customs and traditions, with comments and interpreta-
tions, written by the rabbis after 70 B.C. By most Jews this is
held to be next in sacredness to the Old Testament (R. 27).

Realizing, after the return from captivity, that the future
existence of the Hebrew people would depend, not upon their
military strength, but upon their moral unity, and that this must
be based upon the careful training of each child in the traditions
of his fathers, the leaders of the people began the evolution of a
religious school system to meet the national need. Realizing,
too, that parents could not be depended upon in all cases to pro-
vide this instruction, the leaders provided it and made it com-
pulsory. Great open-air Bible classes were organized at first,
and these were gradually extended to all the villages of the coun-
try. Elementary schools were developed later and attached to
the synagogues, and finally, in 64 a.d., the high priest, Joshua ben
Gamala, ordered the establishment of an elementary school in
every village, made attendance compulsory for all male children,
and provided for a combined type of religious and household
instruction at home for all girls. Reading, writing, counting, the
history of the Chosen People, the poetry of the Psalms, the Law
of the Pentateuch, and a part of the Talmud constituted the
subject-matter of instruction. The instruction was largely oral,

^ This collective term is applied to the first five books of the Old Testament, and
includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These five books
form a wonderful collection of the historical and legal material relating to the wan-
derings and experiences and practices of the people.

86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and learning by heart was the common teaching plan. The child
was taught the Law of his fathers, trained to make hoHness a rule
of his life and to subordinate his will to that of the one God, and
commanded to revere his teachers (R. 27) and uphold the tradi-
tions of his people.

After the destruction of Jerusalem (70 a.d.) and the scatter-
ment of the people, the school instruction was naturally more or
less disrupted, but in one way or another the Hebrew people have
ever since managed to keep up the training of rabbis and the
instruction of the young in the Law and the traditions of their
people, and as a consequence of this instruction we have to-day
the interesting result of a homogeneous people who, for over
eighteen centuries, have had no national existence, and who have
been scattered and persecuted as have no other people. History
offers us no better example of the salvation of a people by means
of the compulsory education of all.

The new Christian faith. It was into this Hebrew race that
Jesus was born,^ and there he lived, learned, taught, made his
disciples, and was crucified. Building on the old Hebrew moral
law and the importance of the personal life, Jesus made his appeal
to the individual, and sought the moral regeneration of society
through the moral regeneration of individual men and women.
This idea of individuality and of personal souls worth saving was
a new idea in a world where the submergence of the individual
in the State had everywhere up to that time been the rule. Even
the Hebrews, in their great desire to perpetuate their race and
faith, had suppressed and absorbed the individual in their religious
State. The teachings of Jesus, on the other hand, with their
ehiphasis on charity, sympathy, self-sacrifice, and the brother-
hood of all men, tended to obliterate nationality, while the
emphasis they gave to the future life, for which life here was but
a preparation, tended to subordinate the interests of the State
and withdraw the concern of men from worldly affairs. In a
series of simple sermons, Jesus set forth the basis of this new faith
which he, and after him his disciples, offered to the world.

At the time of his crucifixion his disciples numbered scarcely
one hundred persons. For some years after his death his disciples

* Chapter i of the Gospel according to Saint Matthew gives, in detail (1-16), the
genealogy of Jesus, concluding with the following verse:

"17. So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations;
and from David until the carrying away into Babylon are fourteen generations;
and from the carrying away into Babylon unto Christ are fourteen generations."

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 87

remained in Jerusalem, preaching that he was the Messiah or
Christ, whom the Hebrew people had long expected, and making
converts to the idea. Later in Samaria, Damascus, and Antioch
they made additional converts among the Jews. Up to this point
the Christians had been careful to keep up all the old Jewish
customs, and it was even doubted at first whether any but Jews
could properly be admitted to the new faith. A new convert,
Saul of Tarsus, a Jew who had studied in the Greek university
there and who afterwards became the Apostle Paul, did much to
open the new faith to the Gentiles, as the men of other nations
were known. Speaking Greek, and being versed in Greek phi-
losophy, and especially Stoicism, he gave thirty years of most
effective service to the establishment of Christian churches ^ in
Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece (R. 29), and Italy (R. 28). His
work was so important that he has often been called the, second
founder of the Christian Church.

The challenge of Christianity. Into a Roman world that had
already passed the zenith of its greatness came this new Christian
faith, challenging almost everything for which the Roman world
had stood. In place of Roman citizenship and service to the
State as the purpose of life, the Christians set up the importance
of the life to come. Instead of pleasure and happiness and the
satisfaction of the senses as personal ends, the Christians preached
denial of all these things for the greater joy of a future life. In
a society built on a huge basis of slavery and filled with social
classes, the Christians proclaimed the equality of all men before
God. To a nation in which family life had become corrupt,
infidelity and divorce common, and infanticide a prevailing prac-
tice, the Christians proclaimed the sacredness of the marriage tie
and the family Hfe, and the exposure of infants as simple murder.
In place of the subjection of the individual to the State, the
Christians demanded the subjection of the individual only to God.
In place of a union of State and religion, the Christians demanded
the complete separation of the two and the subordination of the
State to the Church. Unlike all other religions that Rome had
absorbed, the Christians refused to be accepted on any other
than exclusive terms. The worship of all other gods the Chris-
tians held to be sinful idol- worship, a deadly sin in the eyes of God,

^ To many of these churches he wrote a series of epistles. These constitute a
little more than one fourth of the New Testament. See accompanying Book of
Readings (or Romans, i, 1-17) for the introductory part of Paul's Epistle to the
Romans.

88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and they were willing to give up their lives rather than perform
the simplest rite of what they termed pagan worship (R. 28) . To
the deified Emperor the Christians naturally could not bend the
knee (Rs. 30 b, 31 a-b, 34).

At first the new faith attracted but little attention from any-
body of education or influence. Its converts were few during the
first century, and these largely from among the lowest social
classes in the Empire. Workmen and slaves, and women rather
than men, constituted the large majority of the early converts
to the new faith. The character of its missionaries ^ also was
against it, and its challenge of almost all that characterized the
higher social and governmental life of Rome was certain to make
its progress difficult, and in time to awaken powerful opposition ^
to it. Yet, notwithstanding all these obstacles, its progress was
relatively rapid.

The victory of Christianity. By the close of the first century
there were Christian churches throughout most of Judea and
Asia Minor, and in parts of Greece and Macedonia. During the
second century other churches were established in Asia Minor,
in Greece, and along the Black Sea, and at a few places in Italy
and France; and before four centuries had elapsed from the cruci-
fixion Christian churches had been established throughout almost
all the Roman world. This is well shown by the map on the oppo-
site page. The message of hope that Christianity had to offer to
all; the simplicity of its organization and teachings; the great
appeal which it made to the emotional side of human life; the hope
of a future life of reward for the burdens of this which it extended
to all who were weary and heavy laden ; the positiveness of con
viction of its apostles and followers; and the completeness with
which it satisfied the religious need and longings of the time, first
among the poor and among women and later among educated
men — all helped the new faith to win its way. The unity in
government that Rome had everywhere established; ^ the Roman

^ "Its missionaries were Jews, a turbulent race, not to be assimilated, and as
much despised and hated by pagan Rome as by the mediaeval Christians. Wherever
it attracted any notice, therefore, it seems to have been regarded as some rebel fac-
tion of the Jews, gone mad upon some obscure point of the national superstition
— an outcast sect of an outcast race." (Adams, G. B., Civilization during the
Middle Ages, p. 39.)

2 "Starting from an insignificant province, from a despised race, proclaimed by
a mere handful of ignorant workmen, demanding self-control and renunciation be-
fore unheard of, certain to arouse in time powerful enemies in the highly cultivated
and critical society which it attacked, the odds against it were tremendous." {Ibid.,
p. 41.)

3 "It is not easy to imagine how, in the face of an Asia Minor, a Greece, an Italy

Fig. 27. The Growth of Christianity to the End of the Fourth

Century

90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

peace {pax Romano) that Rome had everywhere imposed; the
spread of the Greek and Latin languages and ideas throughout
the Mediterranean world; the right of freedom of travel and
speech enjoyed by a Roman citizen, and of which Saint Paul and
others on their travels took advantage; ^ the scatterment of Jews
throughout the Empire, after the destruction of Jerusalem in
70 A.D. — all these elements also helped.

That Christianity made its headway unmolested must not be
supposed. While at first the tendency of educated Romans and
of the government was to ignore or tolerate it, its challenge was so
direct and provocative that this attitude could not long continue.
Under the Emperor Claudius (41-54 a.d.) "all the Jews who were
continually making disturbances at the instigation of one Chres
tus" were unsuccessfully ordered banished from Rome. In the
reign of the Emperor Nero, in 64 a.d., many horrible tortures
were inflicted on this as yet small sect. It was not, however, till
later, when the continued refusal of the Christians to offer sacri-
fices to the Emperor brought them under the law as disloyal
(R. 30 a) subjects, that they began to be much punished for their
faith (R. 31 a-b). The times were bad and were going from bad
to worse, and the feelings of many were that the adverse condi-
tions in the Empire — war, famine, floods, pestilence, and bar-
barian inroads — were due to the neglect of the old state religion
and to the tolerance extended the vast organized defiance of the
law by the Christians. In the first century they had been largely
ignored. In the second, in some places, they were punished. In
the third century, impelled by the calamities of the State and the
urging of those who would restore the national religion to its
earlier position, the Emperors were gradually driven to a series
of heavy persecutions of the sect (R. 30 a). But it had now be-
come too late. The blood of the martyrs proved to be the seed
of the Church (R. 35). The last great persecution under the
Emperor Diocletian, in 303 (R. 33), ended in virtual failure. In
311 the Emperor Galerius placed Christianity on a plane of

split up into a hundred small republics; of a Gaul, a Spain, an Africa, an Egypt, in
possession of their old national institutions, the apostles could have succeeded, or
even how their project could have been started. The unity of the Empire was a
condition precedent of all religious proselytism on a grand scale if it was to place
itself above the nationalities." (Renan, E., Hibbert Lectures, 18S0; Influence of
Rome on the Christian Church.)

^ In Acts XXV, 1-12, it is recorded that the Apostle Paul, accused by the Jews
and virtually on trial for his life before the provincial governor Festus, fell back on
his Roman citizenship and successfully "appealed to Cassar." (See footnote 3, page
57.)

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 91

equality with other forms of worship (R. 36). In 313 Constan-
tine made it in part the official religion of the State, ^ and ordered
freedom of worship for all. He and succeeding Emperors gradu-
ally extended to the Christian clergy a long list of important
privileges (R. 38) and exemptions,^ analogous to those formerly
enjoyed by the teachers of rhetoric under the Empire (R. 26),
and likewise began the policy, so liberally followed later, of en-
dowing the Church. In 391 the Emperor Theodosius forbade all
pagan worship, thus making the victory of Christianity complete.
In less than four centuries from the birth of its founder the
Christian faith had won control of the great Empire in which it
originated. In 529 the Emperor Justinian ordered the closing of
all pagan schools, and the University of Athens, which had re-
mained the center of pagan thought after the success of Christian-
ity, closed its doors. The victory was now complete.

The contribution of Christianity. We have now before us the
third great contribution upon which our modern civilization has
been built. To the great contributions of Greece and Rome,
which we have previously studied, there now was added, and
added at a most opportune time, the contribution of Christianity.
In taking the Jewish idea of one God and freeing it from the nar-
row tribal limitations to which it had before been subject, Chris-
tianity made possible its general acceptance, first in the Roman
world, and later in the Mohammedan world. ^ With this was
introduced the doctrine of the fatherhood of God and his love for
man, the equality before God of all men and of the two sexes, and
the sacredness of each individual in the eyes of the Father. An
entirely new conception of the individual was proclaimed to the
world, and an entirely new ethical code was promulgated. The
duty of all to make their lives conform to these new conceptions
was asserted. These ideas imparted to ancient society a new

^ "The miracle of miracles, greater than dried-up seas and cloven rocks, greater
than the dead rising again to life, was when the Augustus on his throne, Pontiff
of the gods of Rome, himself a god to the subjects of Rome, bent himself to become
the worshiper of a crucified provincial of his Empire." (Freeman, E. A., Periods
of European History, p. 67.)

^ In 319 and 326 the clergy were exempted from all public burdens, and only the
poor were to be admitted to the clergy. In 343 the clergy were exempted "from
public burdens and from every disquietude of civil office." In 377 all clergy were
exempted from personal taxes. (See R. 38.)

^ From the Roman world the idea has spread, through the Greek Catholic Church,
to Greece, parts of the Balkans, and Russia; through the Roman Catholic Church
to all western Europe and the two Americas; and through the Protestant churches
which sprang fropi the Roman Catholic by secession, and the Mohammedan faith,
to include almost all the world. Only among uncivilized tribes and in Asia do we
find any great number of fundamentally different religious conceptions.

92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

hopefulness and a new energy which were not only of great
importance in dealing with the downfall of civilization and the
deluge of barbarism which were impending, but which have been
of prime importance during all succeeding centuries. In time the
church organization which was developed gradually absorbed all
other forms of government, and became virtually the State during
the long period of darkness known as the Middle Ages.

It remains now to sketch briefly how the Church organized
itself and becam.e powerful enough to perform its great task dur-
ing the Middle Ages, what educational agencies it developed, and
to what extent these were useful.

II. EDUCATIONAL AND GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF
THE EARLY CHURCH

Schooling of the early Church; catechumenal instruction. The

early churches were bound together by no formal bond of union,
and felt little need for such. It was the belief of many that
Christ would soon return and the world would end, hence there
was little necessity for organization. There was also almost no
system of belief. An acknowledgment of God as the Father, a
repentance for past sins, a godly life, and a desire to be saved were
about all that was expected of any one.^ The chief concern was
the moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration
of converts. To accomplish this, in face of the practices of
Roman society, a process of instruction and a period of probation
for those wishing to join the faith soon became necessary. Jews,
pagans, and the children of believers were thereafter alike sub-
jected to this before full acceptance into the Church. At stated
times during the week the probationers met for instruction in
morality and in the psalmody of the Church (R. 39). These two
subjects constituted almost the entire instruction, the period
of probation covering two or three years. The teachers were
merely the older and abler members of the congregation.

This personal instruction became common everywhere in the
early Church, and the training was known as catechumenal, that
is, rudimentary, instruction. Two sets of catechumenal lectures
have survived, which give an idea as to the nature of the instruc-
tion. They cover the essentials of church practice and the reh-

^ Paul to the Romans (x, 9) stated the fundamentals of belief as follows: "If
thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt believe in thine heart
that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be saved."

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 93

gious life (Rs. 39, 40). It was dropped entirely in the conversion
of the barbarian tribes. This instruction, and the preaching of
the elders (presbyters, who later evolved into priests), constituted
the formal schooling of the early converts to Christianity in Italy
and the East. Such instruction was never known in England, and
but little in Gaul.

The life in the Church made a moral and emotional, rather than
an intellectual appeal. In fact the early Christians felt but httle
need for the type of intellectual education provided by the
Roman schools, and the character of the educated society about
them, as they saw it, did not make them wish for the so-called
pagan learning. Even if the parents of converts wished to pro-
vide additional educational advantages for their children, what
could they do? A modern author states well the predicament of
such Christian parents, when he says:

All the schools were pagan. Not only were all the ceremonies of the
official faith — and more especially the festivals of Minerva, who was
the patroness of masters and pupils — celebrated at regular intervals
in the schools, but the children were taught reading out of books
saturated with the old mythology. There the Christian child made
his first acquaintance with the deities of Olympus. He ran the danger
of imbibing ideas entirely contrary to those which he had received at
home. The fables he had learned to detest in his own home were
explained, elucidated, and held up to his admiration every day by his
masters. Was it right to put him thus into two schools of thought?
What could be done that he might be educated, like every one else,
and yet not run the risk of losing his faith? ^

Catechetical schools. After Christianity had begun to make
converts among the more serious-minded and better-educated
citizens of the Roman Empire, the need for more than rudimen-
tary instruction in the principles of the church life began to be
felt. Especially was this the case in the places where Christian
workers came in contact with the best scholars of the Hellenic
learning, and particularly at Alexandria, Athens, and the cities
of Asia Minor. The speculative Greek would not be satisfied
with the simple, unorganized faith of the early Christians. He
wanted to understand it as a system of thought, and asked many
questions that were hard to answer. To meet the critical inquiry
of learned Greeks, it became desirable that the clergy of the
Church, in the East at least, should be equipped with a training
similar to that of their critics. As a result there was finally

^ M. Boissier. La Fin du Paganlsme, vol. i, p. 200.

94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

evolved, first at Alexandria, and later at other places in the
Empire, training schools for the leaders of the Church.

These came to be known as catechetical schools, from their oral
questioning method of instruction, and this term was later applied
to elementary religious instruction (whence catechism) throughout
western Europe. Pantaeus, a converted Greek Stoic, who became
head of the catechumenal instruction at Alexandria, in 179 a.d.,
brought to the training of future Christian leaders the strength
of Greek learning and Greek philosophic thought. He and his
successors, Clement and Origen, developed here an important
school of Christian theology where Greek learning was used to
interpret the Scriptures and train leaders for the service of the
Church. Similar schools were opened at Antioch, Edessa, Nisi-
bis, and Caesarea (See Map, p. 47), and these developed into a
rudimentary form of theological schools for the education of the
eastern Christian clergy. In these schools Christian faith and
doctrine were formulated into a sort of system, the whole being
tinctured through and through with Greek philosophic thought.
Out of these schools came some of the great Fathers of the early
Church ; men who strove to uphold the pagan learning and recon-
cile Christianity and Greek philosophic thinking.^

Rejection of pagan learning in the West. In the West, where
the leaders of the Church came from the less philosophic and
more practical Roman stock, and where the contact with a deca-
dent society wakened a greater reaction, the tendency was to
reject the Hellenic learning, and to depend more upon emotional
faith and the enforcement of a moral life. By the close of the
third century the hostility to the pagan schools and to the Hel-
lenic learning had here become pronounced (R. 41). Even the
Fathers of the Latin Church, the greatest of whom had been

' Justin Martyr (io5?-i67), a former Greek teacher and philosopher, continued
to follow his profession, wear his Greek philosopher's garb, and held that the teach-
ings of Christianity were already contained in Greek philosophy, and that Plato
and Socrates were Christians before the coming of the Christian faith.

Clement (c. i6o-c. 215), the successor of Pantaeus as head of the catechetical
school at Alexandria, held to the harmony of the Gospels with philosophy, and that
"Plato was Moses Atticized."

Origen (c. 185-c. 254), a pupil and successor of Clement, and the most learned of
all the eaxXy Christian Fathers, labored to harmonize the Christian faith with Greek
learning and philosophy, and did much to formulate the dogmas of the early Church.

Saint Basil (331-379) tried to allay the rising prejudice against pagan learning,
and to show the helpfulness to the Christian life of the Greek Hterature and phi-
losophy.

Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 330-c. 390) was filled with indignation and protested
loudly at the closing of the pagan schools to Christians by the edict of the Emperor
JuUan, in 362,

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 95

teachers of oratory or rhetoric in Roman schools before their
conversion/ gradually came to reject the pagan learning as unde-
sirable for Christians and in a large degree as a robbery from God.
Saint Augustine, in his Confessions, hopes that God may forgive
him for having enjoyed Vergil. Jerome's dream ^ was known and
quoted throughout the Middle Ages. Tertullian, in his Prescrip-
tion against Heresies, exclaims:

What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is
there between the Academy and the Church? What between heretics
and Christians? . . . Away with all attempts to produce a mottled
Christianity of Stoic, Platonic, and dialectic composition.

Gregory the Great, Pope of the Church from 590 to 604, and
who had been well educated as a youth in the surviving Roman -
type schools, turned bitterly against the whole of pagan learning.
'T am strongly of the opinion," he says, ''that it is an indignity
that the words of the oracle of Heaven should be restrained by
the rules of Donatus" (grammar). In a letter to the Bishop of
Vienne he berates him for giving instruction in grammar, con-
cluding with — "the praise of Christ cannot lie in one mouth
with the praise of Jupiter. Consider yourself what a crime it is
for bishops to recite what would be improper for religiously-
minded laymen."

As a result Hellenic learning declined rapidly in importance in
the West as the Church attained supremacy, and finally, in 401,
the Council of Carthage, largely at the instigation of Saint Augus-
tine, forbade the clergy to read any pagan author. In time
Greek learning largely died out in the West, and was for a time
almost entirely lost. Even the Greek language was forgotten,
and was not known again in the West for nearly a thousand
years. ^

The Church perfects a strong organization. As was previously
stated (p. 92), but little need was felt during the first two centu-

1 Tertnllian (c. 150-230) had been well educated in Greek literature and phi-
losophy, and had attained distinction as a lawyer. Samt Jerome (c. 340-420) was
saturated with pagan learning, but later advised against it. Saint Augustine (354-
430) , the master mind among the Latin Fathers, was for years a teacher of oratory
and rhetoric in Roman schools, and had written part of an encyclopaedia on the
liberal arts before his conversion. Many others who became prominent in the
Western Church had in their earher Hfe been teachers in the Roman higher schools.

2 Dreaming that he had died and gone to Heaven, he was asked, "Who art thou? "
On replying, "A Christian," he heard the awful judgment, "It is false: thou art no
Christian; thou art a Ciceronian; where the treasure is, there the heart is also."

^ The knowledge of Greek remained alive longer in Ireland than anywhere else in
the western world, being known there as late as the seventh century. Greek was
also preserved in parts of Spain for two centuries after it had died out in Italy.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ries for a system of belief or church government. As the expected
return of Christ did not take place, and as the need for a formula-
tion of belief and a system of government began to be felt, the
next step was the development of these features. The system
of belief and the ceremonials of worship finally evolved are more
the products of Greek thought and practices of the East, while
the form of organization and government is derived more from
Roman sources. In the second century the Old Testament was
translated into Greek at Alexandria, and the "Apostles' Creed"
was formulated. During the third century the writings deemed
sacred were organized into the New Testament, also in Greek.
In 325 the first General Council of the Church was held at Nicjea,
in Asia Minor. It formulated the Nicene Creed (R. 42), and
twenty canons or laws for the government of the Church. A
second General Council, held at Constantinople
in 381, revised the Nicene Creed and adopted
additional canons.

The great organizing genius of the western
branch of the Church was Saint Augustine (354-
430). He gave to the Western or Latin Church,
then beginning to take on its separate existence,
the body of doctrine needed to enable it to put
into shape the things for which it stood. The
system of theology evolved before the separation
of the eastern and western branches of the Church
was not so finished and so finely speculative as
that of the Greek branch, but was more prac-
tical, more clearly legal, and more systematically
organized.

The influence of Rome was strong also in the
organization of the system of government finally
adopted for the Church. There being no other
model, the Roman governmental system was
copied. The bishop of a city corresponded to the
Roman municipal officials; the archbishop of a
territory to the governor of a province; and the patriarch to the
ruler of a division of the Empire. As Rome had been a uni-
versal Empire, and as the city of Rome had been the chief gov-
erning city,^ the idea of a universal Church was natural and the

^ In the West there was no other great city than Rome. At the period of its
maximum greatness, in the first century B.C., it was a city of approximately 450,000
people.

Fig. 28.
A Bishop

Seventh Century

(Santo Venanzio,

Rome)

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 97

supremacy of the Bishop of Rome was gradually asserted and
determined.^

A State within a State. There was thus developed in the West,
as it were a State within a State. That is, within the Roman
Empire, with its Emperor, provincial governors, and municipal
officials, governing the people and drawing their power from the
Roman Senate and imperial authority, there was also gradually
developed another State, consisting of those who had accepted
the Christian faith, and who rendered their chief allegiance,
through priest, bishop, and archbishop, to a central head of the
Church who owed allegiance to no earthly ruler. That Christian-
ity, viewed from the governmental point of view, was a serious
element of weakness in the Roman State and helped its downfall,
there can be no question. In the eastern part of the Empire the
Church was always much more closely identified with the State.
Fortunately for civilization, before the Roman Empire had fallen
and the impending barbarian deluge had descended, the Christian
Church had succeeded in formulating a unifying belief and a form
of government capable of commanding respect and of enforcing
authority, and was fast taking over the power of the State itself.

The cathedral or episcopal schools. The first churches through-
out the Empire were in the cities, and made their early converts
there. ^ Gradually these important cities evolved into the resi-
dences of a supervising priest or bishop, the territory became
known as a bishopric, and the church as a cathedral church. In
time, also, some of the outlying territory was organized into par-
ishes, and churches were established in these. These were made
tributary to and placed under the direction of the bishop of the
large central city. To supply clergy for these outlying parishes
came to be one of the functions of the bishop, and, to insure prop-
erly trained clergy and to provide for promotions in the clerical
ranks, schools of a rudimentary type were established in connec-
tion with the cathedral churches. These came to be known as
cathedral, or episcopal schools. At first they were probably under
the immediate charge of the bishop, but later, as his functions

1 After many struggles and conflicts between the Bishops of Constantinople,
Alexandria, and Rome, the Bishop of Rome was finally recognized by the second
great Church Council, held at Constantinople in 381, as the head of the entire
Church (Canon 3), corresponding to the Emperor on the political side of the dying
Empire. The separation of the eastern and western churches was rapid after this
time. (See Map, p. 103.)

2 The word pagan as applied to unbeliever illustrates this progress of the Church,
being derived from the Latin paganus, meaning countryman, villager, rustic.

98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

increased, the school was placed under a special teacher, known
as a Scholasticus, or Magister Scholarum, who directed the cathe-
dral school, assisted the bishop, and trained the future clergy.
As the pagan secondary schools died out, these cathedral schools,
together with the monastic schools which were later founded,
gradually replaced the pagan schools as the important educational
institutions of the western world. In these two types of schools
the religious leaders of the early Middle Ages were trained.

The monastic organization. In the early days of Christianity,
it will be remembered (p. 87), the Christian convert held himself
apart from the wicked world all about him, and had little to do
with the society or the government of his time. He regarded the
Church as having no relationship to the State. As the Church
grew stronger, however, and became a State within a State, the
Christian took a larger and larger part in the world around him,
and in time came to be distinguished from other men by his pro-
fession of the Christian religion rather than by any other mark.
Many of the early bishops were men of great political sagacity,
fully capable of realizing to the full the political opportunities,
afforded by their position, to strengthen the power of the Church.
It was the work of men of this type that created the temporal
power of the Church, and made of it an institution capable of
commanding respect and enforcing its decisions.

To some of the early Christians this life did not appeal. To
them holiness was associated with a complete withdrawal from
contact with this sinful world and all its activities. Some betook
themselves to the desert, others to the forests or mountains, and
others shut themselves up alone that they might be undisturbed
in their religious meditations. To such devoted souls monasti-
cism, a scheme of living brought into the Christian world from
the East, made a strong appeal. It provided that such men
should live together in brotherhoods, renouncing the world, taking
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and devoting their
lives to hard labor and the mortification of the flesh that the soul
might be exalted and made beautiful. The members lived alone
in individual cells, but came together for meals, prayer, and
religious service.

As early as 330 a monastery had been organized on the island
of Tebernae, in the Nile. About 350 Saint Basil introduced mo-
nasticism into Asia Minor, where it flourished greatly. In 370 the
Basilian order was founded. The monastic idea was soon trans-

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY

ferred to the West, a monastery being established at Rome prob-
ably as early as 340. The monastery of Saint Victor, at Mar-
seilles, was founded by Cassian in 404, and this type of monastery
and monastic rule was introduced into Gaul, about 415. The
monastery of Lerins (off Cannes, in southern France) was estab-
Hshed in 405. During the fifth century a rapid extension of mo-
nastic foundations took place in western Europe, particularly along

Fig, 29. A Benedictine Monk, Abbot, and Abbess
(From a thirteenth-century manuscript)

the valleys of the Rhone and the Loire in Gaul. In 529 Saint
Benedict, a Roman of wealth who fled from the corruption of his
city, founded the monastery of Monte Cassino, south of Rome,
and established a form of government, or rule of daily life, which
was gradually adopted by nearly all the monasteries of the West.
In time Europe came to be dotted with thousands of these estab-
lishments, many of which were large and expensive institutions
both to found and to maintain.^ By the time the barbarian inva-
sions were in full swing monasticism had become an established
institution of the Christian Church. Nunneries for women also
were established early. A letter from Saint Jerome to Marcella,
a Roman matron, in 382, in which he says that " no high-born lady
at Rome had made profession of the monastic life ... or had
ventured . . . publicly to call herself a nun," would seem to imply
that such institutions had already been established in Rome.

^ See the accompanying Book of Readings for a drawing and detailed explanation
of the monastery of Saint Gall, in Switzerland (R. 69). This was one of the most
important monasteries of the Middle Ages.

100 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Monastic schools. Poverty, chastity, obedience, labor, and
religious devotion were the essential features of a monastic life.
The Rule of Saint Benedict (R. 43) organized in a practical way
the efforts of those who took the vows. In a series of seventy-
three rules which he laid down, covering all phases of monastic
life, the most important from the standpoint of posterity was the
forty-eighth, prescribing at least seven hours of daily labor and two
hours of reading "for all able to bear the load." From that part
of the rule requiring regular manual labor the monks became the
most expert farmers and craftsmen of the early Middle Ages, while
to the requirement of daily reading we owe in large part the devel-
opment of the school and the preservation of learning in the West
during the long intellectual night of the mediaeval period (R. 44).

Into these monastic institutions the oblati, that is, those who
wished to become monks, were received as early as the age of
twelve, and occasionally earlier (R. 53 a) . The final vows (R. 53 b)
could not be taken until eighteen, so during this period the novice
was taught to work and to read and write, given instruction in
church music, and taught to calculate the church festivals and
to do simple reckoning. In time some condensed and carefully
edited compendium of the elements of classical learning was also
studied, and still later a more elaborate type of instruction was
developed in some of the monasteries. This, however, belongs
to a later division of this history, and further description of
church and monastic education will be deferred until we study
the intellectual life of the Middle Ages.

The education of girls. Aside from the general instruction in
the practices of the church and home instruction in the work of a
woman, there was but little provision made for the education of
girls not desiring to join a convent or nunnery. A few, however,
obtained a limited amount of intellectual training. The letter of
Saint Jerome to the Roman lady Paula (R. 45), regarding the
education of her daughter, is a very important document in the
history of early Christian education for girls. Dating from 403, it
outlines the type of training a young girl should be given who
was to be properly educated in Christian faith and properly con-
secrated to God. What he outlined was education for nunneries,
a number of which had been founded in the East and a few in the
West. In the West these institutions later experienced an exten-
sive development, and offered the chief opportunity for any intel-
lectual education for women during the whole of the Middle Ages.

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY loi

III. WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES STARTED WITH

What the Church brought to the Middle Ages. From a small
and purely spiritual organization, devoting its energies to exhorta-
tion and to the moral regeneration of mankind, and without creed
or form of government, as the Christian Church was in the first
two centuries of its development, we have traced the organization
of a body of doctrine, the perfection of a strong system of church
government, and the development of a very limited educational
system designed merely to train leaders for its service. We have
also shown how it added to its early ecclesiastical organization a
strong governmental organization, became a State within a State,
and gradually came to direct the State itself. It was thus ready,
when the virtual separation of the Roman Empire into an eastern
and western division took place, in 395, and when the western
division finally fell before the barbarian onslaughts, to take up
in a way the work of the State, force the barbarian hordes to
acknowledge its power, and begin the process of civilizing these
new tribes and building up once more a civilization in the western
world. In addition to its spiritual and political power, the Church
also had developed, in its catechumenal instruction and in the
cathedral and monastic schools, a very meager form of an educa-
tional system for the training of its future leaders and servants.
A great change had now taken place in the nature of education as
a preparation for life, and intellectual education, in the sense that
it was known and understood in Greece and Rome, was not to be
known again in the western world for almost a thousand years.
The distinguishing characteristic of the centuries which follow,
up to the Revival of Learning, are, first, a struggle against very
adverse odds to prevent civilization from disappearing entirely,
and later a struggle to build up new foundations upon which world
civilization might begin once more where it had left off in Greece
and Rome.

The three great contributions from the ancient world. Thus,
before the Middle Ages began, the three great contributions of
the ancient world which were to form the. foundations of our
future western civilization had been made. Greece gave the
world an art and a philosophy and a literature of great charm and
beauty, the most advanced intellectual and aesthetic ideas that
civilization has inherited, and developed an educational system
of wonderful effectiveness — one that in its higher development

I02 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

in time took captive the entire Mediterranean world and pro-
foundly modified all later thinking. Rome was the organizing
and legal genius of the ancient world, as Greece was the literary
and philosophical. To Rome we are especially indebted for our
conceptions of law, order, and government, and for the abiHty
to make practical and carry into effect the ideals of other peoples.
To the Hebrews we are indebted for the world's loftiest concep-
tions of God, religious faith, and moral responsibility, and to
Christianity and the Church we are indebted for making these
ideas universal in the Roman Empire and forcing them on a
barbaric world.

All these great foundations of our western civilization have not
come down to us directly. The hostility to pagan learning that
developed on the part of the Latin Fathers; the establishment of
an eastern capital for the Empire at Constantinople, in 328; the
virtual division of the Empire into an East and West, in 395 ; and
the final division of the Christian Church into a Western Latin
and an Eastern Greek Church, which was gradually effected,
finally drove Greek philosophy and learning and the Greek lan-
guage from the western world. Greek was not to be known again
in the West for hundreds of years. Fortunately the Eastern
Church was more tolerant of pagan learning than was the West-
ern, and was better able to withstand conquest by barbarian
tribes. In consequence what the Greeks had done was preserved
at Constantinople until Europe had once more become sufficiently
civilized and tolerant to understand and appreciate it. Hellenic
learning was then handed back to western Europe, first through
the medium of the Saracens, and then in that great Revival of
Learning which we know as the Renaissance. Of the Latin liter-
ature and learning much was lost, and much was preserved almost
by accident in the monasteries of mediaeval Europe. Even the
Church itself was seriously deflected from its earlier purpose and
teachings during the long period of barbarism and general igno-
rance through which it passed, and only in modern times has it
tried to come back to the spirit of the teachings of its founder.

The future story. For the long period of intellectual stagnation
which now followed, the educational story is briefly told. But
little formal education was needed, and that of but one main type.
It was only after the Church had won its victory over the bar-
barian hordes, and had built up the foundations upon which a
new civilization could be developed, that education in any broad

Fig. 30. Showing the Final Division of the Empire and the Church

The map also shows conditions as they were in Europe at the end of the fourth
century a.d. Syria, Egypt, Africa, and a portion of Asia Minor were overwhelmed
by the Saracens in the seventh century and became Mohammedan, but Constanti-
nople held out until 1453. The eastern division eventually gave rise to the Greek
Catholic Church of Greece, the Balkans, and Russia, while the western division
became the Roman Catholic Church of western Europe. At Constantinople Greek
learning was preserved until the West was again ready to receive it. The Eastern
Empire for a time retained control of Sicily and southern Italy (the old Magna
Grcpcia), but eventually these were absorbed by western or Latin Christianity.

104 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and liberal sense was again needed. This required nearly a thou-
sand years of laborious and painful effort. Then, when schools
again became possible and learning again began to be demanded,
education had to begin again with the few at the top, and the
contributions of Greece and Rome had to be recovered and put
into usable form as a basis upon which to build. It is only
very recently that it has become possible to extend education to
all.

In Part II we shall next trace briefly the intellectual life of the
Middle Ages, and the reawakening, and in Part III we shall,
among other things, point out the deep and lasting influence of
the work of these ancient civilizations on our modern educa-
tional thoughts and practices.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Point out the many advantages of a universal religion for such a univer-
sal Empire as Rome developed, and the advantages of Emperor worship
for such an Empire.

2. What do modern nations have that is much akin to Emperor worship?

3. Explain why Stoicism made such an appeal to the better-educated
classes at Rome.

4. Why is an emotional faith better adapted to the mass of people than an
intellectual one?

5. Explain how the Hebrew scribes, administering such a mixed body of
laws, naturally came to be both teachers and judges for the people.

6. Illustrate how the Hebrew tradition that the moral and spiritual unity
of a people is stronger than armed force has been shown to be true in
history.

7. What great lessons may we draw from the work of the Hebrews in main-
taining a national unity through compulsory education?

8. Why was Jesus' idea as to the importance of the individual destined to
make such slow headway in the world? What is the status of the idea
to-day (a) in China? (b) in Germany? (c) in England? (d) in the
United States? Is the idea necessarily opposed to nationality or even
to a strong state government?

9. Show how the political Church, itself the State, was the natural outcome
during the Middle Ages of the teachings of the early Christians as to the
relationship of Church and State.

10. Is it to be wondered that the Romans were finall}^ led to persecute "the
vast organized defiance of law by the Christians"?

11. Show how the Christian idea of the equality and responsibility of all
gave the citizen a new place in the State.

12. State the reasons for the gradually increasing lack of sympathy and
understanding between the eastern and western Fathers of the Church,
and which finally led to the division of the Church.

13. Explain what is meant by "a State within a State" as applied to the
Church of the third and fourth centuries. Did this prove to be a good
thing for the future of civilization? Why?

14. Would Rome probably have been better able to withstand the barbarian
invasions if Christianity had not arisen, or not? Wh} ?

CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY 105

15. Show how the Christian attitude toward pagan learning tended to stop
schools and destroy the accumulated learning.

16. What was the effect of the Christian attitude toward the care of the body,
on scientific and medical knowledge, and on education? Was the Chris-
tian or the pagan attitude more nearly Hke that of modern times?

17. Why did the emphasis on form of behef, in the third and fourth centuries,
come to supersede the emphasis on personal virtues and simple faith of
the first and second centuries?

18. Compare the work of the Sunday School of to-day with the catechumenal
instruction of the early Christians.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

27. The Talmud: Educational Maxims from.

28. Saint Paul: Epistle to the Romans.

29. Saint Paul: Epistle to the Athenians.

30. The Crimes of the Christians.

{a) Mincius Felix: The Roman Point of View.
{b) Tertullian: The Christian Point of View.

31. Persecution of the Christians as Disloyal Subjects of the Empire.

{a) Pliny to Trajan.
{h) Trajan to Pliny.

32. Tertullian: Effect of the Persecutions.

33. Eusubius: Edicts of Diocletian against the Christians.

34. Workman: Certificate of having Sacrificed to the Pagan Gods.

35. Kingsley: The Empire and Christianity in Conflict.

36. Lactantius: The Edict of Toleration by Galcrius.

37. Theodosian Code: The Faith of Catholic Christians.

38. Theodosian Code: Privileges and Immunities granted the Clergy.

39. Apostohc Constitutions: How the Catechumens are to be instructed.

40. Leach: Catechumenal Schools of the Early Church.

41. Apostolic Constitutions: Christians should abstain from all Heathen

Books.

42. The Nicene Creed of 325 a.d.

43. Saint Benedict: Extracts from the Rule of.

44. Lanfranc: Enforcing Lenten Reading in the Monasteries.

45. Saint Jerome: Letter on the Education of Girls.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the type of education to be provided and the status of
the teacher, as shown in the selections from the Talmud (27). Compare
with Rome. With Athens.

2. Characterize the attitude of Saint Paul toward the Romans (28). Does
his description of Athens (29) tally with the description of the Athenians
given in the text?

3. Was it possible for the Roman and the Christian to understand one
another, thinking as they did in such different terms (30 a-b)?

4. Considering Pliny and Trajan (31 a-b) as Roman officials, with the
Roman point of view, and taking into account the time in the history of
world civilization, would you say that they were quite tolerant of rebels
within the State?

io6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

5. Compare the privileges and immunities granted the clergy (38) with the
privileges previously given by Constantine to physicians and teachers

6. Characterize the irrepressible conflict as pictured by Kingsley (35).
Name a few other somewhat similar conflicts in v/orld history.

7. Outline the type of instruction for catechumens as directed in the
Apostolic Constitutions (39).

8. What would have been the efi"ect of the continued rejection of secular
books called for in the Apostohc Constitutions (41)?

9. What was the governmental advantage of the adoption of the Nicene
Creed (42)?

10. Why did the rule of Saint Benedict (43) requiring readings and study
lead to the copying and preservation of manuscripts?

11. What does the selection from Lanfranc (44) indicate as to the state of
monastic learning?

12. Was there anything pedagogically sound about the letter of Saint Jerome
(45) on the education of girls? Discuss.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Dill, Sam'l. Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire.
Fisher, Geo. P. Beginnings of Christianity.

* Fisher, Geo. P. History of the Christian Church.

* Hatch, Edw. Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian

Church, (Hibbert Lectures, 1888.)
Hodgson, Geraldine. Primitive Church Education.
Kretzmann, P. E. Education among the Jews.
MacCabe, Joseph. Saint Augustine.

* Monro, D. C. and Sellery, G. E. Mediceval- Civilization.

* Swift, F. H. Education in Ancient Israel to jo a.d.
Taylor, H. O. Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages.
Wishart, A. W. Short History of Monks and Monasticism.

PART II
THE MEDIAEVAL WORLD

•

THE DELUCxE OF BARBARISM

THE MEDI/FAAL. STRUGGLE TO PRESERVE
AND REESTABLISH CIVILIZATION

CHAPTER V
NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE

The weakened Empire. Though the first and second centuries
A.D. have often been called one of the happiest ages in all human
history, due to a succession of good Emperors and peace and quiet
throughout the Roman world/ the reign of the last of the good
Emperors, Marcus Aurelius (161-180 a.d.), may be regarded as
clearly marking a turning-point in the history of Roman society.
Before his reign Rome was ascendant, prosperous, powerful;
during his reign the Empire was beset by many difficulties —
pestilence, floods, famine, troubles with the Christians, and
heavy German inroads — to which it had not before been accus-
tomed; and after his reign the Empire was distinctly on the
defensive and the decline. Though the elements contributing
to this change in national destiny had their origin in the changes
in the character of the national life at least two centuries earlier,
it was not until now that the Empire began to feel seriously the
effects of these changes in a lowered vitality and a weakened
power of resistance.

The virtues of the citizens of the early days of the Republic,
trained according to the old ideas, had gradually given way in the
face of the vices and corruption which beset and sapped the life
of the upper and ruHng classes in the later Empire. The failure
of Rome to put its provincial government on any honest and
efficient civil-service basis, the failure of the State to estabHsh
and direct an educational system capable of serving as a correc-

^ The period from the reign of Augustus Caesar through that of Marcus Aurelius
(31 B.C.-192 A.D.) was known as "the good Roman peace." No other large section
of the western world has ever known such unbroken peace and prosperity for so
long a time. Piracy ceased upon the seas, and trade and commerce flourished.
The cities and the great middle class in the population were prosperous. Travel was
safe and common, and men traveled both for business and pleasure. The Christian
State within a State had not yet taken form. Literature and learning flourished.
The law became milder. The rights of the accused became better recognized. A
certain broad humanity pervaded the administration of both law and government.
There was much private charity. Hospitals were established. Women were given
greater freedom, larger intellectual advantages, and a better position in the home
than they were to know again until the nineteenth century. It was the Golden Age
of the Empire. Toward the close of the period the Christian Father, TertuUian,
wrote: " Every day the world becomes more beautiful, more wealthy, more splendid.
No corner remains inaccessible. . . . Recent deserts bloom. . . . Forests give way to
tilled acres. . . . Everywhere are houses, people, cities. Everywhere there is life."

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tive of dangerous national tendencies, the lack of a guiding na-
tional faith, the gradual admission of so many Germans into the
Empire, the great extent and demoralizing influence of slavery ^
— all contributed to that loss of national strength and resisting
power which was now becoming increasingly evident. Other
contributing elements of importance were the almost complete
obliteration of the peasantry by the creation of great landed
estates and cattle ranches worked by slaves, in place of the small
farms of earlier days; the increase of the poor in the cities, and

the declining birth-rate; the in-
troduction of large numbers of
barbarians as farmers and sol-
diers ; and the demoralization of
the city rabble by political lead-
ers in need of votes. Captured
slaves performed almost every
service, and a lavish display of
wealth on the part of a few came
to be a characteristic feature of
city life.^ The great middle, com-
mercial, and professional classes
were still prosperous and con-
tented, but luxury, imported
vices, slavery, political corrup-
tion, and new ideals ^ had grad-
ually sapped the old national
vitality and destroyed the resisting power of the State in the
face of a great national calamity. Rome now stood, much like

^ Slavery in Rome came to be much more demoralizing than ever was the case
in the United States. Instead of an ignorant people of an inferior race, the Roman
slave was often the superior of his master — the unfortunate captive in an unsuccess-
ful war against an oppressor. The holding of such educated and intelligent people
in slavery was far more degrading to a ruling people than would have been the case
had their slaves been ignorant and of inferior racial stock.

- The Roman State had come to be essentially a collection of cities. Rome,
Alexandria, Antioch. Corinth, Carthage, Ephesus, and Lyons were great cities,
judged even by present-day standards, throbbing with varied industries and a
strong intellectual life. In addition there were hundreds of other cities scattered all
over the Empire, each with its own municipal life, while on the frontier were stock-
aded villages serving as centers of trade with the barbarian tribes beyond.

^ Chief among the new ideals that sapped the old Roman strength must be men-
tioned the new Christian religion, with its doctrine of other-worldliness and its sys-
tem of government not responsible to the Empire. Another influence was the rise
of a super-civic philosophy, derived chiefly from the writings of Plato (see footnote i,
page 42), which held that certain men could be above the State and yet by their
wisdom in part direct it. The two influences combined to undermine the resisting
strength of the State.

Fig. 31. a Bodyguard of Germans

A relief from the Column of Marcus
Aurelius, at Rome, erected to celebrate
his victories over the Marcomanni, and
other German tribes.

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EiMPIRE in

the shell of a fine old tree, apparently in good condition, but in
reahty ready to fall before the blast because it had been allowed
to become rotten at the heart. Sooner or later the boundaries of
the Empire, which had held against the pressure from without for
so long, were destined to be broken and the barbarian deluge from
the north and east would pour over the Empire.

The boundaries of the Empire are broken. While temporary
extensions of territory had at times been made beyond the
Rhine and the Danube, these rivers had finally come to be the
established boundaries of the Empire on the north, and behind
these rivers the Teutonic barbarians, or Germani, as the Romans
called them, had by force been kept. To do even this the Romans
had been obliged to admit bands of Germans into the Empire, and
had taken them into the Roman army as "allies," making use of
their great love for fighting to hold other German tribes in check.
In i66 A.D. the plague, brought back by soldiers returning from the
East, carried off approximately half the population of Italy. This
same year the Marcomanni (see Figure i8), a former friendly
tribe, invaded the Empire as far as the head of the Adriatic Sea,
and it required thirteen years of warfare to put them back behind
the Danube. Even this was accomplished only by the aid of
friendly German tribes. From this time on the Empire was more
or less on- the defensive, with the barbarian tribes to the north
casting increasingly longing eyes toward " a place in the sun" and
the rich plunder that lay to the south, and frequently breaking
over the boundaries. Rome, though, was still strong enough to
put them back again.

In 275 A.D., after a five years' struggle, the Eastern Emperor
gave the province of Dacia, to the south of the Danube, to the
Visigoths, in an effort to buy them off from further invasion and
warfare. This eased the pressure for another century. In 378
A.D., now pressed on by the terrible Huns from behind, the Visi-
goths, as a body, invaded the Eastern Empire, and in the Battle
of Adrianople, near Constantinople, defeated the Roman army,
slew the Roman Emperor, definitely broke the boundaries of the
Empire, and they and the Ostrogoths now moved southward and
settled in Moesia and Thrace. The Germans at Adrianople
learned that they could beat the Roman legions, and from this
time on it was they, and not the Romans, who named the terms
of ransom and the price of peace. A few years later, under
Alaric, the Visigoths invaded Greece, then turned westward

112

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

through Illyria to the valley of the Po, in northern Italy, which
they reached in the year 400. In 410 the great calamity came
when they captured and sacked Rome. The effect produced on
the Roman world by the fall of the Eternal City, as the news of
the almost incredible disaster penetrated to the remote provinces,
was profound (R. 48). For eight hundred years Rome had not

Fig. 32. The German Migrations

The barriers of the Empire along the Rhine and the Danube now are broken down.
Take a pencil and trace the route followed by each of these peoples.

been touched by foreign hands, and now it had been captured and
plundered by barbarian hordes. It seemed to many as though
the end of the world were approaching. The Visigoths now
turned west once more, carrying with them the beautiful sister
of the Emperor as a captive bride of the chief, and finally settled
in Spain and southern Gaul, which provinces were thenceforth
lost to Rome. This was the first of the great permanent inroads
into the Empire, and from now on Roman resistance seemed
powerless to stop the flood.

A period of tribal movements. The Hunnish pressure also
started the Vandals and Suevi, and within fifty years they had
been able to move across Germany, France, and Spain, plunder-
ing the cities on their way. Finally they crossed to the northern

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE 113

coast of Africa, where they became noted as the great sea pirates
of the Mediterranean. In 455 they crossed back to Italy, and
Rome was sacked for the second time by barbarian hordes. The
Huns, under the leadership of Attila, the so-called "Scourge of
God," now moved in and ravaged Gaul (451) and northern Italy
(452), and then, at the intercession of the Roman Pope Leo, were
induced by a ransom price to return to the lower Danube, where
they have since remained. In 476 the barbarian soldiers of the
Empire, tired of camp life and demanding land on which they too
might settle, rose in revolt, displaced the last of the Western
Emperors, and elevated Odovacar, a tribesman from the north,
as ruler in his stead. The Western Roman Empire was now at an
end. In 493 Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, became king of
Italy.

Between 443 and 485 the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes left their
earlier homes in what is now Denmark and northwestern Ger-
many, and overran eastern and southern Britain. In 486 the
Franks, a great nation living along the lower Rhine, began to
move, and within two generations had overrun almost all of Gaul.
In 586 the Lombards invaded and settled the valleys of northern
Italy, displacing the Ostrogoths there. Slavic tribes now moved
into the Eastern Empire — Serbs and Bulgars — and settled in
Moesia and Thrace. Southeastern Europe thus became Slavic-
Greek, as western Europe had become Teutonic-Latin. Figure
32 shows the results of these different migrations up to about
500 A.D.

Europe to be Teutonic-Latin. In the seventh century another
great wave of people, of a different racial stock and religion —
Semitic and Mohammedan — starting from Arabia and along the
shores of the Red Sea, swept rapidly through Egypt and Africa
and across into Spain and France. For a time it looked as though
they might overrun all western Europe and bring the German '
tribes under subjection. Fortunately they were definitely stopped
and decisively defeated by the Franks, in the great Battle of
Tours, in 732. They also overran Syria and Persia, but were
held in check in Asia Minor by the Eastern Empire, which did not
completely succumb to barbarian inroads until Constantinople
was taken by the Turks, in 1453.

The importance of the result, to the future of our western civili-
zation, of this battle in the West can hardly be overestimated.
The future of European government, law, education, and civiliza-

114

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion was settled on that Saturday afternoon in October, on the
battle plains of Tours. ^ It was a struggle for mastery and domin-
ion between the Aryan and Semitic races, between the Christian
and Mohammedan religions, between the forces representing order
on the one side and destruction on the other, and between races
destined to succeed to the civilization of Greece and Rome
and a race representing oriental despotism and static conditions.

Fig. ss- The Known World in 800

'This map shows the great extent of the Mohammedan conquests. The part
marked as "European Heathen" was added to Christianity within the next few
centuries, and became a part of our Latin-Teutonic or western civiUzation.

Driven back across the Pyrenees by the Franks, these people
settled in Spain; later developed there, for a short period, a for-

^ Not only was the future of western European civilization settled there, but that
of North and South America as well. Had Saracenic civilization come to dominate
Europe, the Koran might have been taught to-day in the theological schools of
Boston, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Buenos Aires, and Valparaiso, and the
Christian religion been the possession only of the Greek and Russian churches,
while our literature and philosophy and civilization would have been tinctured,
through and through, with oriental ideas and Mohammedan conceptions.

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE

T15

the-time remarkable civilization, but one that only slightly influ-
enced the current of European development; and then disappeared
as a force in our western development and progress. We shall
meet them again a little later, but only for a little while, and then
they concern our western development no more.

Our interest from now on lies with the Teutonic-Latin peoples
of western Europe, for it is through them that our western civili-
zation has been worked out and has come down to us.

Who these invaders were. A long-continued series of tribal
migrations, unsurpassed before in history, had brought a large
number of new peoples within the boundaries of the old Empire.
They finally came so fast that they could not have been assim-
ilated even in the best days of Rome, and now
the assimilative and digestive powers of Rome
were gone. Tall, huge of limb, white-skinned,
flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes, and clad in
skins and rude cloths, they seemed like giants
to the short, small, dark-skinned people of the
Italian peninsula. Quarrelsome; delighting in
fighting and gambling; given to drunkenness
and gluttonous eating; possessed of a rude
polytheistic religion in which Woden, the war
god, held the first place, and Valhalla was a
heaven for those killed in battle ; living in rude
villages in the forest, and maintaining them-
selves by hunting and fishing — it is not to
be wondered that Rome dreaded the coming
of these forest barbarians (R. 46).

The tribes nearest the Rhine and the Danube
had taken on a little civilization from long
contact with the Romans, but those farther
away were savage and unorganized (Rs. 46, 47).
In general they represented a degree of civili-
zation not particularly different from that of
the better American Indians in our colonial
period,^ though possessing a much larger ability to learn. The
"two terrible centuries" which brought these new peoples into the

^ It is hard for us to imagine what happened, for the Indians we know to-day
represent a much higher grade of civiHzation than did the German invaders. If
we could imagine the United States overrun by the Indians of a hundred and fift>-
years ago, as the German tribes overran the Roman Empire, and becoming the
rulers of a people superior to them in numbers and intellect, we should have some-
thing analogous to the Roman situation.

Fig. 34. A German
War Chief

Restored, and rather

idealized

(From the Muse*"

d'Artillerie at Paris)

ii6

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 35. Romans destroying a German Village

(From the Column of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome)
Note the circular huts of reeds, without windows, and
with but a single door.

Empire were marked by unspeakable disorder and frightful de-
struction. It was the most complete catastrophe that had ever
befallen civilized society.

They settle down within the Empire. Finally, after a period
of wandering and plundering, each of these new peoples settled

down within the Em-
pire as rulers over the
numerically larger na-
tive Roman popula-
tion, and slowly began
to turn from hunting
to a rude type of
farming. For three
or four centuries after
the invasions ceased,
though, Europe pre-
sented a dreary spec-
tacle of ignorance,
lawlessness, and vio-
lence. Force reigned
where law and order had once been supreme. Work largely ceased,
because there was no security for the results of labor. The Roman
schools gradually died out, in part because of pagan hostility (all
pagan schools were closed by imperial edict in 529 a.d.), and in part
because they no longer ministered to any real need. The church
and the monastery schools alone remained, the instruction in
these was meager indeed, and they served almost entirely the
special needs of the priestly and monastic classes. The Latin
language was corrupted and modified into spoken dialects, and
the written language died out except with the monks and the
clergy. Even here it became greatly corrupted. Art perished,
and science disappeared. The former Roman skill in handicrafts
was largely lost. Roads and bridges were left without repair.
Commerce and intercourse almost ceased. The cities decayed,
and many were entirely destroyed (R. 49).

The new ruling class was ignorant — few could read or write
their names — and they cared little for the learning of Greece and
Rome. Much of what was excellent in the ancient civilizations
died out because these new peoples were as yet too ignorant to
understand or use it, and what was preserved was due to the work
of others than themselves. It was with such people and on such

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE 117

a basis that it was necessary for whatever constructive forces still
remained to begin again the task of building up new foundations
for a future European civilization. This was the work of centu-
ries, and during the period the lamp of learning almost went out.
Barbarian and Roman in contact. Civilization was saved from
almost complete destruction chiefly by reason of the long and sub-
stantial work which Rome had done in organizing and governing
and unifying the Empire; by the relatively slow and gradual
coming of the different tribes; and by the thorough organization
of the governing side of the Christian Church, which had been
effected before the Empire was finally overrun and Roman govern-
ment ceased. In unifying the government of the Empire and
establishing a common law, language, and traditions, and in early
beginning the process of receiving barbarians into the Empire
and educating them in her ways and her schools,^ Rome rendered
the western world a service of inestimable importance and one
which did much to prepare the way for the reception and assimil-
ation of the invaders.- In the cities, which remained Roman in
spirit even after their rulers had changed, and where the Roman
population greatly preponderated even after the invaders had
come, some of the old culture and handicrafts were kept up, and
in the cities of southern Europe the municipal form of city govern-
ment was retained. Roman law still applied to trials of Roman
citizens, and many Roman governmental forms passed over to
the invader chiefly because he knew no other. The old Roman
population for long continued to furnish the clergy, and these,
because of their ability to read and write, also became the secre-
taries and advisers of their rude Teutonic overlords. In one
capacity or another they persuaded the leaders of the tribes to
adopt, not only Christianity, but many of the customs and prac-
tices of the old civilization as well. These various influences

^ As allies, citizens, soldiers, colonists, and slaves the Germans had long been
filtering into the Roman world, and the Roman world was in part Germanized before
the barriers were broken. These German-Romans helped to assimilate the Germans
who came later, much as Italian-Americans in the United States help to receive and
assimilate new Italians when they come.

2 "The historical importance of the mere fact that it was an organic unity which
Rome established, and not simply a collection of fragments artificially held together
by mihtary force, that the civilized world was made, as it were, one nation, cannot
be overstated. ... It was a union, not in externals merely, but in every department
of thought and action; and it was so thorough, and the Gaul became so completely
a Roman, that when the Roman government disappeared he had no idea of being
anything else than a Roman. ... It was because of this that, despite the fall of
Rome, Roman institutions were perpetual." (Adams, G. B., Civilization during the
Middle Ages, 2d ed., p. 30.)

Ii8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

helped to assimilate and educate the newcomers, and to save
something of the old civilization for the future. Being strong,
sturdy, and full of youthful energy, and with a large capacity for
learning, the civilizing process, though long and difficult, was
easier than it might otherwise have been, and because of their
strength and vigor these new races in time infused new life and
energy into every land from Spain to eastern Europe (R. 50).

The most powerful force with which the barbarians came in
contact, though, and the one which did most to reduce them to
civilization, was the Christian Church. Organized, as we have
seen, after the Roman governmental model, and as a State within
a State, the Church gained in strength as the Roman government
grew weaker, and was ready to assume governmental authority
when Rome could no longer exert it. The barbarians here en-
countered an organization stronger than force and greater than
kings, ^ which they must either accept and make terms with or
absolutely destroy. As all the tribes, though heathen, possessed
some form of spirit or nature worship or heathen gods, which
served as a basis for understanding the appeal of the Church,
the result was the ultimate victory, and the Christianizing, in
name at least, of all the barbarian tribes. This was the first step
in the long process of civilizing and educating them.

The impress of Christianity upon them. The importance of
the services rendered by bishops, priests, and monks during what
are known as the Dark Ages can hardly be overestimated. In
the face of might they upheld the right of the Church and its
representatives to command obedience and respect.^ The Chris-
tian priest gradually forced the barbarian chief to do his will,
though at times he refused to be awed into submission, murdered
the priest, and sacked the sacred edifice. That the Church lost
much of its early purity of worship, and adopted many practices
fitted to the needs of the time, but not consistent with real reli-
gion, there can be no question. In time the Church gained much
from the mixture of these new peoples among the old, as they
infused new vigor and energy into the blood of the old races, but

1 A Germanic king, when he feared no Roman general or emperor, could usually
be made to stand in awe when a Christian priest or bishop appealed to Heaven and
the saints, and threatened him with eternal hell-fire if he did not do his bidding.

2 The Church, it must be remembered, maintained its separate system of govern-
ment and kept up the old forms of the Roman law. It had also its courts and its
exemptions for the clergy, and these it forced the barbarians to respect. During
half a dozen centuries it was the chief force that made life tolerable for myriads of
men and women, and almost the only force upholding any semblance of humane ideals.

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE

119

the immediate effect was quite otherwise. The Church itself was
paganized, but the barbarians were in time Christianized.

Priests and missionaries went among the heathen tribes and
labored for their conversion. Of course the leaders were sought
out first, and often the conversion of a chieftain was made by
first converting his wife. After the chieftain had been won the
minor leaders in time followed. The lesson of the cross was pro-
claimed, and the softening and restraining influences of the Chris-
tian faith were exerted on the

barbarian. It was, however, a
long and weary road to re-
store even a semblance of the
order and respect for life and
property which had prevailed
under Roman rule.

One of the most interesting
of all the conversions was that
made by the Bishop Ulphilas
(c. 313-383) among the Visi-
goths, before they moved
westward from their original
home north of the Danube,
in what is now southwestern
Russia. Ulphilas was made
bishop and sent among them
in 343, and spent the re-
mainder of his life in laboring
with them. He devised an
alphabet for them, based on
the Greek, and gave them a
written language into which
he translated for them the
Bible, or rather large por-
tions of it. In the translation
he omitted the two books of

,. „ - ^ (S^lh)

Fig. 36. A Page of the Gothic
Gospels (reduced)

One of the treasures of the library of the
University of Upsala, in Sweden, is a man-
uscript of this translation by Bishop Ulphilas.
Greek letters, with a few Runic signs were
used to represent Gothic sounds. The word
"rune" comes from a Gothic word meaning
"mystery." To the primitive Germans it
seemed a mysterious thing that a series of
marks could express thought.

Kings and the two Samuels,

that the people might not find in them a further stimulus to their

great warlike activity.

Christianity had been carried early to Great Britain by Roman
missionaries, and in 440 Saint Patrick converted the Irish. In
563 Saint Columba crossed to Scotland, founded the monastery

I20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

at lona, and began the conversion of the Scots. After the Angles
and Saxons and Jutes had overrun eastern and southern Britain
there was a period of several generations during which this por-
tion of the island was given over to Teutonic heathenism. In 597
Saint Augustine, "the Apostle to the EngKsh," landed in Kent
and began the conversion of the people, that year succeeding in
converting Ethelbert, King of Kent. In 626 Edwin, King of
Northumbria, was converted, and in 635 the English of Wessex
accepted Christianity. The English at once became strong sup-
porters of the Christian faith, and in 878 they forced the invading
Danes to accept Christianity as one of the conditions of the Peace
of Wedmore. (See Map, Figure 42.)

In 496 Clovis, King of the Franks, and three thousand of his
followers were baptized, following a vow and a victory in battle; ^
in 587 Recarred, King of the Goths in Spain, was won over; and
in 681 the South Saxons accepted Christianity. The Germans
of Bavaria and Thuringia were finally won over by about 740.
Charlemagne repeatedly forced the northern Saxons • to accept
Christianity, between 772 and 804, when the final submission of
this German tribe took place. Finally, in the tenth century, Rollo,
Duke of the Normans, was won (912); Boleslav II, King of the
Bohemians, in 967; and the Hungarians in 972. In the tenth
century the Slavs were converted to the Eastern or Greek type
of Christianity, and Poland, Norway, and Sweden to the Western
or Roman type. The last people to be converted were the Prus-
sians, a half-Slavic tribe inhabiting East Prussia and Lithuania,
along the eastern Baltic, who were not brought to accept Chris-
tianity, in name, until near the middle of the thirteenth century,
though efforts were begun with them as early as 900. As late as
1230 they were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen
gods to secure their favor, but soon after this date they were
forced to a nominal acceptance of Christianity as a result of
conquest by the "Teutonic Knights." It was thus a thousand
years after its foundation before Europe had accepted in name
the Christian faith. To change a nominal acceptance to some
semblance of a reality has been the work of the succeeding centu-
ries.

^ Clotilda, wife of the heathen Clovis, was a Burgundian princess and a devout
Christian, who had long tried to persuade her husband to accept her faith. In 496,
during a tjattle with the Alemanni, near the present city of Strassburg, Clovis vowed
that if the God of Clotilda would give him victory, he would do as she desired. The
Alemanni were crushed, and he and three thousand of his chiefs were at once
baptized.

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE 121

Work of the Church during the Middle Ages. Everywhere
throughout the old Empire, and far into the forest depths of
barbarian lands, went bishops, priests, and missionaries, and
there parishes were organized, rude churches arose, and the
process of educating the fighting tribesmen in the ways of civil-
ized Hfe was carried out. It was not by schools of learning, but
by faith and ceremonial that the Church educated and guided her
children into the type she approved. Schools for other than
monks and clergy for a time were not needed, and such practically
died out. The Church and its offices took the place of education
and exercised a wholesome and restraining influence over both
young and old throughout the long period of the Middle Ages.
These the Church in time taught the barbarian to respect. The
great educational work of the Church during this period of in-
security and ignorance has seldom been better stated than in
the following words by Draper:

Of the great ecclesiastics, many had risen from the humblest ranks
of society, and these men, true to their democratic instincts, were often
found to be the inflexible supporters of right against might. Eventu-
ally coming to be the depositaries of the knowledge that then existed,
they opposed intellect to brute force, in many instances successfully,
and by the example of the organization of the Church, which was
essentially republican, they shoM^ed how representative systems may
be introduced into the State. Nor was it over communities and nations
that the Church displayed her chief power. Never in the world before
was there such a system. From her central seat at Rome, her all-
seeing eye, like that of Providence itself, could equally take in a hemi-
sphere at a glance, or examine the private life of any individual. Her
boundless influences enveloped kings in their palaces, and relieved the
beggar at the monastery gate. In all Europe there was not a man too
obscure, too insignificant, or too desolate for her. Surrounded by her
solemnities, every one received his name at her altar; her bells chimed
at his marriage, her knell tolled at his funeral. She extorted from him
the secrets of his life at her confessionals, and punished his faults by
her penances. In his hour of sickness and trouble her servants sought
him out, teaching him, by her exquisite litanies and prayers, to place
his reliance on God, or strengthening him for the trials of life by the
example of the holy and just. Her prayers had an efficacy to give
repose to the souls of his dead. When, even to his friends, his lifeless
body had become an offense, in the name of God she received it into
her consecrated ground, and under her shadow he rested till the great
reckoning-day. From little better than a slave she raised his wife to
be his equal, and, forbidding him to have more than one, met her recom-
pense for those noble deeds in a firm friend at every fireside. Dis-
countenancing all impure love, she put round that fireside the children

122 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of one mother, and made that mother little less than sacred in their
eyes. In ages of lawlessness and rapine, among people but a step above
savages, she vindicated the inviolability of her precincts against the
hand of power, and made her temples a refuge and sanctuary for the
despairing and oppressed. Truly she was the shadow of a great rock
in many a weary land.^

The civilizing work of the monasteries. No less important
than the Church and its clergy was the work of the monasteries
and their monks in building up a basis for a new civilization.
These, too, were founded all over Europe. To make a map of
western Europe showing the monasteries established by 800 a.d.
would be to cover the map with a series of dots.^ The importance
of their work is better understood when we remember that the
Germans had never lived in cities, and did not settle in them on
entering the Empire. The monasteries, too, were seldom estab-
lished in towns. Their sites were in the river valleys and in the
forests (R. 69), and the monks became the pioneers in clearing
the land and preparing the way for agriculture and civilization.
Not infrequently a swamp was taken and drained. The Middle-
Age period was essentially a period of settlemelit of the land and
of agricultural development, and the monks lived on the land
and among a people just passing through the earliest stages of
settled and civiHzed life. In a way the inheritors of the agricul-
tural and handicraft knowledge of the Romans, the monks be-
came the most skillful artisans and farmers to be found, and from
them these arts in time reached the developing peasantry around
them. Their work and services have been well summed up by
the same author just quoted, as follows :

It was mainly by the monasteries that to the peasant class of Europe
was pointed out the way of civilization. The devotions and charities;
the austerities of the brethren; their abstemious meal; their meager
clothing, the cheapest of the country in which they lived ; their shaven
heads, or the cowl which shut out the sight of sinful objects; the long
staff in their hands; their naked feet and legs; their passing forth on
their journeys by twos, each a watch on his brother; the prohibitions

' Draper, John W., Intellectual Development of Europe, vol. 11, pp. 145-46.

2 The extent of the Benedictine order alone may be seen from the Benedictine
statement that "Pope John XXII, who died in 1334, after an exact inquiry,, found
that, since the first rise of the order, there had been of it 24 popes, near 200 cardinals,
7000 archbishops, 15,000 bishops, 15,000 abbots of renown, above 4000 saints, and
upwards of 37,000 monasteries. There had been likewise, of this order, 20 emperors,
10 empresses, 47 kings and above 50 queens, 20 sons of emperors and 48 sons of
kings, about 100 princesses and davighters of kings and emperors, besides dukes,
marquises, earls, countesses, etc., innumerable." From this it may be inferred how
fully the Church was the State during the long period of the Middle Ages.

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE 123

against eating outside of the wall of the monastery, which had its own
mill, its own bakehouse, and whatever was needed in an abstemious
domestic economy (Figure 38) ; their silent hospitality to the wayfarer,
who was refreshed in a separate apartment; the lands around their
buildings turned from a wilderness into a garden, and, above all, labor
exalted and ennobled by their holy hands, and celibacy, forever, in the
eye of the vulgar, a proof of separation from the world and a sacrifice
to heaven — these were the things that arrested the attention of the
barbarians of Europe, and led them on to civilization. ^

The problem faced by the Middle Ages. That the lamp of
learning burned low during this period of assimilation is no cause
for wonder. Recovery from such a deluge of barbarism on a
weakened society is not easy. In fact the recovery was a long
and slow process, occupying nearly the whole of a thousand years.
The problem which faced the Church, as the sole surviving force
capable of exerting any constructive influence, was that of chang-
ing the barbarism and anarchy of the sixth century, with its low
standards of living and lack of humane ideals, into the intelligent,
progressive civilization of the fifteenth century. This was the
work of the Middle Ages, and largely the work of the Christian
Church. It was not a period of progress, but one of assimilation,
so that a common western civilization might in time be developed
out of the diverse and hostile elements mixed together by the rude
force of circumstances. The enfeebled Roman race was to be
reinvigorated by mixture with the youthful and vigorous Germans
(R. 50); to the institutions of ancient society were to be added
certain social and political institutions of the Germanic peoples;
all were to be brought under the rule of a common Christian
Church; and finally, when these people had become sufficiently
civilized and educated to enable them to understand and appre-
ciate, ''nearly every achievement of the Greeks and the Romans
in thought, science, law, and the practical arts" was to be recov-
ered and made a part of our western civilization.

In this chapter we have dealt largely with the great fundamen-
tal movements which have so deeply influenced the course of
human history. In the chapters which immediately follow we
shall tell how learning was preserved during the period and what
facilities for education actually existed; trace the more important
efforts made to reestablish schools and learning; and finally
describe the culmination of the process of absorbing and educating

^ Draper, John W., Intdkctml Development of Europe, vol. i, p, 437.

124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the Germans in the civilization they had conquered that came in
the great period of recovery of the ancient learning and civiliza-
tion — the age of the Renaissance.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Do the peculiar problems of assimilation of the foreign-born, revealed to
us by the World War, put us in a somewhat similar position to Rome
under the Empire as relates to the need of a guiding national faith?

2. Outline how Rome might have been helped and strengthened by a
national school system under state control.

3. Outline how our state school systems could be made much more effective
as national instruments by the infusion into their instruction of a strong
national faith.

4. Try to picture the results upon our civilization had western Europe
become Mohammedan.

5. The movement of new peoples into the Roman Empire was much slower
than has been the immigration of foreign peoples into the United States,
since 1840. Why the difference in assimilative power?

6. How do you think the Roman provinces and Italy, after the tribes from
the North had settled down within the Empire, compared with Mexico
after the years of revolution with peons and brigands in control? With
Russia, after the destruction wrought by the Bolshevists?

7. Explain the importance of the long civilizing and educating work of
Rome among the German tribes, in preparing the means for the preserva-
tion of Roman institutions after the downfall of the Roman govern-
ment.

8. What does the fact that Roman institutions and Roman thinking con-
tinued and profoundly modified mediaeval life indicate as to the nature
of Roman government and the Roman power of assimilation?

9. Though Rome never instituted a state school system, was there not
after all large educational work done by the government through its
intelligent administration?

10. Show how the breakdown of Roman government and Roman institutions
was naturally more complete in Gaul than in northern Italy, and more
complete in northern than in central or southern Italy, and hence how
Roman civilization was naturally preserved in larger measure in the
cities of Italy than elsewhere.

11. Show how the Christian Church, too, could not have completely dis-
pensed with Roman letters and Roman civilization, had it desired to do
so, but was forced of necessity to preserve and pass on important portions
of the civilization of Rome.

12. What do you think would have been the effect on the future of civiliza-
tion had the barbarian tribes overrun Spain, Italy, and Greece during
the Age of Pericles?

13. What modern analogies do we have to the civilizing work of the monks
and clergy during the Middle Ages?

14. Picture the work of the monasteries in handing on to western Europe
the arts and handicrafts and skilled occupations of Rome. Cite some
examples.

15. What civilizing problem, somewhat comparable to that of barbarian
Europe, have we faced in our national history? Why have we been
able to obtain results so much more rapidly?

NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE 125

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

46. Caesar: The Hunting Germans and their Fighting Ways.

47. Tacitus: The Germans and their Domestic Habits.

48. Dill : Effect on the Roman World of the News of the Sacking of Rome
by Alaric.

49. Giry and Reville: Fate of the Old Roman Towns.

50. Kingsley: The Invaders, and what they brought.

51. General Form for a Grant of Immunity to a Bishop.

52. Charlemagne: Powers and Immunities granted to the Monastery of
Saint Marcellus.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. State the differences in character ' Caesar observes (46) between the
Gauls to the west of the Rhine and the Germans to the east.

2. What German characteristics that Tacitus describes (47) would prove
good additions to Roman life?

3. Do the emotions of Saint Jerome on hearing of the sacking of Rome (48)
reveal anything as to the extent to which the Roman had become a
Churchman and the Churchman a Roman? Illustrate.

4. Is it probable that a quarter-century of Bolsheviki rule in Russia would
produce results comparable to those described by Giry and Reville (49) ?

5. Is Kingsley right in stating (50) that the best elements of all the modern
European peoples came from the barbarian invaders? State what seem
to you to be the important contributions of barbarian invader, Roman,
and Churchman.

6. Do the grants of privileges and immunities shown in the general form (51)
and the specific form (52) seem to follow naturally from the earlier
grants to physicians and teachers (26) and to the clergy (38)? Point
out the relationship.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.
Church, R. W. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages.
Kingsley, Chas. The Roman and Tenton.

* Thorndike, Lynn. 'History of Mcdiceval Europe.

CHAPTER VI
EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES ^

I. CONDITION AND PRESERVATION OF LEARNING

The low intellectual level. As was stated in the preceding
chapter, the lamp of learning burned low throughout the most of
western Europe during the period of assimilation and partial
civilization of the barbarian tribes. The western portion of the
Roman Empire had been overrun, and rude Germanic chieftains
were establishing, by the law of might, new kingdoms on the
ruins of the old. The Germanic tribes had no intellectual Hfe of
their own to contribute, and no intellectual tastes to be ministered
unto. With the destruction of cities and towns and country
villas, with their artistic and literary collections, much that repre-
sented the old culture was obliterated,^ and books became more
and more scarce.^ The destruction was gradual, but by the be-
ginning of the seventh century the loss had become great. The
Roman schools also gradually died out as the need for an educa-
tion which prepared for government and gave a knowledge of
Roman law passed away, and the type of education approved by
the Church was left in complete control of the field. As the
security and leisure needed for study disappeared, and as the only
use for learning was now in the service of the Church, education
became limited to the narrow lines which ofTered such preparation
and to the few who needed it. Amid the ruins of the ancient civili-
zation the Church stood as the only conservative and regenera-
tive force, and naturally what learning remained passed into its
hands and under its control.

The result of all these influences and happenings was that by

^ From the sixth to the twelfth centuries.

2 The story which has come down to us of the German warrior who, on beinj^
shown into an anteroom, saw some ducks swimming in the floor and dashed his
battle-axe at them to see if they were real, thus ruining the beautiful mosaic, is
typical of the time.

3 During the period of Rome's greatness the publishing business became an
important one. Manuscripts were copied in numbers by trained writers, and books
were officially pubhshed. Botli public and private libraries became common, men
of wealth often having large libraries. These were found in the provincial towns as
well as in the large Italian cities, and in country villas as well as in town houses.

By the beginning of the eighth century books had become so scarce that monas-
teries guarded their treasures with great care (R. 65), and books weie borrowed from
long distances that copies might be made.

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 127

the beginning of the seventh century Christian Europe had
reached a very low intellectual level, and during the seventh and
eighth centuries conditions grew worse instead of better. Only
in England and Ireland, as will be pointed out a little later, and
in a few Italian cities, was there anything of consequence of the
old Roman learning preserved. On the Continent there was little
general learning, even among the clergy (R. 64 a). Many of the
priests were woefully ignorant, ^ and the Latin writings of the time
contain many inaccuracies and corruptions which reveal the low
standard of learning even among the better educated of the
clerical class. The Church itself was seriously affected by the
prevailing ignorance of the period, and incorporated into its sys-
tem of government and worship many barbarous customs and
practices of which it was a long time in ridding itself. So great
had become the ignorance and superstition of the time, among
priests, monks, and the people; so much had religion taken on
the worship of saints and relics and shrines; and so much had
the Church developed the sensuous and symbolic, that religion
had in reality become a crude polytheism instead of the simple
monotheistic faith of the early Church. Along scientific Hues
especially the loss was very great. Scientific ideas as to natu-
ral phenomena disappeared, and crude and childish ideas as to
natural forces came to prevail. As if barbarian chiefs and rob-
ber bands were not enough, popular imagination peopled the
world with demons, goblins, and dragons, and all sorts of super-
stitions and supernatural happenings were recorded. Intercom-
munication largely ceased; trade and commerce died out; the
accumulated wealth of the past was destroyed; and the old
knowledge of the known world became badly distorted, as is
evidenced by the many crude mediaeval maps. (See Figure 46.)
The only scholarship of the time, if such it might be called, was
the little needed by the Church to provide for and maintain its
government and worship. Almost everything that we to-day
mean by civilization in that age was found within the protecting
walls of monastery or church, and these institutions were at first
too busy building up the foundations upon which a future culture
might rest to spend much time in preserving learning, much less
in advancing it.

^ Charlemagne (King of Frankland, 771-814), for example, found it necessary to
order that priests and monks must show themselves capable of changing the wording
of the masses for the living and the dead, as circumstances required, from singular
to plural, or from masculine to feminine.

128 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The monasteries develop schools. In this age of perpetual law-
lessness and disorder the one opportunity for a life of repose and
scholarly contemplation lay in the monasteries. Here the rule
of might and force was absent (R. 52), and the timid, the devout,

Fig. 37. A Typical Monastery of Southern Europe

and the studiously inclined here found a refuge from the turbu-
lence and brutality of a rude civilization. The early monasteries,
and especially the monastery of Saint Victor, at Marseilles,
founded by Cassian in 404, had represented a culmination of the
western feeling of antagonism to all ancient learning, but with the
founding of Monte Cassino by Saint Benedict, in 529 a.d., and
the promulgation of the Benedictine rule (R. 43), a more liberal
attitude was shown. ^ This rule was adopted generally by the
monasteries throughout what is now Italy, Spain, France, Ger-
many, and England, and the Benedictine became the type for the
monks of the early Middle Ages. To this order we are largely
indebted for the copying of books and the preservation of learning
throughout the mediaeval period.

The 48th rule of Saint Benedict, it will be remembered (R. 43),
had imposed reading and study as a part of the daily duty of
every monk, but had said nothing about schools. Subsequent
regulations issued by superiors had aimed at the better enforce-
ment of this rule (R. 44) , that the monks might lead devout lives
and know the Bible and the sacred writings of the Church. Im-
posed at first as a matter of education and discipline for the. monks,
this rule ultimately led to the establishment of schools and the

^ Longfellow's poem Monte Cassino is interesting reading here. Of Benedict he
says:

"He founded here his Convent and his Rule

Of prayer and work, and counted work as prayer;
The pen became a clarion, and his school
Flamed like a beacon in the midnight air."

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 129

development of a system of monastic instruction. As youths
were received at an early age ^ into the monasteries to prepare for
a monastic hfe, it was necessary that they be taught to read if
they were later to use the sacred books. This led to the duty of
instructing novices, which marks the beginning of monastic in-
struction for those within the walls. As books were scarce and at
the same time necessary, and the only way to get new ones was to
copy from old ones, the monasteries were soon led to take up the
work once carried on by the publishing houses of ancient Rome,
and in much the same way. This made writing necessary, and
the novices had to be instructed carefully in this, as well as in
reading.- The chants and music of the Church called for in-
struction of the novices in music, and the ceFebration of Easter
and the fast and festival days of the Church called for some rudi-
mentary instruction in numbers and calculation.

Out of these needs rose the monastery school, the copying of
manuscripts, and the preservation of books. Due to their
greater security and quiet the monasteries became the leading
teaching institutions of the early part of the Middle-Age period,
and those who wished their children trained for the service of the
Church gave them to the monasteries (R. 53 a). The develop-
ment of the monastic schools was largely voluntary, though from
an early date bishops and rulers began urging the monasteries to
open schools for boys in connection with their houses, and schools
became in time a regular feature of the monastic organization.
From schools only for those intending to take the vows (oblati),
the instruction was gradually opened, after the ninth century,
to others (externi) not intending to take the vows, and what came
to be known as "outer" monastic schools were in time developed.

The monasteries became the preservers of learning. Another
need developed the copying of pagan books, and incidentally the
preservation of some of the best of Roman literature. The lan-
guage of the Church very naturally was Latin, as it was a direct
descendant of Roman life, governmental organization, citizenship,
and education. The writings of the Fathers of the Western
Church had all been in Latin, and in the fourth century the Bible

^ Sometimes as early as eleven to twelve years of age. The novitiate course was
two years, but as the vows could not be taken before eighteen, the course of instruc-
tion often covered six to eight years.

2 To teach a novice to copy accurately a manuscript book was quite a different
thing from the teaching of writing to-day, It was more nearly comparable to
present-day instruction in lettering in a college engineering course, as it called for a
degree of workmanship and accuracy not required in ordinary writing.

£U2:ft

Fig. 38. Bird's-Eye View of a Mediaeval Monastery

(From an engraving by Viollet-Ie-Duc, dated 17 18, of the Cistercian Abbey of

Citeaux, in France)
This monastery was founded in the forests of what is now northeastern France,
in 1 198 A.D., and was the first of a reformed Benedictine order, known as Cister-
cians. For an explanation of the monastery, see the opposite page.

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 131

had been translated from the Greek into the Latin. This edition,
known as the Vulgate ^ Bible, became the standard for western
Europe for ten centuries to come. The German tribes which
had invaded the Empire had no written languages of their own,
and their spoken dialects differed much from the Latin speech of
those whom they had conquered. Latin was thus the language
of all those of education, ^nd naturally continued as the language
of the Church and the monastery for both speech and writing.
All books were, of course, written in Latin.

Under the rude influences and the general ignorance of the
period, though, the language was easily and rapidly corrupted,
and it becam.e necessary for the monasteries and the churches to
have good models of Latin prose and verse to refer to. These
were best found in the old Latin literary authors — particularly
Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil. To have these, due to the great
destruction of old books which had taken place during the inter-
vening centuries, it was necessary to copy these authors,- as well
as the Psalter, the Missal,^ the sacred books, and the writings of

^ The Vulgate, a Latin translation of the Bible made by Saint Jerome, at the
close of the fourth century. The Old Testament he translated mostly from the
Hebrew and Chaldaic, and the New Testament he revised from the older Latin ver-
sions. This is the only version of the Scriptures which the Roman CathoUc Church
admits as authentic.

2 Letters from one monastery to another, and from one country to another, beg-
ging the loan of some ancient book, have been preserved in numbers. I>upus,
Abbot of Ferrieres in France, for example, wrote to Rome in 855. and addressing
himself to the Pope in person, requested a complete copy of Cicero's De Oratore,
which he desired.

^ The Missal is a book containing the service of the mass for the entire year. The
Psalter the book of Psalms.

Explanation of the Monastery opposite : The cross, by the roadside, indicates
the entrance gate. Passing through the orchards and fields, the traveler reached
the outer gate-house. At the almonry (C) food and drink were given out;. on
the second floor rooms for the night could be had; in the little chapel {D) prayers
could be said ; and in the stable (F) the traveler's horse could be cared for for the
night. An inner gate through (£) opened into an inner court, around which
were the barns, chicken-yards, cow-sheds, etc. The Abbot lived at //. G was a
dormitory for the lay brothers who did the heavy work of the monastery, and who
entered the church (A'') at the rear through a special doorway {S). All of these
buildings were considered as outside the monastery proper.

Inside were the great church (N), with the library (P) in the rear. Seven scriptoria
are shown on the side of the library building. M was the large dormitory for
the monks, and R the infirmary for old and sick brothers. / was the kitchen, K was
the dining-hall (refectory), and L the stairs to the upper dormitory rooms. C and
E are two cloisters with corridors on the four sides, somewhat similar to the cloisters
shown for the monastery on Plate i. The copying of books often took place in
these cloisters, though a scriptorium was usually found under the library, the
library proper, as in Plate 2, being on the second floor (P) and reached by a winding
stair. A wall surrounded the monastery grounds, and a stream of running water
passed through them.

132 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the Fathers of the Church (Rs. 55, 56). It thus happened that
the monasteries unintentionally began to preserve and use the
ancient Roman books, and from using them at first as models for
style, an interest in their contents was later awakened. While
many of the monasteries remained as farming, charitable, and
ascetic institutions almost exclusively, and were never noted for
their educational work, a small but increasing number gradually
accumulated libraries and became celebrated for their Hterary
activity and for the character of their instruction. The monas-
teries thus in time became the storehouses of learning, the pub-
Hshing houses of the Middle Ages (Rs. 54, 55, 56), teaching
institutions of first importance, and centers of literary activity
and religious thought, as well as centers for agricultural develop-
ment, work in the arts and crafts, and Christian hospitality.
Many developed into large and important institutions (R. 69).

The copying of manuscripts.^ The work of the more important
monasteries and the monastic churches in copying books was ^
service to learning of large future significance. While many of
the books copied were for the promotion of the religious service,
such as Missals and Psalters (R. 55), and many others were tales
of saints and wearisome comments on the sacred writings, a
few were old classical texts representing the best of Roman liter-
ary work. A few monastic chronicles and histories of importance
were composed by the brothers, and also preserved for us by the
copying process.

The production of a single book was a task of large proportions,
and explains in part the small number of volumes the monasteries
accumulated. After the raids of the Mohammedans across
Egypt, in the seventh century, the supply of Egyptian papyrus
stopped because of the interruption of communications, and the
only writing material during the Middle Ages was the skin of
sheep or goats or calves. Sheepskins were chiefly used, and a
book of size might require a hundred or more skins. These
were first soaked in limewater to loosen the hair, then scraped
clean of hair and flesh, and then carefully stretched on board
frames to dry. After they had dried they were again scraped
with sharp knives to secure an even thickness, and then rubbed
smooth with pumice and chalk. When finished, the clean, shin-
ing, cream-colored skin was known as vellum,- or parchment.

^ From manu scriptum, meaning written by hand.

2 So expensive of time and effort was the production of books by this method

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING

133

This was next cut into pages of the desired size and arranged
ready for writing. The larger pieces were used for large books,
such as are shown in Plate 2, and the remnants to produce small
books. The inks, too, had to be prepared, and the pages ruled.

The main writing was done with black, but the page was fre-
quently bordered with red, gold, or some other bright color,
while many beautiful illustrations
were inserted by artistic monks.
Sometimes an initial letter was
beautifully embellished, as is
shown in Figure 39; sometimes
illustrations were introduced in
the body of the page, of which
Figures 39 and 40 are types; and
sometimes a colored illustration
was painted on a sheet of vellum
and inserted in the book. Figure
44 represents such an illustrated
page in an old manuscript. Fi-
nally, when completed, the let-
tered and illustrated parchment
sheets were arranged in order,
sewed together with a deerskin
or pigskin string, bound together
between oaken boards and covered

with pigskin, properly lettered in gold, fitted with metal corners
and clasps (R. 57), as shown in Plate 2, and often chained to
their bookrack in the library with heavy iron chains as well.
(See Figure 71 and Plate 2.) Still further to protect the volume
from theft, an anathema against the thief was usually lettered
in the volume (R. 58).

Such was the painfully slow method of producing and multi-
plying books before the advent of printing, and in days when
skill in copying manuscripts was not particularly common, even
among the monks. It required from a few months to a year or
more to produce a few copies, depending on the size and nature
of the work, whereas to-day, with printing-presses, five thousand

that many of the manuscripts now extant were written crosswise on sheets from
which the previous writing had been largely erased by chemical or mechanical
means. How many valuable ancient manuscripts v/ere lost in this manner no one
knows. Fortunately the practice was not common until after the thirteenth cen-
tury, when the rise of the universities and the spread of learning made new demands
for skins for writing purposes,

Fig. 3Q. Initial Letter prOiM
AN Old Manuscript

This shows the beautiful work done
by some of the nuns and monks in
"illuminating!' the books they copied.
This was done in colors by a nun,
who pictured her own work in this
initial letter L.

134

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

copies of such a book as this can be printed and bound in a few
days.

The scriptorium. An important part of the material equip-
ment of many monasteries, in consequence, came to be a scripto-
rium, or writing-room, where the copying of manuscripts could
take place undisturbed. In some monasteries one general room
was provided, though it was customary to have a number of
small rooms at the side of the Hbrary. In the monastery shown in
Figure 38, seven small rooms for this purpose are shown built out

on one side of the library.
Sometimes individual cells
along a corridor were provided.
The advantage of the single
room in which a number of
monks worked came when an
edition of eight or ten copies
of a book was to be prepared.
One monk could then dictate,
while eight or ten others care-
fully printed on the skins be-
fore them what was dictated
by the reader.^ Figure 40
shows a monk at work, though
here he is copying from a book
before him. After an edition
of eight or ten copies of a book
had been prepared and bound,
the extra copies were sent to

Fig. 40. A Monk in a Scriptorium

(From an illuminated picture in a manu-
script in the Royal Library at Brussels)
This picture shows the beautiful work done
in "illuminating" manuscript books by
mediaeval writers. Each copy was a work
of art. This represents a better type of
scriptorium than is usually shown.

neighboring and sometimes
distant monasteries, sometimes in exchange for other books, and
sometimes as gifts to brothers who had longed to read the work

^ That the printing was not always carefully done is shown by the constant need,
throughout the Middle Ages, of correct copies for comparison. The following
injunction of the Abbot Alcuin to the monks at Tours, given at the beginning of the
ninth century, is illustrative of the need for care in copying:

"Her^ let the scribes sit who copy out the words of the Divine Law, and likewise
the hallowed sayings of Holy Fathers. Let them beware of interspersing their own
frivolities in the words they copy, nor let a trifler's hand make mistakes through
haste. Let them earnestly seek out for themselves correctly written books to tran-
scribe, that the flying pen may speed along the right path. Let them distinguish
the proper sense by colons and commas, and set the points, each one in its due place,
and let not him who reads the words to them either read falsely or pause suddenly.
It is a noble work to write out holy books, nor shall the scribe fail of his due reward.
Writing books is better than planting vines, for he who plants a vine serves his belly,
but he who writes a book serves his soul,"

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 135

(R. 55) . New monasteries were provided with the beginnings of
a library in this way, and churches were supplied with Missals,
Psalters, and other books needed for their services.

The writing- room, or rooms, came to be a very important
place in those monasteries noted for their literary activity. West
gives an interesting description of the scriptorium at Tours, where
the learned English monk, Alcuin, was Abbot from 796 to 804,
and which at the time was the principal book-writing monastery
in Frankland. Describing Alcuin's labors to secure books to
send to other monasteries in Charlemagne's kingdom, he says:

We can almost reconstruct the scene. In the intervals between the
hours of prayer and the observance of the round of cloister life, come
hours for the copying of books under the presiding genius of Alcuin.
The young monks file into the scriptorium, and one of them is given
the precious parchment volume containing a work of Bede or Isidore
or Augustine, or else some portion of the Latin Scriptures, or even a
heathen author. He reads slowly and clearly at a measured rate while
all the others seated at their desks take down his words, and thus per-
haps a score of copies are made at once. Alcuin's observant eye watches
each in turn, and his correcting hand points out the mistakes in ortho-
graphy and punctuation. The master of Charles the Great, in that
true humility that is the charm of his whole behavior, makes himself
the writing-master of his monks, stooping to the drudgery of faithfully
and gently correcting their many puerile mistakes, and all for the love
of studies and the love of Christ. Under such guidance, and deeply
impressed by the fact that in the copying of a few books they were
saving learning and knowledge from perishing, and thereby offering a
service most acceptable to God, the copying in the scriptorium went on
in sobriety from day to day. Thus were produced those improved
copies of books which mark the beginning of a new age in the conserving
and transmission of learning. Alcuin's anxiety in this regard was not
undue; for the few monasteries where books could be accurately tran-
scribed were as necessary for publication in that time as are the great
publishing houses to-day.^

Monastic collections. Despite the important work done by a
few of the monasteries in preserving and advancing learning, large
collections of books were unknown before the Revival of Learning,
in the fourteenth century. The process of book production in
itself was very slow, and many of the volumes produced were
later lost through fire, or pillage by new invaders. During the
early days of wood construction a number of monastic and church
libraries were burned by accident. In the pillaging of the Danes
and Northmen on the coasts of England and northern France,
^ West, A. F., Alcuin, pp. 72-73.

136

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 41. Charlemagne's Empire, and the Important Monasteries

OF the Time

Charlemagne's empire at his death is shaded darker than other parts of the map

in the ninth and tenth centuries, a number of important monastic
collections there were lost. In Italy the Lombards destroyed
some collections in their sixth-century invasion, and the Saracens
burned some in southern Italy in the ninth. Monte Cassino,
among other monasteries, was destroyed by both the Lombards
and the Saracens. From a number of extant catalogues of old
monastic libraries we know that, even as late as the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, a library of from two to three hundred
volumes was large. ^ The catalogues show that most of these

^ The largest monastic library on the Continent was Fulda, which speciahzed in
the copying of manuscripts. In 1561 it had 774 volumes. In England the largest
collections were at Canterbury, which in the fourteenth century possessed 698 vol-
umes, and at Peterborough, which had 344 volumes at about the same time. The
library of Croyland, also in England, burned in 109 1, at that time contained approx-
imately 700 volumes. These represented the largest collections in Europe.

PRESERVATION OF LP:ARNING 137

were books of a religious nature, being monastic chronicles, man-
uals of devotion, comments on the Scriptures, Hves of miracle-
working saints, and books of a similar nature (Rs. 55, 56). A few
were commentaries on the ancient learning, or mediaeval text-
books on the great subjects of study of the time (R. 60). A still
smaller number were copies of old classical literary works, and of
the utmost value (R. 57) .

The convents and their schools. The early part of the Middle
Ages also witnessed a remarkable development of convents for
women, these receiving a special development in Germanic lands.
Filled with the same aggressive spirit as the men, but softened
somewhat by Christianity, many women of high station among
the German tribes founded convents and developed institutions
of much renown. This provided a rather superior class of women
as organizers and directors, and a conventual life continued,
throughout the entire Middle Ages, to attract an excellent class
of women. This will be understood when it is remembered that
a conventual life offered to women of intellectual ability and schol-
arly tastes the one opportunity for an education and a life of
learning. The convents, too, were much earlier and much more
extensively opened for instruction to those not intending to take
the vows than was the case with the monasteries, and, in conse-
quence, it became a common practice throughout the Middle
Ages, just as it is to-day among Catholic families, to send girls to
the convent for education and for training in manners and religion.
Many well-trained women were produced in the convents of
Europe in the period from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries.

The instruction consisted of reading, writing, and copying
Latin, as in the monasteries, as well as music, weaving and spin-
ning, and needlework. Weaving and spinning had an obvious
utilitarian purpose, and needlework, in addition to necessary
sewing, was especially useful in the production of altar-cloths and
sacred vestments. The copying and illuminating of manuscripts,
music, and embroidering made a special appeal to women (R. 56),
and some of the most beautifully copied and illuminated manu-
scripts of the mediaeval period are products of their skill. ^ Their
contribution to music and art, as it influenced the life of the time,

^ The H or t us Delicarum oi the Abbess Herrard, of the convent of Hohenburg, in
Alsace, was a famous illustration of artistic workmanship. This was an attempt to
embody, in encyclopaedic form, the knowledge of her time. The manuscript was
embellished with hundreds of beautiful pictures, and was long preserved as a
wonderful exhibition of mediaeval skill. It was lost to civilization, along with many
other treasures, when the Prussians bombarded Strassburg, in 1870.

138 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

was also large. The convent schools reached their highest devel-
opment about the middle of the thirteenth century, after which
they began to decline in importance.

Learning in Ireland and Britain. As was stated earher in this
chapter, the one part of western Europe where something of the
old learning was retained during this period was in Ireland, and
in those parts of England which had not been overrun by the
Germanic tribes. Christian civilization and monastic life had
been introduced into Ireland probably as early as 425 A.D., and
probably by monastic missionaries from Lerins and Saint Victor
(see Figure 41). Saint Patrick preached Christianity to the Irish,
about 440 A.D., and during the fifth and sixth centuries churches
and monasteries were founded in such numbers over Ireland that
the land has been said to have been dotted all over with churches,
monasteries, and schools. Saint Patrick had been educated in
the old Roman schools, probably at Tours when it was still an
important Roman provincial city. Other early missionaries had
had similar training, and these, not sharing the antipathy to
pagan learning of the early Italian church fathers, had carried
Greek and Latin languages and learning to Ireland. Here it
flourished so well, largely due to the island being spared from
invasion, that Ireland remained a center for instruction in Greek
long after it had virtually disappeared elsewhere in western
Christendom. So much was this the case, says Sandys, in his
History of Classical Scholarship, ''that if any one knew Greek it
was assumed that he must have come from Ireland."

In 565 A.D., Saint Columba, an eminent Irish scholar and reli-
gious leader, crossed over to what is now southwestern Scotland,
founded there the monastery of lona, and began the conversion
of the Picts. Saint Augustine landed in Kent in 597, and had
begun the conversion of the Angles and Saxons and Jutes who
had settled in southeastern Britain, while shortly afterwards
the Irish monks from lona began the conversion of the people of
the north of Britain. The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded
about 635 A.D., and soon became an important center of religious
and classical learning in the north. Irish and English monks also
crossed in numbers to northern Frankland, and labored for the
conversion of the Franks and Saxons.

In 664 A.D., at a council held at Whitby, the Irish Church in
England and the Roman Church were united, and a great enthu-
siasm for religion and learning swept over the island. In 670,

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 139

Theodore of Tarsus and the Abbot Hadrian, whom Bede, the
scholar and historian of the early English Church, describes as
men "instructed in secular and divine literature both Greek and
Latin" (R. 59 a), arrived in England from southern Italy and
began their work of instructing pupils in Greek and Latin
(R. 59 b). Both taught at Canterbury, and raised the cathedral
school there to high rank. In 674 the monastery at Wearmouth
was founded, and in 682 its companion Yarrow. These were
endowed with books from Rome and Vienne, and soon became
famous for the instruction they provided. It was at the twin
monasteries of Wearmouth and Yarrow that the Venerable Bede
(673-735), whose Ecclesiastical History of England gives us our
chief picture of education in Britain in his time' was educated and
remained as a lifelong student.^ As a result of all these efforts a
number of northern monasteries, as well as a few of the cathedral
schools, early became famous for their libraries, scholars, and
learning. This culture in Ireland and Britain was of a much
higher standard than that obtaining on the Continent at the
time, because the classical inheritance there had been less cor-
rupted.

The cathedral school at York. One of the schools which early
attained fame was the cathedral school at York, in northern Eng-
land. This had, by the middle of the eighth century, come to
possess for the time a large library, and contained most of the
important Latin authors and textbooks then known (R. 61). In
this school, under the scholasticus ^Elbert, was trained a youth by
the name of Alcuin, bom in or near York, about 735 a.d. In a
poem describing the school (R. 60), he gives a good portrayal
of the instruction he received, telling how the learned ^Elbert
'^ moistened thirsty hearts with diverse streams of teaching and
the varied dews of learning," and sorted out "youths of conspicu-
ous intelligence" to whom he gave special attention. Alcuin
afterward succeeded ^Elbert as scholasticus, and was widely known
as a gifted teacher. Well aware of the precarious condition of
learning amid such a rude and uncouth society, he handed on to
his pupils the learning he had received, and imbued them with

^ He there "enjoyed advantages which could not perhaps have been found any-
where else in Europe at the time — perfect access to all the existing sources of learn-
ing inthe West. Nowhere else could he acquire at once the Irish, the Roman, the
Gallician, and the Canterbury learning; the accumulated stores of books which
Benedict (founder and abbot) had bought at Rome and at Vienne; or the disciplinary
instruction drawn from the monasteries on the Continent, as well as from Irish mis-
sionaries." (Bishop Stubbs, Dictionary of Christian Biography, article on Bede.)

140 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

something of his own love for it and his anxiety for its preserva-
tion and advancement. It was this Alcuin who was soon to give
a new impetus to the development of schools and the preservation
of learning in Frankland.

Charlemagne and Alcuin. In 768 there came to the throne as
king of the great Frankish nation one of the most distinguished
and capable rulers of all time — a man who would have been a
commanding personality in any age or land. His ancestors had
developed a great kingdom, and it was his grandfather who had
defeated the Saracens at Tours (p. 113) and driven them back
over the Pyrenees into Spain. This man Charlemagne easily
stands out as one of the greatest figures of all history. For five
hundred years before and after him there is no ruler who matched
him in insight, force, or executive capacity. He is particularly
the dominating figure of mediaeval times. Bom in an age of law-
lessness and disorder, he used every effort to civilize and rule as
intelligently as possible the great Frankish kingdom. Wars he
waged to civilize and Christianize the Saxon tribes of northern
Germany, to reduce the Lombards of northern Italy to order, and
to extend the boundaries of the Frankish nation. At his death,
in 814, his kingdom had succeeded to most of the western posses-
sions of the old Roman Empire, including all of what to-day com-
prises France, Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland, large portions
of what is now western Germany and northern Italy, and portions
of northern Spain. (See Figure 41.)

Realizing better than did his bishops and abbots the need for
educational facilities for the nobles and clergy, he early turned
his attention to securing teachers capable of giving the needed
instruction. These, though, were scarce and hard to obtain.
After two unsuccessful efforts to obtain a master scholar to be-
come, as it were, his minister of education, he finally succeeded
in drawing to his court perhaps the greatest scholar and teacher
in all England. At Parma, in northern Italy, Charlemagne met
Alcuin, in 781, and invited him to leave York for Frankland.
After obtaining the consent of his archbishop and king, Alcuin
accepted, and arrived, with three assistants, at Charlemagne's
court, in 782, to take up the work of educational propaganda in
Frankland.

The plight in which he found learning was most deplorable,
presenting a marked contrast to conditions in England. Learning
had been almost obliterated during the two centuries of wild dis-

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PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 141

order from 600 on. From 600 to 850 has often been called the
darkest period of the Dark Ages, and Alcuin arrived when Frank-
land was at its worst. The monastic and cathedral schools which
had been estabHshed earlier had in large part been broken up,
and the monasteries had become places for the pensioning of royal
favorites and hence had lost their earlier religious zeal and effec-
tiveness. The abbots and bishops possessed but little learning,
and the lower clergy, recruited largely from bondmen, were grossly
ignorant, greatly to the injury of the Church. The copying of
books had almost ceased, and learning was slowly dying out.

The palace school. There had for some time been a form of
school connected with the royal court, known as the palace school,
though the study of letters had played but a small part in it. To
the reorganization of this school Alcuin first addressed himself,
introducing into it elementary instruction in that learning of
which he was so fond. The school included the princes and
princesses of the royal household, relatives, attaches, courtiers,
and, not least in importance as pupils, the king and queen. To
meet the needs of such a heterogeneous circle was no easy task.

The instruction which Alcuin provided for the younger
members of the circle was largely of the question and answer
(catechetical) type, both questions and answers being prepared
by Alcuin beforehand and learned by the pupils. Fortunately
examples of Alcuin's instruction have been preserved to us in
a dialogue prepared for the instruction of Pepin, a son of Charle-
magne, then sixteen years old (R. 62). With the older mem-
bers the questions and answers were oral. For all, though, the
instruction was of a most elementary nature, ranging over the
elements of the subjects of instruction of the time. Poetry, arith-
metic, astronomy, the writings of the Fathers, and theology are
mentioned as having been studied. Charlemagne learned to read
Latin, but is said never to have mastered the art of WTiting. It
was not an easy position for any one to fill. To quote from West's
description: ^

Charles wanted to know everything and to know it at once. His
strong, uncurbed nature eagerly seized on learning, both as a delight
for himself and a means of giving stability to his government, and so,
while he knew he must be docile, he was at the same time imperious.
Alcuin knew how to meet him, and at need could be either patiently
jocular or grave and reproving. Thus, on one occasion when he had

^ West, A. F., Alcuin, pp. 45-47.

142 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

been mformed of the great learning of Augustine and Jerome, he impa-
tiently demanded of Alcuin, "Why can I not have twelve clerks such
as these?" Twelve Augustines and Jeromes! and to be made arise
at the king's bidding! Alcuin was shocked. "What!" he discreetly
rejoined, "the Lord of heaven and earth had but two such, and wouldst
thou have twelve?" But his personal affection for the king was most
unselfish, and he consequently took great delight in stimulating his
desire for learning. . . .

He studied everything Alcuin set before him, but had special anxiety
to learn all about the moon that was needed to calculate Easter. With
such an eager and impatient pupil as Charles, the other scholars were
soon inspired to beset Alcuin with endless puzzling questions, and
there are not wanting evidences that some of them were disposed to
levity and even carped at his teachings. But he was indefatigable,
rising with the sun to prepare for teaching. In one of his poetical
exercises he says of himself that "as soon as the ruddy charioteer of
the dawn suffuses the liquid deep with the new light of day, the old
man rubs the sleep of night from his eyes and leaps at once from his
couch, running straightway into the fields of the ancients to pluck their
flowers of correct speech and scatter them in sport before his boys."

Charlemagne *s proclamations on education. After reorganiz-
ing the palace school, Alcuin and Charlemagne turned their
attention to the improvement of education among the monks and
clergy throughout the realm. The first important service was
the preparation and sending out of a carefully collected and
edited series of sermons to the churches containing, ''in two vol-
umes, lessons suitable for the whole year and for each separate
festival, and free from error." These Charlemagne ordered used
in the churches (R. 63). He also says, "we have striven with
watchful zeal to advance the cause of learning, which has been
almost forgotten by the negligence of our ancestors; and, by our
example, also we invite those whom we can to master the study
of the liberal arts," meaning thereby to incite the bishops and
clergy to a study of the learning of the mediaeval time. The vol-
umes and letter were sent out in 786, four years after Alcuin 's
arrival at the court. Further to aid in the revival of learning,
Charlemagne, in 787, imported a number of monks from Italy,
who were capable of giving instruction in arithmetic, singing, and
grammar, and sent them to the principal monasteries to teach.

In 787 the first general proclamation on education of the
Middle Ages was issued (R. 64 a) , and from it we can infer much
as to the state of learning among the monks and clergy of the time.
In this document the king gently reproves the abbots of his realm
for their illiteracy, and exhorts them to the study of letters. The

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 143

signature is Charlemagne's, but the hand is Alcuin's. In it he
tells the abbots, in commenting on the fact that they had sent
letters to him teUing him that "sacred and pious prayers" were
being offered in his behalf, that he recognized in ''most of these
letters both correct thoughts and uncouth expressions; because
what pious devotion dictated faithfully to the mind, the tongue,
uneducated on account of the neglect of study, was not able to
express in a letter without error." He therefore commands the
abbots neither to neglect the study of letters, if they wish to have
his favor, nor to fail to send copies of his letter "to all your suf-
fragans and fellow bishops, and to all the monasteries." Two
years later (789) Charlemagne supplemented this by a further
general admonition (R. 64 b) to the ministers and clergy of his
realm, exhorting them to live clean and just lives, and closing
with :

And let schools be established in which boys may learn to read.
Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing, the songs, the calen-
dar, the grammar, in each monastery and bishopric, and the catholic
book ; because often some desire to pray to God properly, but they pray
badly because of incorrect books.

In 802 he further commanded that "laymen shall learn thor-
oughly the Creed and the Lord's Prayer" (R. 64 c). Finally, in
his enthusiasm for schools, Charlemagne went so far as to direct
that ''every one should send his son to school to study letters,
and that the child should remain at school with all diligence until
he should become well instructed in learning." Charlemagne, of
course, was addressing freemen of the court and the ofhcial
classes. That he ever meant to include the children of the labor-
ing classes, or that the idea of compulsory education ever entered
his head, may well be doubted.

Effect of the work of Charlemagne and Alcuin. The actual
results of the work of Charlemagne and Alcuin were, after all,
rather meager. The difficulties they faced are almost beyond our
comprehension. Nobles and clergy were alike ignorant and un-
couth. There seemed no place to begin. It may be said that by
Charlemagne's work he greatly widened the area of civilization,
created a new Frankish-Roman Empire to be the inheritor of the
civilization and culture of the old one, checked the decline in
learning and reawakened a desire for study, and that he began the
substitution of ideas for might as a ruling force among the tribes
under his rule. That for a time he gave an important impetus

144 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

to the study of letters, which resulted in a real revival in the edu-
cational work of some of the monasteries and cathedral schools,
seems certain. Men knew more of books and wrote better Latin
than before, and those who wished to learn found it easier to do
so. The state of society and the condition of the times, however,
were against any large success for such an ambitious educational
undertaking, and after the death of Charlemagne, the division of
his empire, and the invasions of the Northmen, education slowly
declined again, though never to quite the level it had reached
when Charlemagne came to the throne. In a few schools there
was no decline, and these became the centers of learning of the
future. Charlemagne having substituted merit for favoritism in
his realm, promoting to be bishops and abbots the most learned
men of his time, many of these became zealous workers in the
cause of education and did much to keep up and advance learning
after his death.

Among the most able of his helpers was Theodulf, Bishop of
Orleans. He carried out most thoroughly in his diocese the
instructions of the king, giving to his clergy the following direc-
tions :

Let the priests hold schools in the towns and villages, and if any of
the faithful wish to entrust their children to them for the learning of
letters, let them not refuse to receive and teach such children. More-
over, let them teach them from pure affection, remembering that it is
written, ''the wise shall shine as the splendor of the firmament," and
''they that instruct many in righteousness shall shine as the stars for-
ever and forever." And let them exact no price from the children for
their teaching, nor receive anything from them, save what their parents
may offer voluntarily and from affection.

Another able assistant was Alcuin himself, who, after fourteen
years of strenuous service at Charlemagne's court, was rewarded
by the king with the office of Abbot at the monastery of Saint
Martin, at Tours. There he spent the last eight years of his life
in teaching, copying manuscripts, and writing letters to bishops
and abbots regarding the advancement of religion and learning.
The work of Alcuin in directing the copying of manuscripts has
been described. In a letter to Charlemagne, soon after his
appointment, he reviews his labors, contrasts the state of learning
in England and Frankland, and appeals to Charlemagne for
books from England to copy (R. 65). So important was his work
as a teacher as well that at his death, in 814, most of the important
educational centers of the kingdom were in the hands of his former

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING

145

pupils. Perhaps the most important of all these was Rabanus
Maurus, who became head of the monastery school at Fulda.
We shall learn more of him in the next chapter.

New invasions; the Northmen. Five years after Alcuin went
to Frankland to help Charlemagne revive learning in his kingdom,
a fresh series of bar-
barian invasions be-
gan with the raiding
of the English coast
by the Danes. In
raid after raid, ex-
tending over nearly
a hundred years,
these Danes grad-
ually overran all of
eastern and central
England from Lon-
don north to beyond
Whitby, plundering
and burning the
churches and mon-
asteries, and de-
stroying books and
learning everywhere.
By the Peace of
Wedmore, effected
by King Alfred in
878, the Danes were
finally given about
one half of England, and in return agreed to settle down and
accept Christianity. The damage done by these invaders was
very large, and King Alfred, in his introduction to an Anglo-
Saxon translation of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care (R. 66) , gives
a gloomy picture of the destruction wrought to the churches and
the decay of learning in England.

Other bands of these Northmen (Danes and Norwegians) began
to prey on the northern coast of Frankland, and in the tenth cen-
tury seized all the coast of what is now northern France and
down as far as Paris and Tours. From Tours to Corbie (see Fig-
ure 41) churches and monasteries were pillaged and burned,
Tours and Corbie with their libraries both perishing. Amiens and

Fig. 42. Where the Danes ravaged England

146 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Paris were laid siege to, and disorder reigned throughout northern
Frankland. The Annals of Xanten and the A nnals of Saint Vaast,
two mediaeval chronicles of importance, give gloomy pictures of
this period. Three selections will illustrate:

According to their custom the Northmen plundered East and West
Frisia and burned . . . towns. . . . With their boats filled with immense
booty, including both men and goods, they returned to their own
country. ^

The Normans inflicted much harm in Frisia and about the Rhine.
A mighty army of them collected by the river Elbe against the Saxons,
and some of the Saxon towns were besieged, others burned, and most
terribly did they oppress the Christians. -

The Northmen ceased not to take Christian people captive and kill
them, and to destroy churches and houses and burn villages. Through
all the streets lay bodies of the clergy, of laymen, nobles, and others, of
women, children, and suckling babes. There was no road or place
where the dead did not lie, and all who saw Christian people slaugh-
tered were filled with sorrow and despair.^

After much destruction, Rollo, Duke of the Normans, finally
accepted Christianity, in 912, and agreed to settle down in what
has ever since been known as Normandy. From here portions of
the invaders afterward passed over to England in the Norman
Conquest of 1066. This was the last of the great German tribes
to move, and after they had raided and plundered and settled
down and accepted Christianity, western Europe, after six centu-
ries of bloodshed and pillage and turmoil and disorder, was at
last ready to begin in earnest the building-up of a new civilization
and the restoration of the old learning.

Work of Alfred in England. The set-back to learning caused by
this latest deluge of barbarism was a serious one, and one from
which the land did not recover for a long time. In northern
Frankland and in England the results were disastrous. The
revival which Charlemagne had started was checked, and England
did not recover from the blow for centuries. Even in the parts
of England not invaded and pillaged, education sadly declined
as a result of nearly a century of struggle against the invaders
(R. 66). Alfred, known to history as Alfred the Great, who ruled
as English king from 871 to 901, made great efforts to revive
learning in his kingdom. Probably inspired by the example of
Charlemagne, he established a large palace school (R. 68), to the
support of which he devoted one eighth of his income ; he imported

1 Annals of Xanten, 846 a.d. 2 Ibid , 851 a.d. » Annals of Saint Vaast, 884 a.d.

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 147

scholars from Mercia and Frankland (R. 67); restored many
monasteries; and tried hard to revive schools and encourage
learning throughout his realm, and with some success.^ With
the great decay of the Latin learning he tried to encourage the
use of the native Anglo-Saxon language,^ and to this end trans-
lated books from Latin into Anglo-Saxon for his people. In hii
Introduction to Gregory's volume (R. 66) he expresses the hope,
"If we have tranquillity enough, that all the free-born youth now
in England, who are rich enough to be able to devote themselves
to it ... be set to learn . . . English writing," while those who
were to continue study should then be taught Latin. The com-
ing of the Normans in 1066, with the introduction of Norman-
French as the official language of the court and government, foi
a time seriously interfered with the development of that native
EngHsh learning of which Alfred wrote.

In the preceding chapter and in this one we have traced briefly
the great invasions, or migrations, which took place in western
Europe, and indicated somewhat the great destruction they
wrought within the bounds of the old Empire. In this chapter
we have traced the beginnings of Christian schools to replace the
ones destroyed, the preservation of learning in the monasteries,
and the efforts of Charlemagne and Alfred to revive learning in
their kingdoms. In the chapter which follows we shall describe
the mediaeval system of education as it had , evolved by the
twelfth century, after which we shall be ready to pass to the
beginnings of that Revival of Learning which ultimately resulted
in the rediscovery of the learning of the ancient world.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Picture the gradual dying-out of Roman learning in the Western Empire,
and explain why pagan schools and learning lingered longer in Britain,
Ireland, and Italy than elsewhere.

2. At what time was the old Roman civilization and learning most nearly
extinct?

3. Explain how the monasteries were forced to develop schools to maintain
any intellectual life.

4. Explain how the copying of manuscripts led to further educational
development in the monasteries.

5. Would the convents have tended to attract a higher quality of women
than the monasteries did of men? Why?

' It is related that ignorant court officials, fearing the king's displeasure, sought
to learn from their children.

2 Through Alfred's efforts, the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was
begun, that the people of England might be able to read the history of their country
in tlieir own language.

148 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

6. Explain why Greek was known longer in Ireland and Britain than else-
where in the West.

7. What was the relative condition of learning in Frankland and England,
about goo a.d.?

8. What Hght is thrown on the conditions of the civilization of the time by
the small permanent success of the efforts of Charlemagne, looking toward
a revival of learning in P>ankland?

g. Explain how Latin came naturally to be the language of the Church,
and of scholarship in western Europe throughout all the Middle Ages.
10. After reading the story of the migrations, and of the fight to save some
vestiges of the old civilization, try to picture what would have been the
result had Rome not built up an Empire, and had Christianity not arisen
and conquered.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

53. Migne: Forms used in connection with monastery life:

{a) Form for ofifering a Child to a Monastery.

{h) The Monastic Vow.

{c) Letter of Honorable Dismissal from a Monastery.

54. Abbot Heriman: The Copying of Books at a Monastery.

55. Othlonus: Work of a Monk in writing and copying Books.

56. A Monk: Work of a Nun in copying Books.

57. Symonds: Scarcity and Cost of Books.

58. Clark: Anathemas to protect Books from Theft.

59. Bede: On Education in Early England.

{a) The Learning of Theodore.

ih) Theodore's Work for the English Churches.

60. Alcuin: Description of the School at York.

61. Alcuin: Catalogue of the Cathedral Library at York.

62. Alcuin: Specimens of the Palace School Instruction.

63. Charlemagne: Letter sending out a Collection of Sermons.

64. Charlemagne: General Proclamations as to Education.

{a) The Proclamation of 787 a.d.
{h) General Admonition of 78g a.d.
(c) Order as to Learning of 802 a.d.

65. Alcuin: Letter to Charlemagne as to Books and Learning. •

66. King Alfred: State of Learning in England in his Time.

67. Asser: Alfred obtains Scholars from Abroad.

68. Asser: Education of the Son of King Alfred.

69. Ninth-Century Plan of the Monastery at Saint Gall.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

Point out the similarity between :

(a) The form for offering a child to a monastery and the monastic vow

(53 a-b), and a modern court form for renouncing or adopting a

child.
{b) The letter of dismissal from a monastery (53 c), and the modern

letter of honorable dismissal of a student from a college or normal

school.

PRESERVATION OF LEARNING 149

2. Compare the type of books copied by the Abbot of Saint Martins (55)
and those copied by the nun at Wessebrunn (56).

3. Was the evolution of the school-teacher out of the copyist at Ratisbon
(55)' by a speciahzation of labor, analogous to the process in more
modern times?

4. Explain the mediaeval belief in the effectiveness to protect books from
theft of such anathemas as are reproduced in 58.

5. What do the selections from Bede (59 a-c) indicate as to the preservation
of the old learning in the cities of southern Italy? What as to the
condition of learning and teaching in England in Bede's day?

6. What is the status of education indicated by the selections from Alcuin,
on the cathedral school at York (60) and the palace school instruction
of Pepin (62)?

7. What was the condition of learning among the higher clergy and monks
as shown by Charlemagne's proclamations (64)?

8. What was the extent of the destruction wrought by the Danes in Eng-
land, as indicated by King Alfred's Introduction to Pope Gregory's
Pastoral Care (66), and his efforts to obtain scholars from abroad (67)?

9. What was the character of the education King Alfred provided for his
son (68)?

10. Study out the plan of the monastery of Saint Gall (69), and enumerate
the various activities of such a center.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.

* Clark, J. W. Libraries in the Mediceval and Renaissance Period.

* Cutts, Edw. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages.

* Eckenstein, Lina. Women under Monasticism.
Leach, A. F. The Schools of MedicBval England.
Munro, D. C. and Sellery, G; E. Medieval Civilization.
Montalembert, Count de. The Monks of the West.
Taylor, H. O. Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages.
Thorndike, Lynn. History of MedicFval Europe.

West, A. F. Alcuin, and the Rise of Christian Schools.

* Wishart, A. W. Short History of Monks and Monasticism.

CHAPTER VII
EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

II. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED
I. Elementary instruction and schools

Monastic and conventual schools. In the preceding chapters
we found that, by the tenth century, the monasteries had devel-
oped both inner monastic schools for those intending to take the
vows (oblati) , and outer monastic schools for those not so intend-
ing (externi). The distinction in name was due to the fact that
the ohlati were from the first considered as belonging to the
brotherhood, participating in the religious services and helping
the monks at their work. The others were not so admitted, and
in all monasteries of any size a separate building, outside the main
portion of the monastery (see Figure 38), was provided for the

Fig. 43. An Outer Monastic School
(After an old wood engraving)

outer school. A similar classification of instruction had been
evolved for the convents.

The instruction in the inner school was meager, and in the
outer school probably even more so. Reading, writing, music,
simple reckoning, religious observances, and rules of conduct
constituted the range of instruction. Reading was taught by
the alphabet method, as among the Romans, and writing by the

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 151

use of wax tablets and the stylus. Much attention was given
to Latin pronunciation, as had been the practice at Rome. As
Latin by this time had practically ceased to be a living tongue,
outside the Church and perhaps in Central Italy, the difficul-
ties of instruction were largely increased. The Psalter, or book
of Latin psalms, was the first reading book, and this was memo-
rized rather than read. Copy-books, usually wax, with copies
expressing some s'criptural injunction, were used. Music, being
of so much importance in the church services, received much
time and attention. In arithmetic, counting and finger reck-
oning, after the Roman plan, was taught. Latin was used in
conversation as much as possible, some of the old lesson books
much resembling conversation books of to-day in the modem
languages (R. 75). Special attention seems to have been given
to teaching rules of conduct to the ohlati,^ and much corporal
punishment was used to facihtate learning. Up to the eleventh
century this instruction, meager as it was, constituted the whole
of the preparatory training necessary for the study of theology
and a career in the Church. In the convents similar schools were
developed, though, as stated in the last chapter, much more atten-
tion was given to the education of those not intending to take the
vows.

Song and parish schools. In the cathedral churches, and other
larger non-cathedral churches, the musical part of the service
was very important, and to secure boys for the choir and for other
church services these churches organized what came to be known
as song schools (R. 70) . In these a number of promising boys were
trained in the same studies and in much the same way as were
boys in the monastery schools, except that much more attention
was given to the musical instruction. The students in these
schools were placed under the precentor (choir director) of the
cathedral, or other large church, the scholasticus confining his
attention to the higher or more literary instruction provided.
The boys usually were given board, lodging, and instruction in
return for their services as choristers. As the parish churches in
the diocese also came to need boys for their services, parish
schools of a similar nature were in time organized in connection

^ Anderson tells of a monastic student's notebook on conduct which has been
preserved, and which "prescribes that the young man is to kneel when answering
the Abbot, not to take a seat unasked, not to loll against the wall, nor fidget with
things within reach. He is not to scratch himself, nor cross his legs like a tailor.
He is to wash his hands bef-^re meals, keep his knife sharp and clean, not to seize
upon vegetables, and not to use his spoon in the common dish."

152 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

with them. It was out of this need, and by a very slow and
gradual evolution, that the parish school in western Europe was
developed later on.

Chantry schools. Still another type- of elementary school,
which did not arise until near the latter part of the period under
consideration in this chapter, but which will be enumerated here
as descriptive of a type which later became very common, came
through wills, and the schools came to be known as chantry schools,
or stipendary schools. Men, in dying, who felt themselves particu-
larly in need of assistance for their misdeeds on earth, would
leave a sum of money to a church to endow a priest, or sometimes
two, who were to chant masses each day for the repose of their
souls. Sometimes the property was left to endow a priest to say
mass in honor of some special saint, and frequently of the Virgin
Mary. As such priests usually felt the need for some other occu-
pation, some of them began voluntarily to teach the elements of
religion and learning to selected boys, and in time it became com-
mon for those leaving money for the prayers to stipulate in the
will that the priest should also teach a school. Usually a very
elementary type of school was provided, where the children were
taught to know the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Salutation to
the Virgin, certain psalms, to sign themselves rightly with the
sign of the cross, and perhaps to read and write (Latin). Some-
times, on the contrary, and especially was this the case later on
in England, a grammar school was ordered maintained. After
the twelfth century this type of foundation (R. 73) became quite
common.

2. Advanced instruction

Cathedral and higher monastic schools. As the song schools
developed the cathedral schools were of course freed from the
necessity of teaching reading and writing, and could then develop
more advanced instruction. This they did, as did many of the
monasteries, and to these advanced schools those who felt the
need for more training went. As grammar was, throughout all
the early part of the Middle Ages, the first and most important
subject of instruction, the advanced schools came to be known
as grammar schools, as well as cathedral or episcopal schools
(R. 72). The cathedral churches and monasteries of England and
France early became celebrated for the high character of their
instruction (R. 71) and the type of scholars they produced. All

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 153

these schools, though, suffered a serious set-back during the period
of the Danish and Norman invasions, many being totally destroyed.
On the continent, due to the greater deluge of barbarism and
the more unsettled condition of society, more difficulty was
experienced in getting cathedral schools established, as the fol-
lowing decree of the Lateran Church Council of 826 indicates:

Complaints have been made that in some places no masters nor
endowment for a grammar school is found. Therefore all bishops shall
bestow all care and diligence, both for their subjects and for other
places in which it shall be found necessary, to establish masters and
teachers who shall assiduously teach grammar schools and the princi-
ples of the liberal arts, because in these chiefly the commandments of
God are manifest and declared.

These two types of advanced schools — the cathedral or epis-
copal and the monastic — formed what might be called the secon-
dary-school system of the early Middle Ages (Rs. 70, 71). They
were for at least six hundred years the only advanced teaching
institutions in western Europe, and out of one or the other of
these two types of advanced schools came practically all those
who attained to leadership in the service of the Church in either
of its two great branches. Still more, out of the impetus given to
advanced study by the more important of these schools, the uni-
versities of a later period developed; and numerous private gifts
of lands and money were made to establish grammar schools to
supplement the work done by the cathedral and other large
church schools.

The Seven Liberal Arts. The advanced studies which were
offered in the more important monastery and cathedral schools
comprised what came to be known as The Seven Liberal Arts ^ of
the Middle Ages. The knowledge contained in these studies,
taught as the advanced instruction of the period, represents the
amount of secular learning which was intentionally preserved by
the Church from neglect and destruction during the period of the
barbarian deluges and the reconstruction of society.

These Seven Liberal Arts were comprised of two divisions,
known as:

I. The Trivium: (i) Grammar; (2) Rhetoric; (3) Dialectic (Logic).
II. The Quadrivium: (4) Arithmetic; (5) Geometry; (6) Astron-
omy; (7) Music.

^ This expression came into common use in the fifth century, when the Christian
writers summarized the ancient learning under these seven headings or studies,
following earlier Greek and Roman classifications. (See p. 70).

mNIVM?PHILQSOPHIg

Fig. 44. The MEDiiEVAL System of Education summarized

Allegorical representation of the progress and degrees of education, from an illumi-
nated picture in the 1508 (Basel) edition of the Margarita Philosophica of Greg-
ory de Reisch.
The youth, having mastered the Hornbook (ABC's) and the rudiments of learning
(reading, writing, and the beginnings of music and numbers), advances toward the
temple of knowledge. Wisdom is about to place the key in the lock of the door of the
temple. On the door is written the word congrnitas, signifying Grammar. (" Gramaire
first hath for to teche to speke upon congruite.") On the first and second floors of
the temple he studies the Grammar of Donatus, and of Priscian. and at the first stage
at the left on the third floor he studies the Logic of Aristotle, followed by the Rhe-
toric and Poetry of TuUy, thus completing the Trivium. The Arithmetic of Boe-
thius also appears on the third floor. On the fourth floor he completes the studies
of the Quadrmum, taking in order the Music of Pythagoras, Euclid's Geometry,
and Ptolemy's Astronomy. The student now advances to the study of Philosophy,
studying successively Physics, Seneca's Morals, and the Theology (or Metaphysics)
of Peter Lombard, the last being the goal toward which all has been directed.

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 155

Beyond these came Ethics or Metaphysics, and the greatest of
all studies. Theology. This last represented the one professional
study of the whole middle-age period, and was the goal toward
which all the preceding studies had tended. This mediaeval sys-
tem of education is well summarized in the drawing given on the
opposite page, taken from an illuminated picture inserted in a
■famous mediaeval manuscript, recopied at Basle, Switzerland, in
1508.

Not all these studies were taught in every monastery or cathe-
dral school. Many of the lesser monasteries and schools offered
instruction chiefly in grammar, and only a little of the studies
beyond. Others emphasized the Trivium, and taught perhaps
only a little of the second group. Only a few taught the full range
of mediaeval learning, and these were regarded as the great schools
of the times (R. 71).

Rhabanus Maurus (776-865), one of the greatest minds of the
Middle Ages, Abbot for years at Fulda, and a mediaeval textbook
writer of importance, has left us a good description of each of the
Seven Liberal Arts studies as they were developed in his day, and
their use in the Christian scheme of education (R. 74).

I. THE TRIVIUM

Of the three studies forming the Trivium, grammar always came
first as the basal subject. No uniformity existed for the other
two.

I. Grammar. The foundation and source of all the Liberal
Arts was grammar, it being, according to Maurus, "the science
which teaches us to explain the poets and historians, and the art
which qualifies us to speak and write correctly" (R. 74 a). In
the introduction to an improved Latin grammar,^ published about
1 1 19, grammar is defined as ''The doorkeeper of all the other
sciences, the apt expurgatrix of the stammering tongue, the serv-
ant of logic, the mistress of rhetoric, the interpreter of theology,
the rehef of medicine, and the praiseworthy foundation of the
whole quadrivium." Figure 45, 'from one of the earliest books
printed in English, also emphasizes the great importance of
grammar with the words: ' Wythout whiche science (s)ycherly
alle other sciences in especial ben of lytyl recomme(d)." In
addition to grammar in the sense we know the study to-day,

^ The Docirinale, by Alexander de Villa Die. This was in rhyme, and became
immensely popular. It was the favorite text until the fifteenth century.

156

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

grammar in the old Roman and mediaeval mind also included
much of what we know as the analytical side of the study of liter-
ature, such as comparison, analysis, versification, prosody, word

_ rffof
^e S9 fete;
<it^ te ^ ;

tnaptc/of

nolb^te not
finotbet) t^

hic^ fctetiot
f^nlf attc oi|ytt fcieticc^ ti) efptcial (b) of Iptgl cwmme^

Fig. 45. A School: A Lesson in Grammar

(After a woodcut printed by Caxton in The Mirror of the World, 1481 (?). P'rom

Blades' Life and Typography of William Caxton, 11, Plate LVi)
This is a good example of early English printing. Can you read it? This "Old
English," like the German type (see Fig. 26), shows the change in Latin letters
which came about with the copying of manuscripts during the Middle Ages.
After the invention of printing the English soon returned to the Latin forms; the
Germans are only now doing so.

formations, figures of speech, and vocal expression (R. 76). These
were considered necessary to enable one to read understandingly
the Holy Scriptures, and hence, ''though the art be secular," says
Maurus, "it has nothing unworthy about it."

The leading textbook was that of Donatus,^ written in the
fourth century, and Donatus (donat) and grammar came to be

^ Donatus begins as follows:

"How many parts of speech are there?"
"What are they?"

"What is a noun?"

"How many attributes have nouns?"
"What are they?"

Etc., etc.

"Eight."

"Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, par-
ticiple, conjunction, preposition,
and interjection."

"A part of speech with case, signify-
ing a body or thing particularly or
commonlv"

"Six."

"Quality, comparison, gender, num-
ber, figure, case."

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTlOiN PROVIDED 157

synonymous terms. The text by Priscian,^ written in the sixth
century, was also extensively used. The treatment in each was
catechetical in form; that is, questions and answers, which were
learned. The text was of course in Latin, and the teacher usually
had the only copy, so that the pupils had to learn from memory
or copy from dictation. The cost of writing-material usually
precluded the latter method. After sufficient ability in grammar
had been attained, simple reading exercises or colloquies (R. 75),
usually of a religious or moralizing nature, were introduced,
though where permitted the Latin authors, especially Vergil,-
were read. At Saint Gall, in Switzerland, and at some other
places, many Latin authors were read; at Tours, on the other
hand, we find the learned Abbot Alcuin saying to the monks:
"The sacred poets are sufficient for you ; there is no reason why you
should sully your mind with the rank luxuriance of Vergil's verse."
2. Rhetoric. Rhetoric, as defined by Maurus, was "the art
of using secular discourse effectively in the circumstances of daily
life," and enabling the preacher or missionary to put the divine
message in eloquent and impressive language (R. 74 b). Much
of the old Roman rhetoric had been taken over by grammar, but
in its place was added a certain amount of letter and legal docu-
mentary writing. The priest, it must be remembered, became
the secretary and lawyer of the Middle Ages, as well as the priest,
and upon him devolved the preparation of most of the legal papers
of the time, such as wills, deeds, proclamations, and other formal
documents. Accordingly the art of letter-writing ^ and the prepa-

^ The following from Priscian, reproduced by Graves, illustrates the method of
instruction as applied to the first book of the Jineid of Vergil.

"What part of speech is arma?'^ "A noun."

"Of what sort?" "Common."

"Of what class?" "Abstract."

" Of what gender? " " Neuter."

"Why neuter?" "Because all nouns whose plurals end in a

are neuter."

"Why is not the singular used?" "Because this noun expresses many differ-
ent things."

Etc., etc.

This form of textbook writing was common, not only during the Middle Ages, but
well into modern times. The famous New England Primer was in part in this form,
and many early American textbooks in history and geography were written after
this plan.

^ Vergil, due to his beautiful poetic form and lo his love of nature and life, was
especially guarded against during the early Middle Ages as the most seductive of
the ancient Latin writers. It is not at all inappropriate that, in Dante's Inferno,
Vergil should have been the person to guide Dante through hell and purgatory, but
should not have been allowed to accompany him into paradise.

^ Textbooks on the art of letter-writing began to appear by the eleventh centur}\
explaining in detail how to prepare the five divisioiT^ of a letter: (i) the salutation

158 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ration of legal documents were made a part of the study of rhetoric,
and some study of both the civil (''worldly ") and canon (church)
law was gradually introduced.

3. Dialectic. Dialectic, or logic, says Maurus, is the science of
understanding, and hence the science of sciences (R. 74 c). By
means of its aid one was enabled to unmask falsehood, expose
error, formulate argument, and draw conclusions accurately. The
study was one of preparation for ethics and theology later on.
Extracts from the works of Aristotle, prepared by Boethius, and
later his complete works, constituted the texts used. While
grammar was the great subject of the seven during all the early
Middle Ages, dialectic later came to take its place. After the rise
of the universities and the organization of schools of theology,
with theology more of a rational science and less a matter of
dogma, dialectic came to hold first place in importance as a prepa-
ration for the disputations of the later Middle Ages. Theological
questions formed the practical exercises, and the schools doing
most in dialectic attracted many students because of this.

These three studies, constituting the Trivium, based as they
were directly on the old Roman learning and schools, contained
more that was within the teaching knowledge of the time than
did the subjects of the Quadrivium, and also subject-matter which
was much more in demand.

II. THE QUADRIVIUM

The trivial studies, in most cases before the thirteenth century,
sufficed to prepare for the study of theology, though those few
who desired to prepare thoroughly also studied the subjects of
the quadrivium. In schools not offering instruction in this ad-
vanced group some of the elements of its four studies were often
taught from the textbooks in use for the Trivium. Particularly
was this the case during the early Middle Ages, when the knowl-
edge of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy possessed by west-
em Europe was exceedingly small. No regular order in the study
of the subjects of this group was followed.

4. Arithmetic. Naturally little could be done in this subject
as long as the Roman system of notation was in use (see footnote,
I, p. 64), and the Arabic notation was not known in western
Christian Europe until the beginning of the thirteenth century,

(salutatio), (2) the art of introducing the subject properly and making a good im-
pression (captatio henevohntm) , (3) the body of the letter (narratio), (4) how to
make the request (petitio), and (5) a fitting conclusion {conclusio).

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROMDED 159

and was not much used for two or three centuries later. So far
as arithmetic was taught before that time, it was but little in
advance of that given to novitiates in the monasteries, except
that much attention was devoted to an' absurd study of the prop-
erties of numbers,^ and to the uses of arithmetic in determining
church days, calculating the date of Easter, and interpreting
passages in the Scriptures involving measurements (R. 74 d).
The textbook by Rhabanus Maurus On Reckoning, issued in 820,
is largely in dialogue (catechetical) form, and is devoted to de-
scribing the properties of numbers, "odd, even, perfect, imperfect,
composite, plane, solid, cardinal, ordina], adverbial, distributive,
multiple, denunciative, etc."; to pointing out the scriptural sig-
nificance of number; - and to an elaborate explanation of linger
reckoning, after the old Roman plan (see p. 65). Near the end
of the tenth century Gerbert,^ afterwards Pope Sylvester II,
devised a simple abacus-form for expressing numbers, simple
enough in itself, but regarded as wonderful in its day. This
greatly simplified calculation, and made work with large numbers
possible. He also devised an easier form for large divisions.

^ Anderson reproduces a portion of a chapter by Capella on the number four,
which is illustrative of the mediaeval study of the properties of number:

"What shall I call four? in which is a certain perfection of solidarity; for it is
composed of length and depth, and a full decade is made up from those four numbers
added together in order, that is, from one, two, three, four. Similarly a hundred is
made up of the four decades, that is, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, which are a hundred;
and again four numbers from a hun?lred on amount to a thousand, that is, loo, 200,
300, 400. So ten thousand is made up of another series. What is to be said of the
fact that there are four seasons of the year, four quarters of the heavens, and four
principles of the elements? There are also four ages of man, four vices, and four
virtues."

- Anderson reproduces a paragraph from Maurus, showing how number was
applied to Holy Writ. It reads:

"A real thinker," says Maurus, " will not pass on indifferently when he reads that
Moses, Elijah, and our Lord fasted forty days. Without strict observance and
investigation the matter cannot be explained. The number 40 contains the number
10 four times, by which all is signified which- concerns the temporal. For, according
to the number 4, the days and the seasons run their course. The day consists of
morning, midday, evening, and night, the year of spring, summer, autumn, winter.
Further, we have the number 10 to recognize God and the creature. The three
(trinity) indicated the Creator; the seven, the creature which consists of body and
spirit. In the latter is the three: for we must love God with our whole heart and
soul and mind. In the body, on the other hand, the four elements of which it con-
sists reveal themselves* clearly. So if we are moved through that which is signified
by the number 10 to live in time — for 10 is taken four times — chaste, withholding
ourselves from worldly lusts, that means to fast forty days. So the Holy Scriptures
contain suggestively in many different numbers all sorts of secrets which must re-
main hidden to those who do not understand the meaning of numbers."

^ Gerbert (953-1003) was one of the most learned monks, of his day, having
studied in the Saracen schools of Spain. He afterwards became Pope Sylvester II
(999-1003). Because of his scientific knowledge in an age of superstition he was
accused of transactions with the devil.

i6o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Gerbert's form for expressing numbers ma}^ be shown from the
following simple sum in addition :

Arabic Form

1204

538

2455
61Q

Roman Form

MCCIV

DXXXVIII

MMCCCCLV

DCXIX

M
I

Gerber I
C

V
IV
VI

!'5 Form
X I

IV
III VIII

\- V

I IX

4816

MMMMDCCCXVI

VIII

I VI

No study of arithmetic of importance was possible, however,
until the introduction of Arabic notation and the use of the zero.

5. Geometry. This study consisted almost entirely of geog-
raphy and reasoning as to geometrical forms until the tenth cen-
tury, when Boethius' work on Geometry, containing some extracts
from Euclid, was discovered by Gerbert. The geography of
Europe, Asia, and Africa also was studied, as treated in the text-
books of the time, and a little about plants and animals as well
was introduced. The nature of the geographic instruction may
be inferred from Figure 46, which reproduces one of the best world
maps of the day. The main geographical features of the known

• world can be made out from this, but many of the mediaeval maps
are utterly unintelligible.

To illustrate the reasoning as to geometrical forms which pre-
ceded the finding of Euclid we quote from Maurus, who says that
the science of geometry " found realization also at the building of
the tabernacle and the temple; and that the same measuring rod,
circles, spheres, hemispheres, quadrangles, and other figures were
employed. The knowledge of all this brings to him, who is occu-
pied with it, no small gain for his spiritual culture/ (R. 74 e).
After Gerbert's time some geometry proper and the elements of
land surveying were introduced. The real study of geometry in
Europe, however, dates from the twelfth century, when Euclid
was translated into Latin from the Arabic.

6. Astronomy. In astronomy the chief purpose of the instruc-
tion was to explain. the seasons and the motions of the planets,
to set forth the wonders of the visible creation, and to enable the
priests "to fix the time of Easter and all other festivals and holy
days, and to announce to the congregation the proper celebration
of them" (R. 74 g).

Even after Ptolemy's Mechanism of the Heavens (p. 49) and
Aristotle's On the Heavens had filtered across the Pyrenees from

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED i6i

Fig. 46. An Anglo-Saxon Map of the World

(From a tenth-century map in the British Museum)

This is one of the better maps of the period. Note the mixture of Biblical and
classical geography (Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Pillars of Hercules), and the animal
life (lion) introduced in the upper corner. The Mediterranean Sea in the center,
the Greek islands, the British isles, the Italian peninsula, the Nile, and the northern
African coast are easily recognized. Western Europe, the best-known part of the
world at that time, is very poorly done.

the Saracens, in the eleventh century, the Ptolemaic theory of a
flat earth located at the center of the heavenly bodies and around
which they all revolved, while a very pleasing theological concep-
tion, was absolutely fatal to any instruction in astronomy worth
while and to any astronomical advance. All mediaeval astron-
omy, too, was saturated with astrology, as the selection on the

1 62

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

motion of the heavenly bodies reproduced from Bartholomew
Anglicus shows (R. 77 b), and" the supernatural was invoked to
explain such phenomena as meteors, comets, and eclipses. The
Copernican theory of the motion of the heavenly bodies was not
published until 1543, and all our modem ideas date from that time.
Physics was often taught as a part of the instruction in astron-
omy, and consisted of lessons on the properties of matter (R. 77 a)
and some of the simple principles of dynamics. Little else of
what we to-day know as physics was then known.

7. Music. Unlike the other studies of the Quadrivium, the
instruction in music was quite extensive, and from early times a
good course in musical theory was taught (R. 74 f). Boethius'
De Musica, written at the beginning of the sixth century, was the
text used. Music eiitered into so many activities of the Church
that much naturally was made of it. The organ, too, is an old
instrument, going back to the second century B.C., and the organ

with a keyboard to the
close of the eleventh cen-
tury. This instrument
added much to the value
of the music course, and
the h3anns composed by
Christian musicians form
an important part of our
musical heritage.^ The ca-
thedral school at Metz and
the monastery at Saint
Gall became famous as
musical centers, and of
the work of one of the
teachers of music at Saint
Gall (Notker) it was written by his biographer: ''Through differ-
ent hymns, sequences, tropes, and litanies, through different songs
and melodies as well as through ecclesiastical science, the pupils
of this man made the church of God famous not merely in Ale-
mannia, but everywhere from sea to sea."

The great textbooks of the Middle Ages. While the textbooks
mentioned under the description of each of the Liberal Arts
formed the basis of the instruction given, most of the instruction

^ t'or example, the Stahat Mater and the Dies Iroe, two thirteenth-century hymns.
The former has been called the most pathetic and the latter the most sublime of all
mediaeval poems.

Fig. 47. An Early Church Musician

(P>om a fourteenth-century manuscript, now in
the British Museum)

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 163

before the twelfth century was not given from editions of the
original works, but from abridged compendiums. Six of these
were so famous and so widely used that each deserves a few words
of description.

1. The Marriage of Mercury and Philology, written by Mar-
tinus Capella, between 410 and 427 a.d., was the first of the five
great mediaeval textbooks. Mercury, desiring to marry, finally
settles on the learned maiden Philology, and the seven brides-
maids — Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Geometr}^, Arithmetic,
Astronomy, and Music — enter in turn at the ceremony and tell
who they are and what they represent. The speeches of the seven
maidens summarized the ancient learning in each subject. This
textbook was more widely used during the Middle Ages than any
other book.

2. Boethius (475-524) was another important mediaeval text-
book writer, having prepared textbooks on dialectic, arithmetic,
geometry, music, and ethics. Nearly all of what the Middle Ages
knew of Aristotle's Logic and Ethics, and of the writings of Plato,
were contained in the texts he wrote. His De Musica was used
in the universities as a textbook until near the middle of the
eighteenth century.

3. Cassiodorus^ (c. 490-585), in his On the Liberal Arts and
Sciences, prepared a digest of each of the Seven Liberal Arts for
monastic use, fixing the number at seven by scriptural authority. -

4. Isidore, Bishop of Seville (c. 570-636), under the title of
Etymologies or Origines, prepared an encyclopaedia of the ancient
learning for the use of the monks and clergy which was intended
to be a summary of all knowledge worth knowing. While he
drew his knowledge from the writings of the Greeks and Eomans,
with many of which he was familiar, contrary to the attitude of
Cassiodorus he forbade the monks and clergy to make any use of
them whatever. Cassiodorus was still in part a Roman; Isidore
was a full mediaeval.

5. Alcuin, a learned scholar of the eighth century, whom we
met in the preceding chapter (p. 140), wTote treatises on the

^ Cassiodorus was an educated later-Roman, who had been chief minister to
Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king, and had done much to carry over Latin learning
and civilization into the new regime. He later founded the monastery of Viviers,
in southern Italy, and spent the latter part of his life there in writing and contem-
plation. He urged the monks to study, and those who had no head for learning he
advised to read Cato and Columella on agriculture, and then to devote themselves
to it.

^ "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars." (Prov-
erbs, IX, I.)

1 64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

studies of the Trivium and on astronomy which were used in
many schools in Frankland.

6. Maurus. In 819 the learned monk of Fulda, Rhabanus
Maurus, a pupil of Alcuin, issued his volume On the Instruction
of the Clergy, in the third part of which he describes the uses and
the subject-matter of each of the Arts (R. 74). He also wrote
texts on grammar and astronomy, and in 844 issued an encyclo-
paedia, De Universo, based largely on the work of Isidore, but
supplemented from other sources.

These were the great textbooks for the study of the Trivium
and the Quadrivium throughout all the early Middle Ages. Con-
sidering that they were in manuscript form and were in one vol-
ume,^ their extent and scope can be imagined. The teacher usu-
ally had or had access to a copy, though even a teacher's books in
that day were few in number (R. 78). Pupils had no books at
all. These "great" texts were composed of brief extracts, bits
of miscellaneous information, and lists of names. Their style
was uninviting. They were at best a mere shell, compared with
the Greek and Roman knowledge which had been lost. Some of
these books were in question-and-answer (catechetical) form.
Their purpose was not to stimulate thinking, but to transmit that
modicum of secular knowledge needed for the service of the
Church and as a preparation for the study of the theological
writings. For nearly eight hundred years education was static,
the only purpose of instruction being to transmit to the next
generation what the preceding one had known. For such a
period such textbooks answered the purpose fairly well.

3. Training of the nobility

Tenth-century conditions. Following the death of Charle-
magne and the break-up of the empire held together by him, a
period of organized anarchy followed in western Europe. Author-

^ Abelson, in his monograph on The Seven Liberal Arts, reduces each of these text-
books to their equivalent in a modern i6mo printed page, with the following results:

Capella Boeihius Cassiodorus Isidore Alcuin Maurus

Subject (c. 425) (c. 520) (c. 575) (c 630) (c. 800) (c. 844)

r Grammar 11 — 25 50 54 55

< Rhetoric 14 — 5^ 14 26 —

( Dialectic 11 — 18 14 25 —

r Arithmetic 11 40 2 2 — —

J Geometry 15 30 2 i — —

I Astronomy 9 — 15 3 23 60

(^Music II 67 2 12 — —

Totals in pages ' 82 137 69I 96 128 115

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PR(WIDEl) 165

ity broke down more completely than before, and Europe, for
protection, was forced to organize itself into a great number of
small defensive groups. Serfs, ^ freemen lacking land, and small
landowners alike came to depend on some nobleman for protec-
tion, and this nobleman in turn upon some lord or overlord. For
this protection military service was rendered in return. The
lord lived in his castle, and the peasantry worked his land and
supported him, fighting his battles if the need arose. This condi-
tion of society was known 2iS feudalism, and the feudal relations
of lord and vassal came to be the prevailing governmental organi-
zation of the period. Feudalism was at best an organized an-
archy, suited to rude and barbarous times, but so well was it
adapted to existing conditions that it became the prevailing form
of government, and continued as such until a better order of
society could be evolved. With the invention of gunpowder, the
rise of cities and industries, the evolution of modem States by the
consolidation of numbers of these feudal governments, and the
establishment of order and civilization, feudalism passed out with
the passing of the conditions which gave rise to it. From the
end of the ninth to the middle of the thirteenth centuries it was
the dominant form of government.

The life of the nobility under the feudal regime gave a certain
picturesqueness to what was otherwise an age of lawlessness and
disorder. The chief occupation of a noble was fighting, either in
his own quarrel or that of his overlord. It is hard for us to-day
to realize how much fighting went on then. Much was said about
''honor," but quarrels were easily started, and oaths were poorly
kept. It was a day of personal feuds and private warfare, and
every noble thought it his right to wage war on his neighbor at
any time, without asking the consent of any one.^ As a prepara-
tion for actual warfare a series of mimic encounters, known as
tournaments, were held, in which it often happened that knights
were killed. In these encounters mounted knights charged one
another with spear and lance, performing feats similar to those

^ The mediaeval serf was the successor of the Roman slave, and was a step upward
in the process of the evolution of the free man. The serf was tied to the soil and by
obligations of personal service to the lord. Gradually, due to economic causes, the
personal service was changed from general to definite service, and finally to a fixed
rental sum. When a fixed money payment took the place of personal service the
free man had been evolved. This took place rapidly with the rise of cities and in-
dustry toward the latter part of the Middle Ages.

2 The German private duel and the American fist fight are the modern survivals
of the time when personal insults, easily taken, and private grievances were settled
in the "noble way" by sword and battle-axe and torch.

1 66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of actual warfare. This was the great amusement of the period,
compared with which the German duel, the Mexican bullfight,
or the American game of football are mild sports. The other
diversions of the knights and nobles were hunting, hawking,
feasting, drinking, making love, minstrelsy, and chess. Intel-
lectual ability formed no part of their accomplishments, and a
knowledge of reading and writing was commonly regarded as
effeminate.

To take this carousing, fighting, pillaging, ravaging, destruc-
tive, and murderous instinct, so strong by nature among the
Germanic tribes, and refine it and in time use it to some better
purpose, and in so doing to increasingly civilize these Germanic
lords and overlords, was the problem which faced the Church and
all interested in establishing an orderly society in Europe. As
a means of checking this outlawry the Church established and
tried to enforce the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and as a partial
means of educating the nobility to some better conception of a
purpose in life the Church aided in the development of the educa-
tion of chivalry, the first secular form of education in western
Europe since the days of Rome, and added its sanction to it after
it arose.

The education of chivalry. This form of education was an
evolution. It began during the latter part of the ninth centur\^
and the early part of the tenth, reached its maximum greatness
during the period of the Crusades (twelfth century), and passed
out of existence by the sixteenth. The period of the Crusades
was the heroic age of chivalry. The system of education which
gradually developed for the children of the nobility may be
briefly described as follows:

I . Page. Up to the age of seven or eight the youth was trained
at home, by his mother. He played to develop strength, was
taught the meaning of obedience, trained in politeness and cour-
tesy, and his religious education was begun. After this, usually
at seven, he was sent to the court of some other noble, usually his
father's superior in the feudal scale, though in case of kings and
feudal lords of large importance the children remained at home
and were trained in the palace school. From seven to fourteen
the boy was known as a page. He was in particular attached to
some lady, who supervised his education in religion, music, cour
tesy, gallantry, the etiquette of love and honor, and taught him
to play chess and other games. He was usually taught to read

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 167

and write the vernacular language, and was sometimes given a
little instruction in reading Latin. ^ To the lord he rendered much
personal service such as messenger, servant at meals, and atten-
tion to guests. By the men he was trained in running, boxing,
wrestling, riding, swimming, and the use of hght weapons.

2. Squire. At fourteen or fifteen he became a squire. While
continuing to serve his lady, with whom he was still in company,
and continuing to render personal service in the castle, the squire
became in particular the personal servant and bodyguard of the
lord or knight. He was in a sense a valet for him, making his bed,
caring for his clothes, helping him to dress, and looking after him
at night and when sick. He also groomed his horse, looked after
his weapons, and attended and protected him on the field of com-
bat or in battle. He himself learned to hunt, to handle shield
and spear, to ride in armor, to meet his opponent, and to fight
with sword and battle-axe. As he approached the age of twenty-
one, he chose his lady-love, who was older than he and who might
be married, to whom he swore ever to be devoted, even though he
married some one else. He also learned to rhyme,- to make songs,
sing, dance, play the harp, and observe the ceremonials of the
Church. Girls were given this instruction along with the boys,
but naturally their training placed its emphasis upon household
duties, service, good manners, conversational ability, music, and
religion.

3. Knight. At twenty-one the boy was knighted, and of this
the Church made an impressive ceremonial. After fasting, con-
fession, a night of vigil in armor spent at the altar in holy medita-
tion, and communion in the morning, the ceremony of dubbing
the squire a knight took place in the presence of the court. He
gave his sword to the priest, who blest it upon the altar. He then

^ In the earlier days of noblemen's education reading and writing were regarded
as effeminate, but in the later times the nobles became increasingly literate. By
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many began to pride themselves on their pat-
ronage of learning.

^ Rhyming in the vernacular language came to be an important part of the train-
ing, and many old love songs and songs expressing the joy of life date from this
period. Chaucer's knight is described as:

"Syngynge he was or floytynge [playing], al the day;

He was as fressh as is the monthe of May.

Short was his gowne, with sieves longe and wyde.

Wei cowde he sitte on hors and faire ryde;

He cowde songes make and wel endite,

Juste and eek daunce, and wel purtreye and write.

So hote he loved, that by nighterdale fnight time]

He slept no more than doth the nightingale."

1 68

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

took the oath "to defend the Church, to attack the wicked, to
respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to pre-
serve the country in tranquilKty, and to shed his blood, even to
its last drop, in behalf of his brethren." The priest then returned
him the sword which he had blessed, charging him ''to protect
the widows and orphans, to restore and preserve the desolate, to
revenge the wronged, and to confirm the virtuous." He then
knelt before his lord, who, drawing his own sword and holding it

over him, said: 'In the name
of God, of our Lady, of thy
patron Saint, and of Saint
Michael and Saint George, I
dub thee knight; be brave
(touching him with the sword
on one shoulder) , be bold (on
the other shoulder), be loyal
(on the head)."

The chivalric ideals. Such,
briefly stated, was the educa-
tion of chivalry. The cathe-
dral and monastery schools
not meeting the needs of the
nobiHty, the castle school was
evolved. There was little that
was intellectual about the
training given — few books,
and no training in Latin.
Instead, the native language
was emphasized, and squires
in England frequently learned to speak French. It was essen-
tially an education for secular ends, and prepared not only for
active participation in the feuds and warfare of the time, but
also for the Seven Perfections of the Middle Ages: (i) Riding,
(2) Swimming, (3) Archery, (4) Fencing, (5) Hunting, (6) Whist
or Chess, and (7) Rhyming. It also represents the first type of
schooling in the Middle Ages designed to prepare for life here,
rather than hereafter. For the nobility it was a discipline, just
as the Seven Liberal Arts was a disciphne for the monks and
clergy. Out of it later on was evolved the education of a gen-
tleman as distinct from that of a scholar.

That such training had a civilizing effect on the nobility of the

Fig. 48. A Squire being knighted
(From an old manuscript)

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 169

time cannot be doubted. Through it the Church exercised a
restraining and civiHzing influence on a rude, quarrelsome, and
impetuous people, who resented restraints and
who had no use for intellectual discipline. It
developed the ability to work together for com-
mon ends, personal loyalty, and a sense of honor
in an age when these were much-needed traits,
and the ideal of a life of regulated service in
place of one of lawless gratification was set up.
What monasticism had done for the religious
life in dignifying labor and service, chivalry did
for secular life. The Ten Commandments of
chivalry, (i) to pray, (2) to avoid sin, (3) to
defend the Church, (4) to protect widows
and orphans, (5) to travel, (6) to wage loyal
war, (7) to fight for his Lady, (8) to defend
the right, (9) to love his God, and (10) to listen
to good and true men, while not often followed,
were valuable precepts to uphold in that age
and time. In the great Crusades movement
of the twelfth century the Church consecrated
the military prowess and restless energy of
the nobility to her service, but after this wave
had passed chivalry became formal and stilted
and rapidly declined in importance (R. 80).

Fig. 49.
A Knight of the
Time of the First

Crusade

(From a manuscript

in the British

Museum)

4. Professional study

As the one professional study of the entire early Middle-Age
period, and the one study which absorbed the intellectual energy
of the one learned class, the evolution of the study of Theology
possesses particular interest for us.

The study of Theology. During the earlier part of the period
under consideration the preparatory study necessary for service
in the Church was small, and very elementary in character. The
elements of reading, writing, reckoning, and music, as taught to
ohlati in the monasteries, sufficed. As knowledge increased a
little the study of grammar at first, and later all the studies of
the Trivium came to be common as preparatory study, while
those who made the best preparation added the subjects of the
Quadrivium. Ethics, or metaphysics, taught largely from the
digest of Aristotle's Ethics prepared in the sixth century by

I70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Boethius, was the text for this study until about 1200, when
Aristotle's Metaphysics, Physics, Psychology, and Ethics were re-
introduced into Europe from Saracen sources (R. 87).

The theological course proper experienced a similar develop-
ment. At first, as we saw in chapter V, there were but few prin-
ciples of belief, and the church organization was exceedingly
simple. In 325 a.d. the Nicene Creed was formulated (p. 96),
and the first twenty canons (rules) adopted for the government
of the clergy. With the translation of the Bible into the Latin
language {Vulgate, fourth century), the writings of the early
Latin Fathers, and additional canons and expressions of belief
adopted at subsequent church councils, an increasing amount
relating to belief, church organization, and pastoral duties needed
to be imparted to new members of the clergy. Still, up to the
eleventh century at least, the theological course remained quite
meager. In a tenth-century account the following description
of the theological course of the time is given : ^

1. Elements of grammar and the first part of Donatus,

2. Repeated readings of the Old and New Testaments.

3. Mass prayers.

4. Rules of the Church as to time reckoning.

5. Decrees of the Church Councils.

6. Rules of penance.

7. Prescriptions for church services.

8. Worldly laws.

9. Collections of homilies (sermons) .

10. Tractates on the Epistles and Gospels.

11. Lives of the Saints.

12. Church music.

It will be seen from this tenth -century course of theological
study that it was based on reading, writing, and reckoning, and
a little music as preparatory studies; that it began with the first
of the subjects of the Trivium, which was studied only in part;
and that its purpose was to impart needed information as to
dogma, church practices, canon (church) law, and such civil
(worldly) law as would be needed by the priest in discharging his
functions as the notary and lawyer of the age. There is no sug-
gestion of the study of Theology as a science, based on evidences,
logic, and ethics. Such study was not then known, and would not
have been tolerated. There were no other professions to study for.

^ From the life of the Frankish Abbot, John of Gorze, Abbot at Gorze in the tenth
century.

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 171

Systematic instruction begins. About 1 145 Peter the Lombard
published his Book of Sentences, and this worked a revolution in
the teaching of the subject. In topics, arrangement, and method
of treatment the book marked a great advance, and became the
standard textbook in Theology for a long time. It did much to
change the study of Theology from dogmas to a scientific subject,
and made possible schools of Theology in the universities now
about to arise. In the thirteenth century it was made the offi-
cial textbook at both the universities of Oxford and Paris. The
studies of dialectic and ethics were raised to a new plane of
importance by the publication of this book.

By the close of the twelfth century the interest of the Church
in a better-trained clergy had grown to such an extent that theo-
logical instruction was ordered established wherever there was
an Archbishop. In a decree issued by Pope Innocent III and the
General Council it was ordered:

In every cathedral or other church of sufficient means, a master
ought to be elected by the prelate or chapter, and the income of a pre-
bend assigned to him, and in every metropolitan church a theologian
also ought to be elected. And if the church is not rich enough to pro-
vide a grammarian and a theologian, it shall provide for the theologian
from the revenues of his church, and cause provision to be made for
the grammarian in some church of his city or diocese. ^

We also, in the early thirteenth century, find bishops enforcing
theological training on future priests by orders of which the fol-
lowing is a type:

Hugh of Scawby, clerk, presented by Nigel Costentin to the church
of (Potter) Hanworth, was admitted and canonically instituted in it
as parson, on condition that he comes to the next orders to be ordained
subdeacon. But on account of the insufficiency of his grammar, the
lord bishop ordered him on pain of loss of his benefice to attend school.
And the Dean of Wyville was ordered to induct him into corporal
possession of the said church in form aforesaid, and to inform the lord
bishop if he does not attend school. -

5. Characteristics of mediceval education

Foundations laid for a new order. The education which we
have just described covers the period from the time of the down-
fall of Rome to the twelfth or the thirteenth century. It repre-
sents what the Church evolved to replace that which it and the

^ Leach, A. F., Educational Charters, p. 143.
^ Ibid., p. 147.

172 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

barbarians had destroyed. Meager as it still was, after seven or
eight centuries of effort, it nevertheless presents certain clearly
marked lines of development. The beginnings of a new Christian
civiHzation among the tribes which had invaded and overrun the
old Roman Empire are evident, and, toward the latter part of the
Middle Ages, we note the development of a number of centers of
learning (R. 71) and the beginnings of that specialization of knowl-
edge (church doctrine, classical learning, music, logic and ethics,
theology), at different church and monastery schools, which prom-
ised much for the future of learning. We also notice, and will
see the same evidence in the following chapter, the beginnings
of a class of scholarly men, though the scholarship is very limited
in scope and along lines thoroughly approved by the Church.

In education proper, in the sense that we understand it, the
schools provided were still for a very limited class, and secondary
rather than elementary in nature. They were intended to meet
the needs of an institution rather than of a people, and to prepare
those who studied in them for service to that institution. That
institution, too, had concentrated its efforts on preparing its mem-
bers for life in another world, and not for life or service in this.
There were as yet no independent schools or scholars, the monks
and clergy represented the one learned class, Theology was the
one professional study, the ability to read and write was not
regarded by noble or commoner as of any particular importance,
and all book knowledge was in a language which the people did
not understand when they heard it and could not read. Society
was as yet composed of three classes — feudal warriors, who
spent their time in amusements or fighting, and who had evolved
a form of knightly training for their children; privileged priests
and monks and nuns, who controlled all book learning and oppor-
tunities for professional advancement; and the great mass of
working peasants, engaged chiefly in agriculture, and belonging
to and helping to fight the battles of their protecting lord.

For these peasants there was as yet no education aside from
what the Church gave through her watchful oversight and her
religious services (R. 81), and but little leisure, freedom, wealth,
security, or economic need to make such education possible or
desirable. Moreover, the other-worldly attitude of the Church
made such education seem unnecessary. It was still the educa-
tion of a few for institutional purposes, though here and there,
by the close of the twelfth century, the Church was beginning to

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 173

urge its members to provide some education for their children
(R. 82), and the world was at last getting ready for the evolution
of the independent scholar, and soon would be ready for the
evolution of schools to meet secular needs.

Repressive attitude of the mediaeval Church. The great work
of the Church during this period, as we see it to-day, was to assim-
ilate and sufficiently civilize the barbarians to make possible a
new civilization, based on knowledge and reason rather than force.
To this end the Church had interposed her authority against bar-
barian force, and had slowly won the contest. Almost of neces-
sity the Church had been compelled to insist upon her way, and
this type of absolutism in church government had been extended
to most other matters. The Bible, or rather the interpretations
of it which church councils, popes, bishops, and theological writ-
ers had made, became authoritative, and disobedience or doubt
became sinful in the eyes of the Church.^ The Scriptures were
made the authority for everything, and interpretations the most
fantastic were made of scriptural verses. Unquestioning belief
was extended to many other matters, with the result that tales
the most wonderful were recounted and believed. To question,
to doubt, to disbelieve — these were among the deadly sins of
the early Middle Ages. This attitude of mind undoubtedly had
its value in assimilating and civilizing the barbarians, and prob-
ably was a necessity at the time, but it was bad for the future of
the Church as an institution, and utterly opposed to scientific
inquiry and intellectual progress. Monroe well expresses the
situation which came to exist when he says:

The validity of any statement, the actuality of any alleged instance,
came to be determined, not by any application of rationalistic principle,
not by inherent plausibility, not by actual inquiry into the facts of the
case, but by its agreement with religious feelings or beliefs, its effect
in furthering the influence of the Church or the reputation of a saint —
in general, by its relationship to matters of faith. Thus it happens
that the chronicles of the monks and the lives of the saints, charming
and interesting as they are in their naivete, their simplicity, their
trustful credulity, and their pictures of a life and an attitude of mind

' Anselm (1033-1109), Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109, formulated
the early mediaeval view when he said:

"I do not seek to know in order that I may believe, but I believe in order that I
may know."

"The Christian ought to advance to knowledge through faith, not to come to
faith through knowledge."

"The proper order demands that we believe the deep things of Christian faith
before we presume to reason about them."

174 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

so remote from ours, are filled with incidents given as facts that test
the greatest faith, strain the most vivid imagination, and shock that
innate respect for reality, that it is the purpose of modern education
to inculcate.^

This authoritative and repressive attitude of the Church ex-
pressed itself in many ways. The teaching of the period is an
excellent example of this influence. The instruction in the so-
called Seven Liberal Arts remained unchanged throughout a
period of half a dozen centuries — so much accumulated knowl-
edge passed on as a legacy to succeeding generations. It repre-
sented mere instruction; not education. As a recent writer has
well expressed it, the whole knowledge and culture contained in
the Seven Liberal Arts remained "like a substance in suspension
in a medium incapable of absorbing it; unchanged throughout the
whole mediaeval period." Inquiry or doubt in religious matters
was not tolerated, and scientific inquiry and investigation ceased
to exist. The notable scientific advances of the Greeks, their
literature and philosophy, and particularly their genius for free
inquiry and investigation, no longer influenced a world domi-
nated by an institution preparing its children only for life in a
world to come. Not until the world could shake ofT this mediaeval
attitude toward scientific inquiry and make possible honest doubt
was any real intellectual progress possible. In a rough, general
way the turn in the tide came about the beginning of the twelfth
century, and for the next five centuries the Church was increas-
ingly busy trying, like King Canute of old, to stop the waves of
free inquiry and scientific doubt from rising higher against the
bulwarks it had erected.

The mediaeval educational system. The educational system
which the Church had developed by 1200 continued unchanged
in its essential features until after the great awakening known as
the Revival of Learning, or Renaissance. This system we have
just sketched. For instruction in the elements of learning we
have the inner and outer monastery and convent schools, and,
in connection with the churches, song schools, and chantry or
stipendary schools. In these last we have the beginnings of the
parish school for instruction in the elements of learning and the
fundamentals of faith for the children of the faithful. In the
monasteries, convents, and in connection with the cathedral
churches we have the secondary instruction fairly well organized

1 Monroe, Paul, Text-Book in the History of Education, p. 258.

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 175

with the Trivium and the Quadrwium as the basis. At the close
of the period under consideration in this chapter a few privately
endowed grammar schools were just beginning to be founded to
supplement the work of the cathedral schools (Rs. 141-143). In
some of the inner monastery schools and a few of the cathedral

TYPE OF EDUCATUm

6th Cy.

7th Cy.

Sth Cy.

9th Cy.

lOthCy.

llthCy.

12th Cy.

I. Elementary (Latin)

1. Monastic

2. Conventual

3. Cathedral

4. Endowed

(Largely r

aading and

writing ar

d song. A

little Latin grammar

Inner

Outer

Inner

~' —

Outer
Cathedr.il

-" —

Parish

Chantry

II. Seconpary (Latin)

1. Monastic finner)

2. Cathedral

3. Endowed

(The Triv

um, and in

the larger

ind later sl

hools the Q

uadriviutn

)

III. HioHBR (Latin)

1. Theology

2. Art Studies

3. University

iQuadrivit

rn.Ethics.I

hysics.Met

iphysics.Tl

leology.Art

3,Professio

lal Study,)

Law

IV. Vernaculab
1. Chivalry

Fig. 50. Evolution of Education during the Early Middle Ages

The relative weight of the lines indicates approximate development. The lines
along which educational evolution took place in the later Middle Ages are here
clearly marked out.

schools we also have the beginnings of higher instruction, with
theology as the one professional subject and the one learned
career.

All these schools, too, were completely under the control of the
Church. There were no private schools or teachers before about
1200. Only the chivalric education was under the control of
princes or kings, and even this the Church kept under its super-
vision. The Church was still the State, to a large degree, and the
Church, unlike Greece or Rome, took the education of the young
upon itself as one of its most important functions. The schools
taught what the Church approved, and the instruction was for
religious and church *ends. The monks who gave instruction in
the monasteries were responsible to the Abbot, who was in turn
responsible to the head of the order and through him to the Pope
at Rome. Similarly the scholasticus in the cathedral school and

176 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the precentor in the song school were both responsible to the
Bishop, and again through Archbishop and Cardinal to the Pope.
The first teacher^s certificates and school supervision. Toward
the latter part of the period under consideration in this chapter
an interesting development in church school administration took
place. As the cathedral and song schools increased assistant
teachers were needed, and the scholaslicus and precentor gradually
withdrew from instruction and became the supervisors of instruc-
tion, or rather the principals of their respective schools. As song
or parish schools were established in the parishes of the diocese
teachers for these were needed, and the scholasticus and precentor
extended their authority and supervision over these, just as the
Bishop had done much earlier (p. 97) over the training and
appointment of priests. By 11 50 we have, clearly evolved, the
system of central supervision of the training of all teachers in the
diocese through the issuing, for the first time in Europe, of licenses
to teach (R. 83). The system was finally put into legal form by
a decree adopted by a general council of the Church at Rome, in
1 179, which required that the scholasticus "should have authority
to superintend all the schoolmasters of the diocese and grant them
Hcenses without which none should presume to teach," and that
nothing be exacted for licenses to teach ' ' issued by him , thus stop-
ping the charging of fees for their issuance. The precentor, in a sim-
ilar manner, claimed and often secured supervision of all elemen-
tary, and especially all song-school instruction. Teachers were
also required to take an oath of fealty and obedience (R. 84 b).
As a result of centuries of evolution we thus find, by 1200, a
limited but powerful church school system, with centralized con-
trol and supervision of instruction, diocesan licenses to teach, and
a curriculum adapted to the needs of the institution in control of
the schools. We also note the beginnings of secular instruction
in the training of the nobility for life's service, though even this
is approved and sanctioned by the Church. The centralized
rehgious control thus established continued until the nineteenth
century, and still exists to a more or less important degree in the
school systems of Italy, the old Austro-Hungarian States, Ger-
many, England, and some other western nations. As we shall
see later on, one of the big battles in the process' of developing
state school systems has come through the attempt of the State
to substitute its own organization for this religious monopoly of
instruction.

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 177

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Outline the instruction in an inner monastery school.

2. Show how the mediaeval parish school naturally developed as an offshoot
of the cathedral schools, and was supplemented later by the endowed
chantry schools.

3. What effect did the development of song-school instruction have on
the instruction in the cathedral schools?

4. Why was it difficult to develop good cathedral schools during the ear]>-
Middle Ages?

5. About how much training would be represented to-day by the Seven
Liberal Arts, (a) assuming the body of knowledge then known? (b) as-
suming the body of knowledge for each subject known to-day?

6. What great subject of study has been developed out of one part of the
study of mediaeval rhetoric?

7. Why would dialectic naturally not be of much importance, so long as
instruction in theology was dogmatic and not a matter of thinking?

8. Characterize the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, and geography
during the early Middle Ages. Would we consider such knowledge as
of any value? Explain the attention given to such instruction.

Q. What great modern subjects of study have been developed out of the
mediaeval subjects of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy?

10. Compare the knowledge of mediaevals and moderns in (a) geography,
(/)) astronomy.

1 1 . What does the fact that the few great textbooks were in use for so many
centuries indicate as to the character of educational progress during the
Middle Ages?

12. Was the Church wise in adopting and sanctifying the education of
chivalry? Why?

13. What important contributions to world progress came out of chivalric
education?

14. What ideals and practices from chivalry have been retained and arc
still in use to-day? Does the Boy Scouts movement embody any of the
chivalric ideas and training?

15. Compare the education of the body by the Greeks and under chivalry.

16. Compare the Athenian ephebic oath with the vows of chivalry.

17. Picture the present world transferred back to a time when theology was
the one profession.

18. What educational theory, conscious or unconscious, formed the basis
for mediaeval education and instruction?

iQ. Explain why the Church, after six or seven centuries of effort, still pro-
vided schools only for preparation for its own service.

20. What does the lack of independent scholars during the Middle Ages indi-
cate as to possible leisure?

21. Was the attitude of Anselm a perfectly natural one for the Middle Ages?
Can progress be made with such an attitude dominant?

22. Contrast the deadly sins of the Middle Ages with present-day concep-
tions as to education.

23 . Contrast the purposes of mediaeval education and the education of to-day.

24. When Greece and Rome offered no precedents, how did the Church come
to so fully develop and control the education which was provided?

25. Compare the supervisory work of a modern county superintendent with
that of a scholasticiis of a median^al cathedral.

178 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

70. Leach: Song and Grammar Schools in England.

71. Mullinger: The Episcopal and Monastic Schools.

72. Statutes: The School at Salisbury Cathedral.

73. Aldwincle: Foundation Grant for a Chantry School.

74. Maurus: The Seven Liberal Arts.

75. Leach: A Mediaeval Latin Colloquy.

76. Quintilian: On the Importance of the Study of Grammar.

77. AngHcus: The Elements, and the Planets.

{a) Of the Elements.

{b) Of Double Moving of the Planets.

78. Cott: A Tenth Century Schoolmaster's Books.

79. Archbishop of Cologne: The Truce of God.

80. Gautier: How the Church used Chivalry.

81. Draper: Educational Influences of the Church Services.

82. Winchester Diocesan Council: How the Church urged that the Ele-
ments of Religious Education be given.

83. Lincoln Cathedral: Licenses required to teach Song.

84. English Forms: Appointment and Oath of a Grammar-School Master.

{a) Northallerton: Appointment of a master of Song and Grammar.
(h) Archdeacon of Ely: Oath of a Grammar-School Master to.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Distinguish between song and grammar schools (70), and state what
was taught in each. Do we have any modern analogy to the same teacher
teaching both schools, as was sometimes done?

2. Distinguish between monastic and episcopal (cathedral) schools (71).
When was the great era of each? How do you explain the change in
relative importance of the two?

3. Explain the process of evolution of a parish school out of a chantry
school.

4. What was the nature of the cathedral school at Sahsbury (72)?

5. What type of a school was provided for in the Aldwincle chantry (73)?
Why was it not until after the twelfth century that the endowing of
schools (73) began to supersede the endowing of priests, churches, and
monasteries?

6. How do you explain the need for so many years to master the Seven
Liberal Arts (74) ?

7. Into what subjects of study have we broken up the old subject of gram-
mar, as described by Quintilian (76), and how have we distributed them
throughout our school system? Is technical grammar at present taught
in the best possible place?

8. What stage in scientific knowledge do the selections from Anglicus
(77 a-b) indicate? What rate of scientific progress is indicated by its
translation and length of use?

9. What scope of knowledge is represented in the library (78) of the tenth-
century schoolmaster? What does the list indicate as to the state of
learning of the time?

10. Picture the manners and morals of a time which called for the proclama-
tion of a Truce of God (79). Would the rate of progress of civilization

SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED 179

and the rate of elimination of warfare up to then, and since, indicate that
the Church has been very successful in imposing its will?

11. Show how Chivalry was made a great asset to the Church (80).

12. How do you explain the much greater simplicity of the church service
of modern Protestant churches than that of the Roman (81) or Greek
Catholic churches? '

13. Explain the form of mild compulsion toward learning which the diocesan
council of Winchester (82) attempted to institute.

14. Is the modern state teacher's certificate a natural outgrowth of the
mediaeval licenses (83) to teach grammar and song? Why did the
Church insist on these when Rome had not required such?

15. Show how the modern oath of office of a teacher, and the possibility of
dismissal for insubordination, is a natural development from the oath
of fealty and obedience (84 b) of the mediaeval teacher? Is this true also
for our modern notices of appointment (84 a) ?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Abelson, Paul. The Seven Liberal Arts.

Addison, Julia de W. Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages.

Besant, W. The Story of King Alfred.
'' Clark, J. W. The Care of Books.

Davidson, Thomas. "The Seven Liberal Arts"; in Educational Review,
vol. II, pp. 467-73. (Also in his Aristotle.)

Mombert, J. I. History of Charles the Great.
*Mullinger, J. B. The Schools of Charles the Great.

Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i.

Scheftel, Victor. Ekkehard. (Historical novel of monastic life.)

Steele, Philip, Mediceval Lore. (Anglicus' Cyclopaedia.)

CHAPTER VIII

INFLUENCES TENDING TOWARD A REVIVAL OF

LEARNING

I. MOSLEM LEARNING FROM SPAIN

The Mohammedans in Spain. It will be recalled that in chap-
ter V we mentioned briefly the Mohammedan migrations of the
seventh century, and said that we should meet them again a little
later on as one of the minor forces in the development of our
western civilization. After their defeat at Tours (732) the Mo-
hammedans retired into Spain, mixed with the Iberian-Roman-
Visigothic peoples inhabiting the peninsula, and began to develo])
a civilization there. Figure 33 (p. 114) shows how much of the
world the Mohammedans had overrun by 800 a.d., and how much
of Spain was in their possession.

In Spain they developed a skillful agriculture (R. 85), as, in
lands as hot and dry as Spain, all agriculture to be successful
must be. They introduced irrigation, gave special attention to
the breeding of horses and cattle, and developed garden and
orchard fruits. To them western Europe is indebted for the
introduction of many of its orchard fruits, useful plants, and
garden vegetables, as well as for a number of important manu-
facturing processes. The orange, lemon, peach, apricot, and
mulberry trees; the spinach, artichoke, and asparagus among
vegetables; cotton, rice, sugar cane, and hemp among useful
plants; the culture of the silkworm, and the manufacture of silk
and cotton garments; the manufacture of paper from cotton, and
the making of morocco leather — these are among our debts to
these people. Though many of the above had been known to
antiquity, they had been lost during the barbarian invasions and
were restored only through their re-introduction by the Moslems.

Great absorptive power for learning. The original Arabians
themselves were not a well-educated people. Before the time of
Mohammed we have practically no records as to any education
among them. When in their religious conquests they overran
Syria (see Map, p. 103), they came in contact with the sur-
vivals of that wonderful Greek civilization and learning, and
this they absorbed with greatest avidity.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL i8i

It will be recalled, too, that in chapter IV (p. 94), it was
stated that the early Christians developed very important cate-
chetical schools in Egypt and Syria, and especially at Alexandria,
Antioch, Edessa, Nisibus, Harran, and Caesarca.' (See Figure 27,
p. 89.) It was also stated that the Christian instruction im-
parted at these eastern schools was tinctured through and through
with Greek learning and Greek philosophic thought. Here mon-
asteries also were developed in numbers, and Syrian monks had
for centuries been busy translating Greek authors into Syriac.
It was also stated (p. 94) that the Eastern or Greek division of
the Christian Church, of which Constantinople became the cen-
tral city, was more liberal toward Greek learning than was the
Western or Latin division of the Church.

By the fifth century, though, due in part to the breakdown of
government, the increasing barbarity of the age, and the greater
control of all thinking by the Church, the Eastern Church lost
somewhat of its earlier tolerance. In 431 the Church Council of
Ephesus put a ban on the Hellenized form of Christian theology
advocated by Nestorius, then Patriarch of Constantinople, and
drove him and his followers, known as Nestorian Christians, from
the city. These Nestorians now fled to the old Syrian cities,
which early had been so hospitable to Greek learning and think-
ing.- Being now beyond the reach of Christian intolerance and
in a friendly atmosphere, they remained there, developing excel-
lent higher schools of the old Greek type, and there the Moham-
medans found them when they overran Syria, in 635 a.d.

Mohammedanism now came in contact with an educated peo
pie, as it did also in Babylonia (637), in Assyria (640), and in
Egypt (642), and the need of a better statement of the somewhat
crude faith now became evident. The same process now took
place as had occurred earlier with Christianity. The Nestorian

^ "In the school of Nisibus the Church possessed an institution, which for centu-
ries secured her a system of higher education, and therewith an im{)ortant social
and political position. To the ok. . literature, consisting of translations, there was
added, from the middle of the fifth century onward, a large number of philosophical,
scientific, and medical treatises belonging to Greek antiquity and especially the
works of Aristotle. Through these Greek wisdom and learning, clothed in Syrian
attire, found a home on these borders of Christendom." (Miiller, D. K., Kirchen-
geschichte, vol. i, p. 278.)

- "By the year 600 a.d. the triumph of the oriental element in Christendom had
well-nigh banished learning and education from the domain of the Church, giving
place to a gloomy, unquestioning faith which sank ever deeper and deeper in the
mire of superstition. What enlightenment survived had found a home beyond
the limits of the Roman Empire, — in Ireland, in the extreme West; in Syria, in
the far East." (Davidson, Thomas, History of Ediication, p. 133.)

1 82 HISTORY OF EDl^CATION

Christians and the Syrian monks became the scholars for the
Mohammedans, and the Mohammedan faith was clothed in Greek
forms and received a thorough tincturing of Greek philosophic
thought. Within a century they had translated from Syriac into
Arabic, or from the original Greek, much of the old Greek learning
in philosophy, science, and medicine, and the cities of Syria, and
in particular their capital, Damascus, became renowned for their
learning. In 760 Bagdad, on the Tigris, was founded, and super-
seded Damascus as the capital. Extending eastward, these people
were soon busy absorbing Hindu mathematical knowledge,
obtaining from them (c. 800) the so-called Arabic notation and
algebra.

They develop schools and advance learning. In 786 Haroun-
al-Raschid became Caliph at Bagdad, and he and his son made it
an intellectual center of first importance. In all the known
world probably no city, not even Constantinople, during the
latter part of the eighth century and most of the ninth , could vie
with Bagdad as a center of learning. Basra, Kufa, and other
eastern cities were also noted places. Schools were opened in
connection with the mosques (churches), a university after the
old Greek model was founded, a large library was organized, and
an abservatory was built. Large numbers of students thronged
the city, learned Greeks and Jews taught in the schools, and a
number of advances on the scientific work done by the Greeks
were made. A degree of the earth's surface ^ was measured on
the shores of the Red Sea; the obliquity of the ecliptic was deter-
mined (c. 830); astronomical tables were calculated; algebra and
trigonometry were perfected; discoveries in chemistry not known
in Europe until toward the end of the eighteenth century, and
advances in physics for which western Europe waited for Newton
(1642- 1 727), were made; and in medicine and surgery their work
was not dupHcated until the early nineteenth century. Their
scholars wrote dictionaries, lexicons, cyclopaedias, and pharma-
copoeias of merit (R. 86).

This eastern learning was now gradually carried to Spain by
traveling Mohammedan scholars, and there the energy of con-
quest was gradually turned to the development of schools and
learning. By 900 a good civilization and intellectual life had
been developed in Spain, and before 1000 the teaching in Spain,

1 This was determined as being 56 1/3 miles, which would make the circumference
of the earth 20,280 miles. The correct distance is 69 miles.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 183

especially along Greek philosophical lines, had become sufficiently
known to attract a few adventurous monks from Christian
Europe. Gerbert (953-1003), afterward Pope Sylvester II (p,
159), was one of the first to study there, though for this he was

The Moslem West

The Moslem East

Fig. 51. Showing Centers of Moslem Learning

accused of having transactions with the Devil, and when he died
suddenly at fifty, four years after having been elevated to the
Papacy, monks over Europe are recorded as having crossed them-
selves and muttered that the Devil had now claimed his reward.
A monk from Monte Cassino also studied at Bagdad, and brought
back some of the eastern learning to his monastery.

Mohammedan reaction sends scholars to Spain. The great
intellectual development at Bagdad was In part due to the
patronage of a few caliphs of large vision, and was of relatively
short duration. The religious enthusiasts among the Moham-
medans were in reality but little more zealous for Hellenic learn-
ing than the Fathers of the Western Church had been. Finally,
about 1050, they obtained the upper hand and succeeded in driv-
ing out the Hellenic Mohammedans, just as the Eastern Chris-
tians had driven out the Nestorians, and these scholars of the
East now fled to northern Africa and to Spain. ^

Almost at once a marked further development in the intellectual
Hfe of Spain took place. In Cordova, Granada, Toledo, and

^ The fanaticism of the eastern Arabs now reasserted itself, and higher education
in the Mohammedan countries of the East drew permanently to a close. A harsh,
rigid orthodoxy, fatal to educational progress, now triumphed. The coming of the
Turks only made matters worse, and with their advent education throughout
Arabia and Asia Minor became a thing of the past. Some day it will be the task of
western Europe to hand back schools and learning to the Mohammedan East. This
may be one of the by-products of the great World War.

1 84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Seville strong universities were developed, where Jews and Hel-
lenized Mohammedans taught the learning of the East, and made
further advances in the sciences and mathematics. Physics,
chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, physiology, medicine, and
surgery were the great subjects of study. Greek philosophy also
was taught. They developed schools and large libraries, taught
geography from globes, studied astronomy in observatories,
counted time by pendulum clocks, invented the compass and gun-
powder, developed hospitals, and taught medicine and surgery
in schools (R. 86).

Their cities were equally noteworthy for their magnificent
palaces,^ mosques, public baths, market-places, aqueducts, and
paved and lighted streets — things unknown in Christian Europe
for centuries to come (R. 85). It became fashionable for wealthy
men to become patrons of learning, and to collect large libraries
and place them at the disposal of scholars, thus revealing interests
in marked contrast to those of the fighting nobility of Christian
Europe.

Their influence on western Europe. Western Europe of the
tenth to the twelfth centuries presented a dreary contrast, in
almost every particular, to the brilliant life of southern Spain.
Just emerging from barbarism, it was still in an age of general
disorder and of the simplest religious faith.- The age of reason
and of scientific experiment as a means of arriving at truth had
not yet dawned, and would not do so for centuries to come.
Monks and clerics, representing the one learned class, regarded
this Moslem science as "black art," and in consequence Europe,
centuries later, had slowly to rediscover the scientific knowledge
which might have been had for the taking. Only the book science
of Aristotle would the Church accept, and even this only after
some hesitation (Rs. 89, 90).

Western Europe had, however, advanced far enough through
the study of the Seven Liberal Arts to desire corrected and addi-
tional texts of the earlier classical writers, particularly Aristotle,
and also to be willing to accept some of the mathematical knowl-

1 The Alhambra, built between 1238 and 1354, at Granada, is an exquisite exam-
ple of their art. (See plate in vol. i, p. 658, of the Encyclopedia Britannica, nth ed.,
for an illustration of their architecture and art.)

2 It was an age of superstition and miracles, diabolic influences, witchcraft and
magic, private warfare, trials by ordeal, robber bands, little dirty towns, no roads,
unsanitary conditions, and miserable homes. Even the nobility had few comforts
and conveniences, and personal cleanliness was not common. Disease was punish-
ment for sin and to be cured by prayer, while the insane were scourged to cast out
the devils within them.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 185

edge of these Saracens. It was here that the Moslem learning in
Spain helped in the intellectual awakening of the rest of Europe.
Adelhard, an English monk, studied at Cordova about 11 20, and
took back with him some knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and
geometry. His Euclid was in general use in the universities by
1300. Gerard of Cremona, in Lombardy (1114-1187), who
studied at Toledo a little later, rendered a similar service for
Italy. He also translated many works from the Arabic, including
Ptolemy's Almagest fp. 49), a book of astronomical tables, and
Alhazen's (Spanish scholar, c. iioo) book on Optics. Other
monks studied in the Spanish cities during the twelfth century,
a few of whom brought back translations of importance. Fred-
erick II ^ employed a staff of Jewish physicians to translate
Arabic works into Latin, but, due to his continual war against
the Pope and his final outlawry by the Church, his work possessed
less significance than it otherwise might have done. Among the
books thus translated was the medical textbook of Avicenna (980-
1037), based in turn on the Greek works by Galen and Hippoc-
rates of Cos (p. 197). This book described
ailments and their treatment in detail,
became the standard textbook in the med-
ical faculties of the universities, and was
used until the seventeenth century. An-
other Moslem whose translated writings
had great influence on Europe was Aver-
roes (11 26-1 198) who tried to unite the
philosophy of Aristotle with Mohamme-
danism (R. 88). His influence on the
thinkers of the later Middle Ages was
large, he being regarded as the greatest
commentator on Aristotle from the days
of Rome to the time of the Renaissance. ^^'^^ '^-- Aristotle

What Europe obtained through Moslem sources which it prized
most, though, was the commentary on Aristotle by Averroes and
the works of Aristotle (R. 88). The list of the books of Aristotle

^ Frederic II was Emperor of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire, ruling from 1227
lo 1250. Though a German by birth, he had lived long in Sicily, and spent most of
his time in Italy after becoming Emperor. He greatly admired the Saracens for
their learning, and tried to transfer some of their knowledge to Christian Europe.
He lived, however, at a time when the Papacy was cementing its temporal power
and the Pope was becoming the Emperor of Europe. This encroachment Frederick
resisted and tried to break, but without success. At his death the mediaeval German
dream of world empire perished; Germany was left a collection of feudal States; and
the temporal power of the Pope was henceforth for centuries to come undisputed.

1 86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

in use in the mediaeval universities by 1300 (R. 87) reveals the
great importance of the additions made. By the middle of the
twelfth century Aristotle's Ethics, Metaphysics, Physics, and
Psychology, as well as some of his minor works, had been trans-
lated into Latin and were beginning to be made available for
study. The translation route through which these works had
been derived was a roundabout one — Greek, Syriac, Arabic,
Castilian, Latin — and hence the translations could not be very
accurate, but they sufhced for the needs of Europe until the orig-
inal Greek versions were recovered when the Venetians and
Crusaders took and sacked Constantinople, in 1204. These were
then translated directly into the Latin. Western Europe also
was ready to use the Arabic (Hindu) system of notation, the ele-
ments of algebra, Euclid's geometry, and Ptolemy's work on the
motion of the heavens. These contributions western Europe was
ready for; the larger scientific knowledge of the Saracens, their
pharmacopoeias, dictionaries, cyclopaedias, histories, and biog-
raphies, it was not yet ready to receive.

One other influence crept in from these peoples which was of
large future importance — the music and light literature and love
songs of Spain. There had been developed in this sunny land a
life of light gayety, chivalrous gallantry, elegant courtesies, and
poetic and musical charm, and this gradually found its way across
the Pyrenees. At first it affected Provence and Languedoc, in
southern France, then Sicily and Italy, and finally the gay con-
tagion of lute and mandolin and love songs spread throughout all
western Europe. A race of troubadours and minnesingers arose,
singing in the vernacular, traveling about the country, and being
entertained in castle halls.

Lordlyng listneth to my tale

Which is merryr than the nightengale

won admission at any castle gate. "Out of these genial but not
orthodox beginnings the polite literature of modem p]urope
arose."

II. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY

The eleventh century a turning-point. By the end of the
eleventh century a distinct turning-point had been reached in
the struggle to save civilization from perishing. From this time
on it was clear that the battle had been won, and that a new
Christian civilization would in time arise in western Europe.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 187

Much still remained to be done, and centuries of effort would be
required, but the Church, almost for the first time in more than
six hundred years, felt that it could now pause to organize and
systematize its faith. The invasions and destruction of the
Northmen had at last ceased, the Mohammedan conquests were
over, almost the last of the Germanic tribes in Europe had settled
down and had accepted Christianity,^ and the fighting nobility
of Europe were being held somewhat in restraint by the might
of the Church, the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and the softening
influence of chivalric education (R. 80). There were many evi-
dences, too, by the end of the eleventh century, that the western
Christian world, after the long intellectual night, was soon to
awaken to a new intellectual life. The twelfth century, in par-
ticular, was a period when it was evident that some new leaven
was at work.

Up to about the close of the eleventh century western Europe
had been living in an age of simple faith. The Christian world
everywhere lay under "a veil of faith, illusion, and childish pre-
possession." The mysteries of Christianity and the many incon-
sistencies of its teachings and beliefs were accepted with childlike
docility, and the Church had felt little call to organize, to syste-
matize, or to explain. Here and there, to be sure, some question-
ing monk or cleric had raised questions over matters - of faith
which his reason could not explain, and had, perhaps, for a time
disturbed the peace of orthodoxy, but a statement somewhat sim-
ilar to that made by Anselm of Canterbury (footnote, p. 173), as
to the precedence of faith over reason, had usually been sufficient
to silence all inquiry. Once, in the latter part of the eleventh
century, when a great discussion as to the nature of knowledge
had taken place among the leaders of the Church, a church council
had been called to pass upon and give final settlement to the
questions raised.^

^ Christianity had not as yet been introduced among the mixed Slavic and Ger-
manic tribes along the eastern Baltic. In Prussia and Lithuania, where missionary
efforts had been made from 900 on, success did not come until more than three centu-
ries later. (See art. "Missions," Ency. Brit., nth ed., vol. 18.)

- The more important questions arising concerned the Trinity, the Eucharist,
and Transubstantiation.

■' This discussion was o\er what was known as nominalism vs. realism. Anselm
of Canterbury (i 034-1 109), basing his argument largely on some parts of Plato, had
declared that ideas constituted our real existence. Roscellinus of Compiegne (1050-
1106), basing his argument on parts of the Organon of Aristotle, had held that ideas
or concepts are only names for real, concrete things. Anselm, as a realist, contended
that the human senses are deceptive, and that revealed truth alone is reliable.
Roscellinus, as a nominalist, held that truth can be reached only through investiga-

188 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Rise of the spirit of inquiry. As the cathedral schools grew in
importance as teaching institutions, and came to have many
teachers and students, a few of them became noted as places
where good instruction was imparted and great teachers were to
be found. Canterbury in England, Paris and Chartres in France,
and several of the cities in northern Italy early were noted for
the quahty of their instruction. The great teachers and the keen-
est students of the time were to be found in the cathedral schools
in these places, and the monastic schccls now lost their earlier
importance as teaching institutions. By the twelfth century they
had been completely superseded as important teaching centers
by the rapidly developing cathedral schools. To these more
important cathedral schools students row came from long dis-
tances to study under some noted teacher. Says McCabe: ^

The scholastic fever which was soon to influence the youth of
Europe, had already set in. You could not travel far over the rough
roads of France without meeting some footsore scholar, making for the
nearest large monastery or cathedral town. Robbers, frequently in
the service of the lord of the land, infested every provmce. It was
safest to don the coarse frieze tunic of the pilgrim, without pockets,
sling your little wax tablets and stylus at your girdle, strap a wallet
of bread and herbs and salt on your back, and laugh at the nervous
folk who peeped out from their coaches over a hedge of pikes and dag-
gers. Few monasteries refused a meal or a rough bed to the wandering
scholar. Rarely was any fee exacted for the lesson given.

The cathedral school in connection with the church of Notre
Dame ^ became especially famous for its teachers of the Liberal
Arts (particularly Dialectic) and of Theology, and to this school,
just as the eleventh century was drawing to a close, came a youth,
then barely twenty ye^rs of age, who is generally regarded as
having been the keenest scholar of the twelfth century. His
brilliant intellect soon enabled him to refute the instruction of
his teachers and to vanquish them in debate. His name was
Abelard. Before long he himself became a teacher of Grammar
and Logic at Paris, and later of Theology, and, so widely had he

tion and the use of reason. The church accepted the realism of Anselm as correct,
and Roscellinus was compelled to recant. The stifling effect of such an attitude
toward honest doubt can be imagined.

' McCabe, Joseph, Peter Abelard, p. 7.

2 By the beginning of the eleventh century this cathedral school had become the
most important in France, a position which it retained for centuries. It was the
great center for theological study, and drew to it a succession of eminent teachers —
William of Champcaux. Abelard, Peter the Lombard — and, in time, thousands of
students.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL

i8g

read, so clearly did he appeal to the reason of his hearers, and so
incisive was his teaching, that he attracted large numbers of stu-
dents to his lectures. To assist in his teaching of Theology he
prepared a little textbook. Sic et Non (Yea and Nay), in which
he raised for debate many
questions as to church teach-
ings (R. 91 b), such as ''That
faith is based on reason, or
not." In the introduction to
this textbook he held that
''constant and frequent ques-
tioning is the first key to wis-
dom" (R. 91 a). His method
was to give the authorities on
both sides, but to render no
decision. His boldness in rais-
ing such questions for debate
was new, and his failure to
give the students a decision
was quite unusual, while his
claim that reason was ante-
cedent to faith was startling.
Even after being driven from
Paris, in part because of this
boldness and in part because
of a most unfortunate incident
which deservedly ruined his
career in the Church, stud-
ents in numbers followed him
to his retreat and listened to
his teachings. His method of
instruction was for the time
so unusual and his spirit of
inquiry so searching that he stimulated many a young mind to
a new type of thinking. One of his pupils was Peter the Lom-
bard (p. 171 ), who completely redirected the teaching of theology
with his Book of Sentences (c. 1145)- This was based largely
on Abelard's method, except that a positive and orthodox decision
was presented for each question raised.

What took place at Paris also took place, though generally on
^ smaller scale, at many other cathedral and monastery schools

Fig. 53. The Cathedral of Notre
Dame, at Paris

The present cathedral was begun in 11 63,
consecrated in 1182, and completed in the
thirteenth century. It is built on an island
in the Seine, and on the site of a church
built in the fourth century. The little com-
munity which grew up about the cathedral
church formed the nucleus about which the
city of Paris eventually grew. This cathe-
dral front, with its statues and beautiful
carving, formed a type much followed dur-
ing the great period of cathedral-building
(thirteenth century) in Europe. The school
in connection with this cathedral early be-
came famous.

I90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of western Europe. The spirit of inquiry had at last been awak-
ened, the Church was being respectfully challenged by its chil-
dren to prove its faith, and the learning of the Saracens in Spain,
which now began to filter across the Pyrenees, added to the
strength of their challenge. Returning pilgrims and crusaders
(First Crusade, 1099) also began to ask for an explanation of the
doubts which had come to them from the contact with Greek and
Arab in the East. A desire for a philosophy which would explain
the mysteries and contradictions of the Christian faith found
expression among the scholars of the time. In the larger cathe-
dral schools, at least, it became common to discuss the doctrines
of the Church with much freedom.

The rise of scholastic theology. The Church, in a very intelli-
gent and commendable manner, prepared to meet and use this
new spirit in the organization, systematization, and restatement
of its faith and doctrine, and the great era of Scholasticism ^ now
arose. During the latter part of the twelfth and in the thirteenth
century Scholasticism was at its height ; after that, its work being
done, it rapidly declined as an educational force, and the new
universities inherited the spirit which had given rise to its labors.

With the new emphasis now placed on reasoning. Dialectic or
Logic superseded Grammar as the great subject of study, and
logical analysis was now applied to the problems of religion. The
Church adopted and guided the movement, and the schools of
the time turned their energy into directions approved by it.
Aristotle also was in time adopted by the Church, after the trans-
lation of his principal works had been effected (Rs. 87, 90), and
his philosophy was made a bulwark for' Christian doctrine through-
out the remainder of the Middle Ages. For the next four centu-
ries Aristotle thoroughly dominated all philosophic thinking. -
The great development and use of logical analysis now produced
many keen and subtle minds, who worked intensively a narrow
and limited field of thought. The result was a thorough reorgani-
zation and restatement of the theology of the Church.

^ The term scholasticism comes from scholasticus, because it was chiefly in the
cathedral schools that scholasticism arose. It means, literally, the method of think-
ing worked out by the teachers in the cathedral schools.

^ The English philosopher John Locke (163 2-1 704) once said that when he con-
sidered the inertness of the Middle Ages he was led to think that God had been
content to make man a two-legged animal, leaving to Aristotle the task of mak-
ing him a thinking being. The worship of Aristotle is easily explained by the
great amount of information his works contained, his logical method and skillful
classification of knowledge, and the way his ideas as to causes fitted into Christian
reasoning.

Plate 3. Saint Thomas Aquinas in the School of
Albertus Magnus

(After the painting by H. Lerolle)

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 191

This was the work of Scholasticism. The movement was not
characterized by the evolution of new doctrines, but by a system-
atization and organization into good teaching form of what had
grown up during the preceding thousand years. To a large degree
it was also an "accommodation" of the old theology to the new
Aristotelian philosophy which had recently been brought back to
western Europe, and the statement of the Christian doctrines in
good philosophic form.

The organizing work of the Schoolmen. Peter the Lombard
(1100-1160), whose Book of Sentences, mentioned above, had so
completely changed the character of the instruction in Theology,
began this work of theological reorganization. Albert the Great
{Albertus Magnus, 1 193-1280) was the first of the great School-
men, and has been termed '' the organizing intellect of the Middle
Ages." He was a German Dominican monk,^ bom in Swabia,
and educated in the schools of Paris, Padua, and Bologna. Later
he became a celebrated teacher at Paris and Cologne. He was
the first to state the philosophy of Aristotle in systematic form,
and was noted as an exponent of the work of Peter the Lombard.
Thomas Aquinas (c. 12 25-1 2 74), the greatest and most influential
scholastic philosopher of the Middle Ages, studied first at Monte
Cassino and Naples, and then at Paris and Cologne, under Al-
bertus Magnus. He later became a noted teacher of Philosophy
and Theology at Rome, Bologna, Viterbo, Perugia, and Naples.
Under him Scholasticism came to its highest development in his
harmonizing the new Aristotelianism with the doctrines of the
Church. His class teaching was based on Aristotle, ^ the Vulgate
Bible, and Peter the Lombard's Book of Sentences. During the
last three years of his life he wrote his Summa Theologica, a book
which has ever since been accepted as an authoritative statement
of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.

1 The Dominicans, or Black Friars, were a new teaching and preaching monastic
order, founded in 1 216. It was a revival of monasticism, directed toward more
modern ends. The Dominicans established themselves in connection with the new
universities, and sought to control education and to defend orthodoxy. Another
new order of this same period was that of the Franciscans, or Gray Friars, founded
by Saint Francis in 1 2 1 2. Their work was directed still more to preaching, missions,
and public service. They were a less intellectual but a more democratic brother-
hood. It was the Franciscans who followed the armies of Spain to Mexico, and
later built and conducted the missions of the central and southern California coast.

2 Special translations of Aristotle's khetoric and Politics, from the original Greek
texts, obtained at Constantinople by the Crusaders, were made for Thomas Aquinas
at his special request, about 1260, by William of Moerbeke, who knew enough Greek
to perform the task. This gave him better translations from which to lecture and
write.

192 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The character of the organization made by Peter the Lombard
and Thomas Aquinas may be seen from an examination of
their method of presentation, which was dogmatic in form and
similar in the textbooks of each. The field of Chfistian Theology
was divided out into parts, heads, subheads, etc., in a way that
would cover the subject, and a group of problems, each dealing
with some doctrinal point, was then presented under each. The
problem was first stated in the text. Next the authorities and
arguments for each solution other than that considered as ortho-
dox were presented and confuted, in order. The orthodox solu-
tion was next presented, the arguments and authorities for such
solution quoted, and the objections to the correct solution pre-
sented and refuted (R. 152).

Results of their work. The work of the Schoolmen was to
organize and present in systematic and dogmatic form the teach-
ings of the Church (R. 92). This they did exceedingly well, and
the result was a thorough organization of Theology as a teaching
subject. They did little to extend knowledge, and nothing at all
to apply it to the problems of nature and man. Their work was
abstract and philosophical instead, dealing wholly with theolog-
ical questions. The purpose was to lay down principles, and to
offer a training in analysis, comparison, classification, and deduc-
tion which would prepare learned and subtle defenders of the faith
of the Church. So successful were the Schoolmen in their efforts
that instruction in Theology was raised by their work to a new
position of importance, and a new interest in theological scholar-
ship and general learning was awakened which helped not a Httle
to deflect many strong spirits from a life of .warfare to a life of
study. They made the problems of learning seem much more
worth while, and their work helped to create a more tolerant
attitude toward the supporters of either side of debatable ques-
tions by revealing so clearly that there are two sides to every
question. This new learning, new interest in learning, and new
spirit of tolerance the rising universities inherited.

III. LAW AND MEDICINE AS NEW STUDIES

The old Roman cities. The old Roman Empire, it will be re-
membered, came to be largely a collection of provincial cities.
These were the centers of Roman civilization and culture. After
the downfall of the governing power of Rome, the great highways
were no longer repaired, brigandage became common, trade and

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 193

intercourse largely ceased, and the provincial cities which were
not destroyed in the barbarian invasions declined in population
and number, passing under the control of their bishops who long
ruled them as feudal lords. During the long period of disorder
many of the old Roman cities entirely disappeared (R. 49) . Only
in Italy, and particularly in northern Italy, did these old cities
retain anything of their earlier municipal life, or anything worth
mentioning of their former industry and commerce. But even
here they lost most of their earher importance as centers of cul-
ture and trade, becoming merely ecclesiastical towns. After the
death of ^Charlemagne, the break-up of his empire, and the insti-
tution of feudal conditions, the cities and towns declined still more
in importance, and few of any size remained.

In Italy feudalism never attained the strength it did in northern
Europe. Throughout all the early Middle Ages the cities there
retained something of their old privileges, though ruled by prince-
bishops residing in them. They also retained something of the
old Roman civilization, and Roman legal usages and some knowl-
edge of Roman law never quite died out. In other respects they
much resembled mediaeval cities elsewhere.

Reestablishment of the Holy Roman Empire. After the dis-
integration of Charlemagne's empire, the portion of it now known
as Germany broke up into fragments, largely independent of one
another, and full of fight and pride. The result there was contin-
ual and pitiless warfare. This, coupled with the raids of the
Northmen along the northern coast and the Magyars on the east,
led to the election of a king in 919 (Henry the Fowler) who could
establish some semblance of unity and order. By 961 the German
duchies and small principalities had been so consolidated that a
succeeding king (Otto I) felt himself able to attempt to reestablish
the Holy Roman Empire by subjugating Italy and annexing it as
an appendage under German rule.

He descended into Italy (961), subjugated the cities, overthrew
the Papacy, created a pope to his liking, and reestablished the old
Empire, in name at least. For a century the German rule was
nominal, but with the outbreak of the conflict in the eleventh
century between king and pope over the question of which one
should invest the bishops with their authority (known as the
investiture conflict, 1075-1122), Pope Gregory VII humbled the
German king (Henry IV) at Canossa (1077) and won a partial
success. Then followed repeated invasions of Italy, and a cen-

194

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tury and a half of conflicts between pope and king before the
dream of universal empire under a German feudal king ended in
disaster, and Italy was freed from Teutonic rule.

The Italian cities revive the study of Roman law. As was
stated above, Roman legal usages and some knowledge of Roman

^^ ,0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 54, The City-States of Northern Italy

All of the cities in the valley of the Po, except Turin, Pavia, and Mantua, were
members of the Lombard League of 1167.

law had never quite died out in these Italian cities. But, while
regarded with reverence, the law was not much understood, little
study was given to it, and important parts of it were neglected
and forgotten. The struggle with the ruling bishops in the second
half of the eleventh century, and the discussions which arose dur-
ing the investiture conflict, caused new attention to be given to
legal questions, and both the study of Roman (civil) and Church
(canon) law were revived. The Italian cities stood with the
Papacy in the struggles with the German kings, and, in 1167,
those in the Valley of the Po formed what was known as the
Lombard League for defense. Under the pressure of German

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 195

oppression they now began a careful study of the known Roman
law in an effort to discover some charter, edict, or grant of power
upon which they could base their claim for independent legal
rights. The result was that the study of Roman law was given
an emphasis unknown in Italy since the days of the old Empire.
What had been preserved during the period of disorder at last
came to be understood, additional books of the law were discov-
ered, and men suddenly awoke to a realization that what had
been before considered as of little value actually contained much
that was worth studying, as well as many principles of import-
ance that were applicable to the conditions and problems of the
time.

The great student and teacher of law of the period was Imerius
of Bologna (c. 1070-1137), who began to lecture on the Code and
the Institutes of Justinian about mo to 1115, and soon attracted
large numbers of students to hear his interpretations. About this

^ tev5Vfivycjv^TCivLs\Ki-M05v;s\

i\vi5vm va|av\tv iL 4^?»

^^ulu<:UB^^o^ep^lo^^utteUulaAtli?u^ppu

cnl.<ei:;tlU5^UeMlspePu5u^eM^lppue^4dl
^ 5xUupepiia^ ^ui^ s txfj t IS*

e^m>u5u>'ppiicxu5?iu5iMCcppopec|uo<ru
BlMoe-tip>*ua>T*.»lliNec«rs5ee5T'

uelAupeopun^ocr»i4iucn|^pAev^iopUiViu|ie-

le^Atipote5XcoKJsiituiususppiictu5UT

^epe>'lul^eNTup^^^exUculusua^ppuctu"^

Fig. 55. Fragment from the Recovered "Digest" of Justinian

Capitals and small letters are here used, but note the difficulty of reading without

spacing or punctuation.

same time the Digest, much the largest and most important part
of the old law, was discovered and made known. ^ This gave clear-

1 In 529 the Eastern Emperor, Justinian (see p. 76), directed that an orderly
compilation be prepared of the many and confused laws and decisions which had
been made in the Roman Empire, with a view to producing a standard body of

196 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ness to tHe whole, as before its discovery the study of Roman law
was like the study of Aristotle when only parts of the Organon
were known. Irnerius and his co-laborers at Bologna now col-
lected and arranged the entire body of Roman civil law {Corpus
Juris Civilis) (R. 93), introduced the Digest to western Europe,
and thus made a new contribution of first importance to the list
of possible higher studies. Law now ceased to be a part of
Rhetoric (p. 157) and became a new subject of study, with a body
of material large enough to occupy a student for several years.
This was an event of great intellectual significance. A new study
was now evolved which offered great possibilities for intellectual
activity and the exercise of the critical faculty, while at the same
time showing veneration for authority. Law was thus placed
alongside Theology as a professional subject, and the evolution of
the professional lawyer from the priest was now for the first time
made possible.

Canon law also organized as a subject of study. Inspired b\'
the revival of the study of civil law, a monk of Bologna, Gratian
by name, set himself to make a compilation of all the Church
canons which had been enacted since the Council of Nicaea (325)
formulated the first twenty (p. g6), and of the rules for church
government as laid down by the church authorities. This he
issued in textbook form, about 1142, under the title of Decretum
Gratiani. So successful were his efforts that his compilation was
"one of those great textbooks that take the world by storm." It
did for canon (church) law what the rediscovery of the Justinian
Code had done for civil law; that is, it organized canon law as a
new and important teaching subject.

The Decretum of Gratian was published in three parts, and was
organized after the same plan as Abelard's Sic et Non, except that
Gratian drew conclusions from the mass of evidence he presented
on each topic. It contained 147 ''Distinctions" (questions; cases
of church policy), upon each of which were cited the church canons

Roman law in place of the unwieldy mass of contradictory material then existing.
The result was the Corpus Juris Civilis, worked out by a staff of eminent lawyers
between 529 and 533 (R. 93). This consisted of

I. The Code, in twelve books, containing the Statutes of the P^mperors:
II. The Digest, in fifty books, containing pertinent extracts from the opinions of
celebrated Roman lawyers:

III. The Institutes, in four books, being an elementary textbook on the law for
the use of students:

IV. The Novellce, or new Statutes, the final edition of which was issued in 565,
and included the laws from 533 on. This was preserved and used in the
East, but came too late to be of much service to the Western Empire.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 197

and the views and decisions of important church authorities.^
This volume was added to by popes later on,^ so that by the fif-
teenth century a large body of canon law had grown up, which was
known as the Corpus Juris Canonici. Canon Law was thus sepa-
rated from Theology and added to Civil Law as another new sub-
ject of study for both theological and legal students, and the two
subjects of Canon and Civil Law came to constitute the work of the
law faculties in the universities which soon arose in western Europe.
The beginnings of medical study. The Greeks had made some
progress in the beginnings of the study of disease (p. 47). Aris-
totle had given some anatom-
ical knowledge in his writings
on animals, and had theorized
a little about the functions of
the human body. The real
founder of medical science,
though, was Hippocrates, of
the island of Cos (c. 460-367
B.C.) , a contemporary of Plato.
He was the first writer on the
subject who attempted to base
the practice of the healing art
on careful observation and sci-
entific principles. He substi-
tuted scientific reason for the
wrath of offended deities as the
causes of disease, and tried to
offer proper remedies in place
of sacrifices and prayers to the
gods for cures. His descriptions of diseases were wonderfully
accurate, and his treatments ruled medical practice for ages.'^ He

^ The subdivisions were as follows:
T. Contained io6 "distinctions," relating to ecclesiastical persons and affairs.
II. Contained 36 "distinctions," relating to problems arising in the administra-

relating to the ritual and sacraments of the

Fig. 56., The Father of Medicine
Hippocrates of Cos (460-367? b.c.)

III.

tion of canon law.
Contained 5 "distinctions,'
Church.
- The additions were:
T. The Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, issued in 1234, in five books,
n. A Supplement to the above by Pope Boniface VIIT {Liber Sextus), issued in
1298.

III. The Constitutions of Clementine, issued in 1317.

IV. Several additions of Papal Laws, not included in any of the above.

* He held that the body contained four humors — blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and
black bile. Disease was caused by an undue accumulation of some one of the four.
Hence the office of the pbj^sician was to reduce this accumulation by some means,

198 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

knew, however, little as to anatomy. Another Greek writer,
Galen^ (131-201 a.d.), wrote extensively on medicine and left an
anatomical account of the human body which was unsurpassed
for more than a thousand years. His work was known and used
by the Saracens. Avicenna (980-1037), an eastern Mohamme-
dan, wrote a Canon of Medicine in which he summarized the work
of all earlier writers, and gave a more minute description of symp-
toms than any preceding writer had done. These works, together
with a few minor writings by teachers in Spain and Salerno,
formed the basis of all medical knowledge until Vesalius published
his System of Human Anatomy, in 1543.

The Roman knowledge of medicine was based almost entirely
on that of the Greeks, and after the rise of the Christians, with
their new attitude toward earthly life and contempt for the human
body, the science fell into disrepute and decay. Saint Augustine
(354-430), in his great work on The City of God, speaks with some
bitterness of "medical men who are called anatomists," and who
''with a cruel zeal for science have dissected the bodies of the dead,
and sometimes of sick persons, who have died under their knives,
and have inhumanly pried into the secrets of the human body to
learn the nature of disease and its exact seat, and how it might be
cured." ^ During the early Middle Ages the Greek medical knowl-
edge practically disappeared, and in its place came the Christian
theories of satanic influence, diabolic action, and divine punish-
ment for sin. Correspondingly the cures were prayers at shrines
and repositories of sacred relics and images, which were found
all over Europe, and to which the injured or fever-stricken peas-
ants hied themselves to' make offerings and to pray, and then
hope for a miracle.

Toward the middle of the eleventh century Salerno, a small
city delightfully situated on the ItaHan coast (see Map, p. 194),
thirty-four miles south of Naples, began to attain some reputa-

such as blood-letting, purging, blisters, diaphoretics, etc. In the monastery of Saint
Gall (see Diagram, R. 69) a blood-letting room was a part of the establishment, and
this practice was continued until well into the nineteenth century.

1 Galen was born at Pergamon, in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. He studied
medicine at Pergamon, Smyrna, and Alexandria, and for a time lived in Rome.
Returning to Pergamon he was appointed physician to the athletes in the gymnasium
there. He later went back to Rome and became physician to the Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. He is credited with five hundred works on literature, philosophy, and
medicine, one hundred and eighteen of which have survived. In medicine he wrote
on anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, pathology, therapeutics, materia medica, sur-
gery, hygiene, and dietetics. He was the first to use the pulse as a means of detect-
ing physical condition.

2 Saint Augustine, The Cily of God, book xxii, chap. 24.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 199

tion as a health resort. In part this was due to the cKmate and
in part to its mineral springs. Southern Italy had, more than
any other part of western Europe, retained touch with old Greek
thought. The works of Hippocrates and Galen had been pre-
served there, the monks at Monte Cassino had made some trans-
lations, and sometime toward the middle of the eleventh century
the study of the Greek medical books was revived here. The
Mohammedan medical work by Avicenna (p. 185), also early be-
came known here in translation. * About 1065 Constantine of
Carthage, a converted Jew and a learned monk, who had traveled
extensively in the East ^ and who had been forced to flee from his
native city because of a suspicion of "black art," began to lecture
at Salerno on the Greek and Mohammedan medical works and
the practice of the medical art. In 1099 Robert, Duke of Nor-
mandy, returning from the First Crusade, stopped here to be
cured of a wound, and he and his knights later spread the fame
of Salerno all over Europe. The result was the revival of the
study of Medicine in the West, and Salerno developed into the
first of the medical schools of Europe. Montpellier, in southern
France, also became another early center for the study of Medi-
cine, drawing much of its medical knowledge from Spain. An-
other new subject of professional study was now made possible,
and Faculties of Medicine were in time organized in most of the
universities as they arose. The instruction, though, was chiefly
book instruction, Galen being the great textbook until the seven-
teenth century.

IV. OTHER np:w influences and movements

The Crusades. Perhaps the most romantic happenings during
the Middle Ages were that series of adventurous expeditions to
the then Far East, undertaken by the kings and knights of western
Europe in an attempt to reclaim the Holy Land from the infidel
Turks, who in the eleventh century had pushed in and were
persecuting Christian pilgrims journeying to Jerusalem. For
centuries single pilgrims, small bands of pilgrims, and sometimes
large numbers led by priest or noble, had journeyed to dis-
tant shrines, to Rome, and to the birthplace of the Saviour, ^

^ Often spoken of as Constantius Africanus. It is recorded that he studied the
arts in Babylon, visited Egypt and India, and returned to his home in Carthage one
of the most learned men of his age. Suspected of dealings with the Devil he fled to
Salernum (c. 1065), taught there for many years, published many medical works of
his own, and finally retired to the monastery of Monte Cassino, dying there in 1087.

'' In T064 a company of seven thousand is said to have started for the Holy Land.

200

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

impelled by pure religious devotion, a desire to do penance for
sin, or seeking a cure from some disease by prayer and penance.
It was the spirit of the age. Says Adams: ^

A pilgrimage was ... in itself a reli-
gious act securing merit and reward for
the one who performed it, balancing a
certain number for his sins, and making
his escape from the world of torment
hereafter more certain. The more dis-
tant and more difficult the pilgrimage,
the more meritorious, especially if it led
to such supremely holy places as those
which had been sanctified by the pres-
ence of Christ himself. For the man of
the world, for the man who could not, or
would not, go into monasticism, the pil-
grimage was the one conspicuous act by
which he could satisfy the ascetic need,
and gain its rewards. A crusade was a
stupendous pilgrimage, under especially
favorable and meritorious conditions.

Fig, 57. A Pilgrim of the
Middle Ages

(From an old manuscript in the
British Museum)

The Mohammedan Arabs who took
possession of the Holy Land in the
seventh century had treated the pilgrims considerately, but the
Turks were of a different stamp. In 107 1 they had defeated the
P^astem Emperor, captured all Asia Minor, and had taken posses-
sion of the fortress of Nicaea (Map, p. 183), near Constanti-
nople. The Eastern Emperor now appealed to Rome for help.
In 1077 the Turks captured Jerusalem, and returning pilgrims
soon began to report having experienced great hardships. In
1095 Pope Urban, in a stirring address to the Council of Clermont
(France), issued a call to the lords, knights, and foot soldiers of
western Christendom to cease destroying their fellow Christians
in private warfare, and to turn their strength of arms against the
infidel and rescue the Holy Land. The journey was to take the
place of penance for sin, many special privileges were extended
to those who went, and those who died on the journey or in battle
with the infidels were promised entrance into heaven.^ To many

^ Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, 2d ed., p. 261.

2 "From Clermont the enthusiasm spread over France like wildfire. Stirring
preachers, whereof the most notable was Peter the Hermit, set all France, peasant
and noble, to arming. It was the old gospel of Mohammed recast in Christian guise:
— pardon for sin and the spoils of the infidel if victorious ! — a swift road to heaven
if slain in the battle! Pressed with this hope and enthusiasm, armies to be reckoned
by the hundreds of thousands were launched upon the East." (Davis, W. S., Medie-
val and Modern Europe, p. 95.)

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 201

nobles and peasants, filled with a desire for adventure c^nd a sense
of personal sin, no surer way of satisfying either was to be found
than the long pilgrimage to the Saviour's tomb. In France and
England the call met with instant response. Unfortunately for
the future of civilization, the call met with but small response
from the nobles of German lands.

The First Crusade set out in 1096. A second went in 1144,
and a third in 1187. These were the great Crusades, though five
others were undertaken during the thirteenth century. Jerusa-
lem was taken and lost. The Christians quarreled with one
another and with the Greeks, though with the Saracens they
established somewhat friendly relations, and a mutual respect
arose. The armies which went were composed of all kinds of
people — lords, knights, merchants, adventurers, peasants, out-
laws — and a spirit of adventure and a desire for personal gain,
as well as a spirit of religious devotion, actuated many who went.
In 1 204 the Venetians diverted the fourth crusade to the capture
of Constantinople, and established there an outpost of their great
commercial empire. The history of the crusades we do not need
to trace. The important matter for our purpose was the results
of the movement on the intellectual development of western
Europe.

Results of the Crusades on western Europe. In a sense the
Crusades were an outward manifestation of the great change in
thinking and ideals which had begun sometime before in western
Europe. They were at once both a sign and a cause of further
change. The old isolation was at last about to end, and inter-
communication and some common ideas and common feelings
were being brought about. Both those who went and those who
remained at home were deeply stirred by the movement. Chris-
tendom as a great international community, in which all alike
were interested in a common ideal and in a common fight against
the infidel, was a new idea now dawning upon the mass of the
people, whereas before it had been but little understood.

The travel to distant lands, the sight of cities of wealth and
power, and the contact with peoples decidedly superior to them-
selves in civilization, not only excited the imagination and led to
a broadening of the minds of those who returned, but served as
well to raise the general level of intelligence in western Europe.
Some new knowledge also was brought back, but that was not at
the time of great importance. The principal gain came in the

202 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

elimination forever of thousands of quarreling, fighting noble-
men,^ thus giving the kingly power a chance to consolidate hold-
ings and begin the evolution of modem States; in the marked
change of attitude toward the old problems; in the awakening of
a new interest in the present world; in the creation of new inter-
ests and new desires among the common people ; in the awakening
of a spirit of religious unity and of national consciousness; and
especially in the awakening of a new intellectual life, which soon
found expression in the organization of universities for study and
in more extensive travel and geographical exploration than the
world had known since the days of ancient Rome. The greatest
of all the results, however, came through the revival of trade,
commerce, manufacturing, and industry in the rising cities of
western Europe, with the consequent evolution of a new and im-
portant class of merchants, bankers, and craftsmen, who formed
a new city class and in time developed a new system of training
for themselves and their children.

The revival of city life. The old cities of central and northern
Italy, as was stated above (p. 194), continued through the early
Middle Ages as places of some little local importance. In the
eleventh century they overthrew in large part the rule of their
Prince-Bishops, and became little City-Republics, much after the
old Greek model. Outside of Italy almost the only cities not
destroyed during the period of the barbarian invasions were the
episcopal cities, that is cities which were the residences of bishops.

Outside of Italy the present cities of western Europe either rose
on the ruins of former Roman provincial cities, or originated about
some monastery or castle, on or adjacent to land at one time
owned by monks or feudal lord. An ever-increasing company
of peasants, themselves little more than serfs in the beginning,
huddled together in such places for the protection afforded, and
a walled feudal town eventually resulted (R. 94 a). This later,
in one way or another, secured its freedom from monastic control

1 Of the thousands of petty lords and knights who went to the hot East, clad in
the heavy armor of northern Europe, large numbers left their bones along the wa>'
or in the Syrian sands, and the landholdings at home reverted to the Crown. Thi'^
was a crushing blow to the old feudal regime, advanced the cause of civilization, and
helped in the rise of the modern nations. Especially was this true in France and
England, whose knights went in large numbers to the East. In Germany the knights
and nobles, as a class, refused to have anything to do with the Crusades, and hence
they were not killed off or impoverished, but remained to rule and multiply and be
troublesome. This is one reason for the much earlier rise and greater strength of
French than German nationality, and one reason why Germany has been so much
slower than France and England in developing a democratic type of civilization.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 203

or feudal lord, and evolved into the free city we know to-day.
Originally each little city was a self-sustaining community. The
farming and grazing lands lay outside, while the people were
crowded compactly together within the protecting town walls.
The need for walls that could be manned for defense, gates that

Fig. 58. A Typical Medieval Town (Prussian)

All the elements of a typical mediaeval town are seen here — the walls for defense,
the watch-towers, the churches, the tall cathedral, the castle, and the high houses
huddled together.

could shut out the marauder, the narrow, dirty streets, and the
lack of any sanitary ideas, all alike tended to keep the towns
small. ^ The insecurity of life, the constant warfare, the repeated
failures or destruction of crops without and want within, and the
high death-rate from disease, all kept down the population. A
town of a thousand people in the early Middle Ages was a place
of some importance, while probably no city outside of Italy,
excepting Paris and London, had ten thousand inhabitants before
the year 1200. In all England there were but 2,150,000 people,
according to the Domesday Survey (1086), while to-day the city
of London alone contains nearly three times that number.

^ "As presented to the eye, a typical mediaeval city would be a remarkable sight.
Its extent would be small, both because of the limited population, and the need of
making the circuit of the walls to be defended as short as possible ; but within these
walls the huge, many-storied houses would be wedged closely together. The narrow
streets would be dirty and ill-paved — often beset by pigs in lieu of scavengers; but
everywhere there would be bustling human life with every citizen elbowing close to
everybody else. Out of the foul streets here and there would rise parish churches of
marvelous architecture, and in the center of the town extended the great square —
market-place — where the open-air markets would be held, and close by it, dwarfing
the lesser churches, the tall gray cathedral — the pride of the community; close by,
also, the City Hall, an elegant secular edifice, where the council met, where the
great public feasts could take place, and above which rose the mighty belfry, whence
clanged the great alarm-bell to call the citizens together in mass meeting, or to don
armor and man the walls." (Davis, W. S., Mediaval and Modern Europe^ p. 146.)

204 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

After about the year looo a revival of something like city life-
begins to be noticeable here and there in the records of the time
(R. 94 a), and by iioo these signs begin to manifest themselves
in many places and lands. By 1200 the cities of Europe were
numerous, though small, and their importance in the life of the
times ^ was rapidly increasing (R. 94 b).

The rise of a city class. As the mediaeval towns increased in
size and importance the inhabitants, being human, demanded
rights. Between iioo and 1200 there were frequent revolts of
the people of the mediaeval towns against their feudal overlord,
and frequent demands were made for charters granting privileges
to the towns. Sometimes these insurrections were put down with
a bloody hand. Sometimes, on the contrary, the overlord granted
a charter of rights, willingly or unwillingly, and freed the people
from obligation to labor on the lands in return for a fixed mone}-
payment. Sometimes the king himself granted the inhabitants a
charter by way of curbing the power of the local feudal lord or
bishop. The towns became exceedingly skillful in playing off
lord against bishop, and the king against both. In England,
Flanders, France, and Germany some of the towns had become
wealthy enough to purchase their freedom and a charter at some
time when their feudal overlord was particularly in need of money.
These charters, or birth certificates for the towns, were carefully
drawn and officially sealed documents of great value, and were
highly prized as evidences of local liberty. The document created
a "free town," and gave to the inhabitants certain specified rights
as to self-government, the election of magistrates — aldermen,
mayor, burgomaster — - the levying and payment of taxes, and
the military service to be rendered. Before the evolution of
strong national governments these charters created hundreds of
what were virtually little City-States throughout Europe (R. 95).

In these towns a new estate or class of people was now created
(R. 96), in between the ruling bishops and lords on the one hand
and the peasants tilling the land on the other. These were the
citizens — freemen, bourgeoisie, burghers. Out of "this new class

1 In Italy, in particular, the cities became strong and powerful, and eventually
overthrew the rule of the bishops and defeated the German Emperor, Frederick 1,
in a long battle to preserve their independence. In Flanders such cities as Ypres,
Bruges, and Ghent, came to dominate there. In 1302 their burghers defeated the
French army; and in the sixteenth century they helped to break the autocratic
power of Spain in a great struggle for human and civic freedom. By the thirteenth
century Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Augsburg, and Nuremburg were important
commercial cities in Germany.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 205

of city dwellers new social orders — merchants, bankers, trades-
men, artisans, and craftsmen — in time arose, and these new
orders soon demanded lights and obtained some form of educa-
tion for their children. The guild or apprenticeship education
which early developed in the cities to meet the needs of artisans
and craftsmen (R. 99), and the burgh or city schools of Europe,

/ ^

Churchmen
Higher nobility.

\ Lower nohility.
\ Higher commercial classes.

/ ^

\ Merchants; manufacturers.
\ Land owners; professional men.

/ 4

N. Small shop keepers.
N^Craftsmen, farmers.

^y^ 5

X^Day laborers.
^vE) ependents

Fig. 59. The Educational Pyramid

(From Smith, W. R., Educational Sociology, p. 176)

The concave pyramid suggests comparative numbers. Formal
education began at the top, and has slowly worked downward.

which began to develop in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu-
ries, were the educational results of the rise of cities and the
evolution of these new social classes. The time would soon be
ripe for the mysteries of learning to be passed somewhat farther
down the educational pyramid, and new classes in society would
begin the mastery of its symbols.

The revival of commerce. The first city of mediaeval Europe
to obtain commercial prominence was Venice. She early sold
salt and fish obtained from the lagoons to the Lombards in the
Valley of the Po, and sent trading ships to the Greek East. By
the year 1000 Venetian ships were bringing the luxuries and riches
of the Orient to Venice, and the city soon became a great trading
center. There the partially civilized Christian knight "spent
splendidly," and the Bohemian, German, and Hunnish lords
came^ to buy such of the luxuries of the East as they could af-
ford. By HOG Venice was a free City-State, the mistress of the
Adriatic, and the trade of the East with Christian Europe passed
over her wharves. From the Crusades she profited greatly, carry-

^ They came there because, due to their plundering and murdering proclivities,
Venice forbade her merchants to go to them.

2o6

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ing knights eastward in the great fleet she had developed, and
carpets, fabrics, perfumes, spices, dyes, drugs, silks, and precious
stones on the return voyage. From Tana and Trebizond her
traders penetrated far into the interior. Her ships and merchants
''held the Golden East in fee." By 1400 she was the wealthiest
and most powerful city in Europe.

Genoa in time became the great rival of Venice. Marseilles
also developed a large trade in the Mediterranean and with the
north. From these three cities trade routes ran to the cities of
Flanders, England, and Germany, as is shown in the map below.
By the thirteenth century, Augsburg, Nuremburg, Magdeburg,
Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Antwerp, Ghent, Ypres, Bruges, and

CHlei imderllned ehow the Chief Hanea Towna,
SO^ or H ansa Trading Post 8^

.........Chief Land Routes.

Genoese Sea Routes

.__ Venetian '■ ''

Loniritude West 0° Lcmgltade East

faom — Greenwich^ "20

Fig. 6o. Trade Routes and Commercial Cities

London were developing into great commercial cities. Despite

bad roads, bad bridges,^ bad inns, "robber knights" and bandits,

the commerce once carried on by Rome with her provinces was

reviving. Great fairs, or yearly markets, came to be held in the

large interior towns, to which merchants came from near and far

^ So poor were the mediseval bridges that the old prayer-books contained formulas
for "commending one's soul to God ere starting to cross a bridge."

1 INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 207

to display and exchange their wares, and, still more important,
from the standpoint of advancing general education, to exchange
ideas and experiences. The '' luxuries" displayed at these mar-
kets by traveling merchants from the south — salt, pepper, spices,
sugar, drugs, dyestuffs, glass beads, glassware, table implements,
perfumes, ornaments, underwear, articles of dress, silks, velvets,
carpets, rugs — dazzled and astounded the simple townspeople
of western Europe. These fairs became educational forces of a
high order.

The revival of industry and banking. The trading of articles
at seaports and at the interior city fairs came first, and this soon
worked a revolution in industry. Instead of agriculture being
almost the only occupation, and the feeding of the local popula-
tion the only purpose, with only such arts and industries practiced
as were needed to supply the wants of the townsmen, it now be-
came possible to create a surplus to barter at the fairs for luxuries
from the outside. Local industries, heretofore of but little im-
portance, now developed into trades, and the manufacture of arti-
cles for outside sale was begun. At first manufacturing was very
limited in scope, and confined largely to local handicrafts or the
imitation of imported articles, but later new and important indus-
tries arose — the glass industry in Venice, the gold and silver
industry of Florence, the weaving industry at Mainz and Erfurt,
and the wool industry of Flanders. The craftsman and artisan,
as well as the merchant and trader, were now developed in the
towns, and soon became important members of the new social
order. As serfs and villeins^ were set free from the land^ they
came to the towns, adding more members to the new industrial
classes (R. 96) . From 1 200 on there was a great revival of indus-
try in western Europe, and by 1500 merchants and craftsmen had
won back the place once held by merchants and craftsmen in
Roman life and trade.

At Florence a banking class arose, and instead of barter, banks
and the use of money and credit were developed. From Florence
this system gradually extended to the other commercial cities.

^ The peasants were of two classes: (i) serfs, who were not free and who were
attached to the soil, but unlike slaves had plots of land of their own and could not
be sold off the land; and (2) villeins, who were personally free, but still were bound
to their lord for much menial service and for many payments in produce and money.

^ The Church originally held many serfs and villeins, as did the nobles. It began
the process of setting them free, encouraging others to do likewise. In time it
became common, as it did in our Southern States before the Civil War, for nobles in
dying to set free a certain number of their serfs and villeins. These went as free
men to the rising cities.

2o8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Gradually the mediaeval objection to the taking of interest for the
use of money, which the Church had forbidden in the early Middle
Ages as "usury" and wicked, was overcome, and Italian bankers
and merchants led the world in the establishment of that credit
which has made modern trade and industry possible. With
money once more in general use as a measure of value, the Arabic
system of notation in use for commercial transactions, and credit
at reasonable interest rates provided as a basis for finance, an
era in trade and commerce and manufacturing set in unknown
since the days of Roman rule. Order, security, and a wider
extension of educational advantages now were needed, and nothing
contributed more to securing these than the growth of wealth and
manufacturing industries in the towns, and the extension of com-
merce and the use of money throughout the country. Nothing
tends so powerfully to demand or secure these things as the pos-
session of wealth among a people.

Education for these new social classes. With the evolution of
these new social classes an extension of education took place
through the formation of guilds.^ The merchants of the Middle
Ages traded, not as individuals, nor as subjects of a State which
protected them, for there were as yet no such States, but as
members of the guild of merchants of their town, or as members
of a trading company. Later, towns united to form trading con-
federations, of which the Hanseatic League of northern Germany
was a conspicuous example. These burgher merchant guilds
became wealthy and important socially ; ^ they were chartered by
kings and given trading privileges analogous to those of a modem
corporation (R. 95) ; they elbowed their way into affairs of State,
and in time took over in large part the city governments; they
obtained education for themselves, and fought with the church

1 The mediaeval guild was an important institution, and the guild idea was applied
to many forms of mediaeval associations. Thus we read of guilds of notaries in
Florence, pleaders' and attorneys' guilds in London, medical guilds and barber-
surgeons' guilds in various cities, and of the book-writers-and-sellers' guild in Paris.
In a religious pageant given at York, England, on Corpus Christi Day, 1415, fifty-
one different local guilds presented each a scene. (See Cheyney, E. P., English
Towns and Gilds., Pa. Sources, vol. 11, no. i.)

2 "The ready money of the merchant was as effective a weapon as the sword of
the noble, or the spiritual arms of the Church. Very speedily, also, the men of the
cities began to seize upon one of the weapons which up to that time had been the
exclusive possession of the Church, and one of the main sources of its power, —
knowledge and intellectual training. With these two weapons in its hands, wealth
and knowledge, the Third Estate forced its way into influence, and compelled the
other two (Estates) to recognize it as a partner with themselves in the management
of public concerns." (Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages', 2d ed.,
p. 299.)

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 209

authorities for the creation of independent burgh schools;^ they
began to read books, and books in the vernacular began to be
written for them; - they in time vied with the clergy and the
nobility in their patronage of learning; they everywhere stood
with the kings and princes to compel feudal lords to stop warfare
and plundering and to submit to law and order; ^ and they enter-
tained royal personages and drew nobles, clergy, and gentry into
their honorary membership, thus serving as an important agency
in breaking down the social-class exclusiveness of the Middle Ages.
In these guilds, which were self-governing bodies debating ques-
tions and deciding policies and actions, much elementary political
training was given their members which proved of large impor-
tance at a later time.

In the same way the craft guilds rendered a large educational
service to the small merchant and worker, as they provided the
technical and social education of such during the later period of
the Middle Ages and in early modem times, and protected their
members from oppression in an age when oppression was the rule.
With the revival of trade and industry craft guilds arose all over
western Europe. One of the first of these was the candle-makers'
guild, organized at Paris in 1061. Soon after we find large num-
bers of guilds — masons, shoemakers, harness-makers, bakers,
smiths, \YOol-combers, tanners, saddlers, spurriers, weavers, gold-
smiths, pewterers, carpenters, leather- workers, cloth-workers,
pinners, fishmongers, butchers, barbers — all organized on much
the same plan. These were the working-men's fraternities or
labor unions of mediaeval Europe. Each trade or craft became
organized as a city guild, composed of the ''masters," "journey-
men" (paid workmen), and "apprentices." The great mediaeval
document, a charter of rights guaranteeing protection, was usu-
ally obtained. The guild for each trade laid down rules for the

^ In Hamburg, for example, the city council established four writing schools in
1402, to which the church authorities objected. The council refused to give them
up, and for this was laid under the ban of the Church, compelled to recede, admit
that it had no right to establish such schools, and pay the costs involved in the
contest.

- For example, the three most widely read books of the thirteenth century were
Reynard the Fox, a profoundly humorous animal epic; The Golden Legend, which so
deeply impressed Longfellow; and the Romance of the Rose, for three centuries the
most read book in Europe.

^ Despite all the criticisms one may offer against business, commerce has always
been a great civilizing force. While not anxious to pay heavy taxes, the merchant
has always been willing to pay what has been necessary to support a public power
capable of maintaining order and security for property. Feudal turmoil, private
warfare, and plundering are deadly foes of commerce, and these have come to an
end where commerce and industry have gained the ascendant.

210 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

number and training of apprentices,^ the conditions under which
a "journeyman" could become a "master," ^ rules for conducting
the trade, standards to be maintained in workmanship, prices to
be charged, and dues and obligations of members (R. 97). They
supervised work in their craft, cared for the sick, buried the dead,
and looked after the widows and orphans. Often they provided
one or more priests of their own to minister to the families of their
craft, and gradually the custom arose of having the priest also
teach something of the rudiments of religion and learning to the
children of the members. In time money and lands were set
aside or left for such purposes, and a form of chantry school,
which later evolved into a regular school, often with instruction
in higher studies added, was created for the children of members^
of the guild (R. 98).

Apprenticeship education. For centuries after the revival of
trade and industry all manufacturing was on a small scale, and
in the home-industry stage. There was, of course, no machinery,
and only the simple tools known from ancient times were used.
In a first-floor room at the back, master, journeymen, and appren-
tices working together made the articles which were sold by the
master or the master's wife and daughter in the room in front.
The manufacturer and merchant were one. Apprentices were
bound to a master for a term of years (R. 99) , often payipg for the
training and education to be received, and the master boarded and
lodged both the apprentices and the paid workmen in the family
rooms above the shop and store.

The form of apprenticeship education and training which thus
developed, from an educational point of view, forms for us the
important feature of the history of these craft guilds. With the
subdivision of labor and the development of new trades the craft-
guild idea was extended to the new occupations, and a steady
stream of rural labor flowing to the towns was absorbed by them
and taught the elements of social usages, self-government, and

1 As a rule a master craftsman might teach his trade to all his sons, but could
have only one other apprentice who received board, lodging, clothing, and training,
as one of the family. The guild still supervised the apprentice, protecting him from
bad usage or defective training by the master.

2 This required the production of a "masterpiece." This piece of work had to bt
produced to prove high competency. For example, in the shoemakers' guild 01
Paris, a pair of boots, three pairs of shoes, and a pair of slippers, all done in the best
possible manner, were required.

^ Of thirty-three guilds investigated by Leach, all maintained song schools, and
twenty-eight maintained a grammar school as well. In London, Merchant Taylors'
School, Stationers' School, and the Mercers' School are present-day .-ur\'ivals of
these ancient guild foundations.

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 211

the mastery of a trade. Throughout all the long period up to the
nineteenth century this apprenticeship education in a trade and
in self-government constituted almost the entire formal educa-
tion the worker with his hands received. The sons of the bar-
barian invaders, as well as their knightly brothers, at last were
busy learning the great lessons of industry, cooperation, and per-
sonal loyalty. Here begins, for western Europe, " the nobility of
labor — the long pedigree of toil. ' ' So well in fact did this appren-
tice system of training and education meet the needs of the time
that it persisted, -as was said above, well into the nineteenth
century (Rs. 200, 201, 242, 243), being displaced only by modem
power machinery and systematized factory methods. During
the later Middle Ages and in modern times it rendered an impor-
tant educational service; in the later nineteenth century it became
such an obstacle to educational and industrial progress that it has
had to be supplemented or replaced by systematic vocational
education.

Influence of these new movements. We thus see, by the end
of the twelfth century, a number of new influences in western
Europe which point to an intellectual awakening and to the rise
of a new educated class, separate from the monks and clergy on
the one hand or the nobility on the other, and to the awakening
of Europe to a new attitude toward life. Saracen learning, filter-
ing across from Spain, had added materially to the knowledge
Europe previously had, and had stimulated new intellectual inter-
ests. Scholasticism had begun its great work of reorganizing and
systematizing theology, which was destined to free philosophy,
hitherto regarded as a dangerous foe or a suspected ally, from
theology and to remake entirely the teaching of the subject.
Civil and canon law had been created as wholly new professional
subjects, and the beginnings of the teaching of medicine had been
made. Instead of the old Seven Liberal Arts and a very limited
course of professional study for the clerical office being the entire
curriculum, and Theology the one professional subject, we now
find, by the beginning of the thirteenth century, a number of new
and important professional subjects of large future significance —
subjects destined to break the monopoly of theological study and
put an end to logistic hair-splitting. The next step in the history
of education came in the development of institutions where think-
ing and teaching could be carried on free from civil or ecclesiastical
control, with the consequent rise of an independent learned class

212 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

in western Europe. This came with the rise of the universities,
to which we next turn, and out of which in time arose the future
independent scholarship of Europe, America, and the world in
general.

We also discover a series of new movements, connected with
the Crusades, the rise of cities, and the revival of trade and indus-
try, all of which clearly mark the close of the dark period of the
Middle Ages. We note, too, the evolution of new social classes
— a new Estate — destined in time to eclipse in importance both
priest and noble and to become for long the ruling classes of the
modem world. We also note the beginnings of an important
independent system of education for the hand-workers which
sufficed until the days of steam, machinery, and the evolution of
the factory system. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were
turning-points of great significance in the history of our western
civilization, and with the opening of the wonderful thirteenth
century the western world is well headed toward a new life and
modern ways of thinking.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why is it that a strong religious control is never favorable to originality
in thinking?

2. Show how the work of the Nestorian Christians for the Mohammedan
faith was another example of the Hellenization of the ancient world.

3. Would it be possible for any people anywhere in the world to-day to
make such advances as were made at Bagdad, in the late eighth and early
ninth centuries, without such work permanently influencing the course
of civilization and learning everywhere? To what is the difterence due?

4. What were the chief obstacles to Europe adopting at once the learning
from Mohammedan Spain, instead of waiting centuries to discover this
learning independently?

5. Why did Aristotle's work seem of much greater value to the mediaeval
scholar than the Moslem science? What are the relative values to-day?

6. Why should the light literature of Spain be spoken of as a gay contagion?
Did this Christian attitude toward fiction and poetry continue long?

7. In what ways was the Sic et Non of Abelard a complete break with medi-
aeval traditions?

8. How did the fact that Dialectic (Logic) now became the great subject
of study in itself denote a marked intellectual advance? What was the
significance of the prominence of this study for the future of thinking?

9. What was the effect on inquiry and individual thinking of the method
of presentation used by Saint Thomas Aquinas in his Smnma Theologica?

10. How do you explain the all-absorbing interest in scholasticism during
the greater part of a century?

1 1 . State the significance, for the future, of the revival of the study of Roman
law: {a) intellectually; {h) in shaping future civilization.

12. How do you explain the Christian attitude toward disease, and the

INFLUENCES TOWARD A REVIVAL 213

scientific treatment of it? Has that attitude entirely passed away?
Illustrate.
IS- Why was it such a good thing for the future of civilization in England
and F' ranee that so many of its nobility perished in the Crusades?

1 4. Stale a number of vva)'s in which the Crusade movements had a beneficial
effect on western Europe.

15. Show how the revival of commerce was an educative and a civilizing
influence of large importance.

16. Would the organization of commerce and banking, and the establishment
of the sanctity of obligations in a country, be one important measure of
the civilization to which that country had attained? Illustrate.

17. Show how the development of industry and commerce and the accumu-
lation of wealth tend to promote order and security, and to extend educa-
tional advantages.

r8. Contrast a mediaeval guild and a modern labor union. A guild and a
modern fraternal and benevolent society.

19. Why did apprenticeship education continue so long with so little change,
when it is now so rapidly being superseded?

20. Does the rise of a new Estate in society indicate a period of slow or rapid
change? Why is such an evolution of importance for education and
civilization?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

85. Draper: The Moslem Civilization in Spain.

86. Draper: Learning among the Moslems in Spain.

87. Norton; Works of Aristotle known by i3C»o.

88. Averroes: On Aristotle's Greatness.

89. Roger Bacon: How Aristotle was received at Oxford.

90. Statutes: How Aristotle was received at Paris.

{a) Decree of Church Council, 1210 a.d.
{h) Statutes of Papal Legate, 121 5 a.d.
{c) Statutes of Pope Gregory, 1231 a.d.
{d) Statutes of the Masters of Arts, 1254 A.D.

91. Cousin: Abelard's Sic et Non.

(a) From the Introduction.

(b) Types of Questions raised for Debate.

92. Rashdall: The Great Work of the Schoolmen.

93. Justinian: Preface to the Justinian Code.

94. Giry and Reville: The Early Mediaeval Town.

(a) To the Eleventh Century.

(b) By the Thirteenth Century.

95. Gross: An English Town Charter.

96. London: Oath of a New Freeman in a Mediaeval 'Town.

97. Riley: Ordinances of the White-Tawyers' Guild.

98. State Report: School of the Guild of Saint Nicholas.

99. England, 1396: A Mediaeval Indenture of Apprenticeship.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Contrast the state of civilization in Spain and the rest of Europe about
HOC (85, 86).

2. Considering Aristotle's great intellectual worth (88) and work (87), is it
to be wondered that the mediaevals regarded him with such reverence?

214 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

3. Do we to-day accept Abelard's premise (91 a) as to attaining wisdom?
Would his questions (91 b) excite much interest to-day?

4. How do you explain the change in attitude toward him shown by the
successive statutes enacted (90 a-d) for the University of Paris?

5. Would the extract from Roger Bacon (89) lead you to think him a man
ahead of the times in which he lived? Why?

6. Did scholasticism represent the innocent intellectual activity, from the
Church point of view, pictured by Rashdall (92)?

7. What were the main things Justinian hoped to accomplish by the prepa-
ration of the great Code, as set forth in the Preface (93)?

8. Characterize the mediaeval town by the eleventh century (94 a). What
was the nature of the progress from that time to the thirteenth century
(94b)?

Q. What were the chief privileges contained in the town charter of Walling-
ford (95), and what position does it indicate was held by the guild-
merchant therein?

10. What does the oath of a freeman (96) indicate as to social conditions?

11. State the chief regulations imposed on its members by the White-
Tawyers' Guild (97) . Compare these regulations with those of a modern
labor union, such as the plumbers. With a fraternal order, such as the
Masons.

12. What is indicated as to the educational advantages provided by the
Guild of Saint Nicholas, in the city of Worcester, by the extract (98)
taken from the Report of the King's Commissioner?

13. Does a comparison of Readings 99, 201, and 242 indicate a static con-
dition of apprenticeship education for centuries?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.

Ameer, Ali. A Short History of the Saracens.
*Ashley, W. J. Introduction to English Economic History.

Cutts, Edw. L. Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages.
*Gautier, Leon. Chivalry.
*Giry, A., and Reville, A. Emancipation of the Mediceval Towns.

Hibbert, F. A. Influence and Development of English Guilds.
*Hume, M. A. S. The Spanish People.

*Lavisse, Ernest. MedicBval Commerce and Industry. |

*MacCabe, Jos. Peter Abelard.
*Munro, D. C, and Sellery, G. E. Mediceval Civilization.

Poole, R. L. Illustrations of Mediceval Thought.
*Rashdall, H. Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. i.

Routledge, R. Popular History of Science.

Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. i.

Scott, J. F. Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Edtica-

tion. (England.)
*Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W. A Short History of Srience.

Taylor, H. C. The Medieval Mind.

Thorndike, Lynn. History of Mediceval Europe.

Townsend, W. J. The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages.

CHAPTER IX
THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

Evolution of the Studium Generate. In the preceding chapter
we described briefly the new movement toward association
which characterized the eleventh and the twelfth centuries — the
municipal movement, the merchant guilds, the trade guilds, etc.
These were doing for civil life what monasticism had earlier done
for the religious life. They were collections of like-minded men,
who united themselves into associations or guilds for mutual
benefit, protection, advancement, and self-government within the
limits of their city, business, trade, or occupation. This tendency
toward association, in the days when state government was weak
or in its infancy, was one of the marked features of the transition
time from the early period of the Middle Ages, when the Church
was virtually the State, to the later period of the Middle Ages,
when the authority of the Church in secular matters was begin-
ning to weaken, modem nations were beginning to form, and an
interest in worldly affairs was beginning to replace the previous
inordinate interest in the world to come.

We also noted in the preceding chapters that certain cathedral
and monastery schools, but especially the cathedral schools,^
stimulated by the new interest in Dialectic, were developing into
much more than local teaching institutions designed to afi"ord a
supply of priests of some little education for the parishes of the
bishopric. Once York and later Canterbury, in England, had
had teachers who attracted students from other bishoprics. Paris
had for long been a famous center for the study of the Liberal
Arts and of Theology. Saint Gall had become noted for its music.
Theologians coming from Paris (1167-68) had given a new im-
petus to study among the monks at Oxford. A series of political
events in northern Italy had given emphasis to the study of law
in many cities, and the Moslems in Spain had stimulated the
schools there and in southern France to a study of medicine and
Aristotelian science. Rome was for long a noted center for study.
Gradually these places came to be known as studia puhlica, or
studia generalia, meaning by this a generally recognized place of

^ By the twelfth century the cathedral schools had passed the monastic schools in
importance, and had obtained a lead which they were ever after to retain (R. 71).

2i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

study, where lectures were open to any one, to students of all
countries and of all conditions.^ Traveling students came to
these places from afar to hear some noted teacher read and com-
ment on the famous textbooks of the time.

From the first both teachers and students had been considered
as members of the clergy, and hence had enjoyed the privileges
and immunities extended to that class, but, now that the students
were becoming so numerous and were traveling so far, some
additional grant of protection was felt to be desirable. Accord-
ingly the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,- in 1 158, issued a general
proclamation of privileges and protection (R. loi). In this he
ordered that teachers and students traveling ''to the places in
which the studies are carried on " should be protected from unjust
arrest, should be permitted to "dwell in security," and in case of
suit should be tried "before their professors or the bishop of the
city." This document marks the beginning of a long series of
rights and privileges granted to the teachers and students of the
universities now in process of evolution in western Europe.

The university evolution. The development of a university
out of a cathedral or some other form of school represented, in
the Middle Ages, a long local evolution. Universities were not
founded then as they are to-day. A teacher of some reputation
drew around him a constantly increasing body of students.
Other teachers of ability, finding a student body already there,
also "set up their chairs" and began to teach. Other teachjers
and more students came. In this way a studium was created.
About these teachers in time collected other university servants
— "pedells, librarians, lower officials, preparers of parchment,
scribes, illuminators of parchment, and others who serve it," as
Count Rupert enumerated them in the Charter of Foundation
granted, in 1386, to Heidelberg (R. 103). At Salerno, as we hav(^
already seen (p. 199), medical instruction arose around the work
of Constantine of Carthage and the medicmal springs found in
the vicinity. Students journeyed there from many lands, and
licenses to practice the medical art were granted there as early
as 1 137. At Bologna, we have also seen (p. 195), the work of
Imerius and Gratian early made this a great center for the study
of civil and canon law, and their pupils spread the taste for these

1 As contrasted with the monasteries, which were under a "Rule." The oppor
tunities offered by such open institutions in the Middle Ages can hardly be over
estimated.

2 Frederick I, of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire of Germany and Italy.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 217

new subjects throughout Europe. Paris for two centuries had
been a center for the study of the Arts and of Theology, and a
succession of famous teachers — WiUiam of Champeaux, Abelard,
Peter the Lombard — had taught there. So important was the
theological teaching there that Paris has been termed ' ' the Sinai
of instruction" of the Middle Ages.

By the beginning of the thirteenth century both students and
teachers had become so numerous, at a number of places in west-
em Europe, that they began to adopt the favorite mediaeval prac-
tice and organized themselves into associations, or guilds, for
further protection from extortion and oppression and for greater
freedom from regulation by the Church. They now sought and
obtained additional privileges for themselves, and, in particular,
the great mediaeval document — a charter of rights and privileges.^
As both teachers and students were for long regarded as clerici
the charters were usually sought from the Pope, but in some
cases they were obtained from the king.^ These associations of
scholars, or teachers, or both, " bom of the need of companionship
which men who cultivate their intelligence feel,'' sought to per-
form the same functions for those who studied and taught that
the merchant and craft guilds were performing for their members.
The ruling idea was association for protection, and to secure free-
dom for discussion and study; the obtaining of corporate rights
and responsibilities; and the organization of a system of appren-
ticeship, based on study and developing through journeyman into
mastership,'"^ as attested by an examination and the license to
teach. In the rise of these teacher and student guilds ^ we have
the beginnings of the universities of western Europe, and their
organization into chartered teaching groups (R. 109) was simply

^ "No individual during the Middle Ages was secure in his rights, even of life
or property, certainly not in the enjoyment of ordinary freedom, unless protected
by specific guarantees secured from some organization. Politically, one must owe
allegiance to some feudal lord from whom protection was received; economically,
one must secure his rights through merchant or craft guild; intellectual interests
and educational activities were secured and controlled by^the Church." (Monroe,
P., Text Book in the History of Education, p. 317.)

^ At first the older institutions organized themselves without charter, securing
this later, while the institutions founded after 1300 usually began with a charter
from pope or king, and sometimes from both (R. 100).

' The degree of master was originally the license to practice the teaching trade,
and analogous to a master shoemaker, goldsmith, or other master craftsmen.

* "The universities, then, at their origins, were merely academic associations,
analogous, as societies of mutual guaranty, to the corporations of working men, the
commercial leagues, the trade-guilds which were playing so great a part at the same
epoch; analogous also, by the privileges granted to them, to the municipal associa-
tions and political communities that date from the same time." (Compayre, G.,
Abelard and the Rise of the Universities, p. 33.)

2i8 Pn STORY OF EDUCATION

another phase of that great movement toward the association of
like-minded men for worldly purposes which began to sweep over
the rising cities in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.^

The term universitas, or university, which came in time to be
applied to these associations of masters and apprentices in study,
was a general Roman legal term, practically equivalent to our
modem word corporation. At first it was applied to any associa-
tion, and when used with reference to teachers and scholars was
so stated. Thus, in addressing the masters and students at Paris,
Pope Innocent, in 1205, writes: '' Universis magistris et scholarihus
Farisiensibus''; that is, "to the corporation of masters and schol-
ars at Paris." Later the term university became restricted to the
meaning which we give it to-day.

The university mothers. Though this movement for associa-
tion and the development of advanced study had manifested itself
in a number of places by the close of the twelfth century, two
places in particular led all the others and became types which were
followed in charters and in new creations. These were Bologna
and Paris. ^ After one or the other of these two nearly all the
universities of western Europe were modeled. Bologna or Paris,
or one of their immediate children, served as a pattern. Thus
Bologna was the university mother for almost all the Italian uni-
versities; for Montpellier and Grenoble in southern France; for
some of the Spanish universities; and for Glasgow, Upsala, Cra-
cow, and for the Law Faculty at Oxford. Paris was the univer-
sity mother for Oxford, and through her Cambridge; for most of
the northern French universities; for the university of Toulouse,
which in turn became the mother for other southern French
and northenj Spanish universities; for Lisbon and Coimbra in
Portugal; for the early German universities at Prague, Vienna,
Cologne, and Heidelberg; and through Cologne for Copenhagen.
Through one of the colleges at Cambridge — Emmanuel — she
became, indirectly, the mother of a new Cambridge in America
— Harvard — founded in 1636. Figure 61 shows the location of
the chief universities founded before 1600. Viewed from the
standpoint of instruction, Paris was followed almost entirely in
Theology, and Bologna in Law, while the three centers which

^ "M. Bimbenet, in his History of the University of Orleans (Paris, 1853) repro-
duces several articles from the statutes of the guilds, the provisions of which are
identical with those contained in the statutes of the universities." {Ibid., p. 35.)

^ Bologna and Paris were the great "master" universities of the thirteenth cen-
tury, while those founded on a model of either were more in the nature of "journey-
men" institutions.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

219

most influenced the development of instruction in medicine were
Salerno, Montpellier, and Salamanca.

While the earlier universities gradually arose as the result of a
long local evolution, it in time became common for others to be

Fig. 61. Showing Location of the Chief Universities founded

BEFORE 1600

founded by a migration of professors from an older university to
some cathedral city having a developing studium. In the days
when a university consisted chiefly of master and students, when
lectures could be held in any kind of a building or collection of
buildings, and when there were no libraries, laboratories, campus,
or other university property to tife down an institution, it was easy
to migrate. Thus, in 1209, the school at Cambridge was created
a university by a secession of masters from Oxford, much as bees
swarm from a hive. Sienna, Padua, Reggio, Vicenza, Arezzo
resulted from ''swarmings" from Bologna; and Vercelli from
Vicenza. In 1228, after a student riot at Paris which provoked

220 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

reprisals from the city, many of the masters and students went to
the studium towns of Angers, Orleans, and Rheims, and univer-
sities were estabhshed at the first two. Migrations from Prague
helped establish many of the German universities. In this way
the university organization was spread over Europe. In 1200
there were but six studia generalia which can be considered as
having evolved into universities — Salerno, Bologna, and Reggio,
in Italy; Paris and Montpellier, in France; and Oxford, in Eng-
land. By 1300 eight more had evolved in Italy, three more in
France, Cambridge in England, and five in Spain and Portugal.
By 1400 twenty- two additional universities had developed, five
of which were in German lands, and by 1 500 thirty-five more had
been founded, making a total of eighty. By 1600 the total had
been raised to one hundred and eight (R. 100, for list by countries,
dates, and method of founding). Some of these (approximately
thirty) afterwards died, while in the following centuries additional
ones were created.^

Privileges and immunities granted. The grant of privileges
to physicians and teachers made by the Emperor Constantine,
in 333 A.D. (R. 26), and the'privileges and immunities granted to
the clergy (clerici) by the early Christian Roman Emperors
(R. 38), doubtless formed a basis for the many grants of special
privileges made to the professors and students in the early univer-
sities. The document promulgated by Frederick Barbarossa, in
1 1 58 (R. loi), began the granting of privileges to the studia
generalia, and this was followed by numerous other grants. The
grant to students of freedom from trial by the city authorities,
and the obligation of every citizen of Paris to seize any one seen
striking a student, granted by Philip Augustus, in 1200 (R. 102),
is another example, widely followed, of the bestowal of large
privileges. Count Rupert I, in founding the University of Heidel-
berg, in 1386, granted many privileges, exempted the students
from "any duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other exactions
whatever" while coming to, studying at, or returning home from
the university (R. 103). The exemption from taxation (R. 104)
became a matter of form, and was afterwards followed in the

^ Between 1600 and 1700, although most of the cities capable of supporting uni-
versities were provided with them, twenty-one more were created, chiefly in Ger-
many and Holland. The first American university (Harvard) was established in
1636, and the second (Yale) in 1702. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
without counting the United States or any western-hemisphere country, forty more
were created. Among the important nineteenth-century creations were Berlin, 1810;
Christiana, 1811; St. Petersburg, 1819; Brussels, 1834; London, 1836; and Athens,
1836.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 221

chartering of American colleges (R. 187). Exemption from mili-
tary service also was gl-anted.

So valuable an asset was a university to a city, and so easy was
it for a university to move almost overnight, that cities often,
and at times even nations, encouraged not only the founding of
universities, but also the migration of both faculties and students.
An interesting case of a city bidding for the presence of a univer-
sity is that of Vercelli (R. 105), which made a binding agreement,
as a part of the city charter, where'by the city agreed with a body
of masters and students ''swarming" from Padua to loan the
students money at lower than the regular rates, to see that there
was plenty of food in the markets at no increase in prices, and to
protect the students from injustice. An instance of bidding by a
State is the case of Cambridge, which obtained quite an addition
by the coming of striking Paris masters and students in 1229, in
response to the pledge of King Henry III (R. 109), who ^'humbly
sympathized with them for their sufferings at Paris," and prom-
ised them that if they would come " to our kingdom of England
and remain there to study" he would assign to them "cities,
boroughs, towns, whatsoever you may wish to select, and in
every fitting way will cause you to rejoice in a state of liberty
and tranquillity."

One of the most important privileges which the universities
early obtained, and a rather singular one at that, was the right of
cessatio, which meant the right to stop lectures and go on a strike
as a means of enforcing a redress of grievances against either town
or church authority (R. 107). This right was for long jealously
guarded by the university, and frequently used to defend itself
from the smallest encroachments on its freedom to teach, study,
and discipline the members of its guild as it saw fit, and often the
right not to discipline them at all. Often the cessatio was invoked
on very trivial grounds, as in the case of the Oxford cessatio of
1209 (R. 108), the Paris cessatio of 1229 (R. 109), and the numer-
ous other cessationes which for two centuries ^ repeatedly disturbed
the continuity of instruction at Paris.

Degrees in the guild. The most important of the university
rights, however, was the right to examine and license its own
teachers (R. no), and to grant the license to teach (Rs. in, 112).
Founded as the universities were after the guild model, they were
primarily places for the taking of apprentices in the Arts, devel-
^ See Compayre, G., Abelard, pp. 87-Qo for list of these "strikes,"

222 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

oping them into journeymen and masters, and certifying to their
proficiency in the teaching craft J Their purpose at first was to
prepare teachers, and the giving of instruction to students for
cultural ends, or a professional training for practical use aside
from teaching the subject, was a later development.

Accordingly it came about in time that, after a number of years
of study in the Arts under some master, a student was permitted
to present himself for a test as to his ability to define words,
determine the meaning of phrases, and read the ordinary Latin
texts in Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic (the Trivium), to the satis-
faction of other masters than his own. In England this test came
to be known by the term determine. Its passage was equivalent
to advancing from apprenticeship to the ranks of a journeyman,
and the successful candidate might now be permitted to assist the
master, or even give some elementary instruction himself while
continuing his studies. He now became an assistant or compan-
ion, and by the fourteenth century was known as a baccalaureus,
a term used in the Church, in chivalry, and in the guilds, and
which meant a beginner. There was at first, though, no thought
of establishing an examination and a new degree for the comple-
tion of this first step in studies. The bachelor's degree was a
later development, sought at first by those not intending to
teach, and eventually erected into a separate degree.

When the student had finally heard a sufficient number of
courses, as required by the statutes of his guild, he might present
himself for examination for the teaching license. This was a
public trial, and took the form of a public disputation on some
stated thesis, in the presence of the masters, and against all
comers. It was the student's ''masterpiece," analogous to the
masterpiece of any other guild, and he submitted it to a jury of
the masters of his craft.- Upon his masterpiece being adjudged

1 "It is impossible to fix the period at which the system of degrees began to be
organized. Things were done slowly. At the outset, and until towards the end
of the twelfth century, there existed nothing resembling a real conferring of degrees
in the rising universities. In order to teach it was necessary to have a respondent,
a master authorized by age and knowledge. . . .

"The 'license to teach,' nevertheless, became by slow degrees, as master and
pupils multiplied, a preliminary condition of teaching, a sort of diploma more and
more requisite, and of which the bishops (or their representatives, the chancellors)
were the dispensers. Up to the fourteenth century there was hardly any other
clearly-defined university title." (Compayre, G., Abelard, pp. 142-43-)

2 "It is manifest that the universities borrowed from the industrial corporations
their 'companionships,' their 'masterships,' and even their banquets; a great
repast being the ordinary sequel of the reception of the baccalaureate or doctorate.
(Compavrt^. (',.. Ahdard. p. 141.)

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

223

Fig. 62. Seal of a

Doctor, University

OF Paris

satisfactory, he also became a master in his craft, was now able

to define and dispute, was formally admitted to the highest rank

in the teaching guild, might have a seal, and

was variously known as master, doctor, or

professor, all of which were once synonymous

terms. ^ If he wished to prepare himself for

teaching one of the professional subjects he

studied still further, usually for a number of

years, in one of the professional faculties, and

in time he was declared to be a Doctor of

Law, or Medicine, or of Theology.

The teaching faculties. The students for
a long time grouped themselves for better
protection (and aggression) according to the
nation from which they came,- and each
"nation" elected a councilor to look after
the interests of its members. Between the
different nations there were constant quarrels, insults were
passed back and forth, and much bad blood engendered.^ On
the side of the masters the organization was by teaching subjects,

^ The term professor has become general in its significance, and is used in all
countries. In England the term master was retained for the higher degree, while
in Germany the term doctor was retained, and the doctorate made their one degree.
American followed the English plan in the establishment of the early colleges, and
the degree of A.B. and A.M. were provided for. Later, when the German univer-
sity influence became prominent in the United States, the doctor's degree was super-
imposed on the English plan.

^ At Paris, for example, there were four nations — France, Picardy, Normandy,
and England. These were again divided into tribes, as for example, there were
five tribes of the French — Paris, Sens, Rheims, Tours, and Bourges. Orleans had
ten nations — France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy, Nor-
mandy, Touraine, Guyenne, and Scotland. In those days these represented sepa-
rate nationalities, who little understood one another, and carried their constant
quarrels up to the very lecture benches of the professors.

* A contemporary writer. Jacobus de Vitriaco, has left us an account of student
life at Paris, in which he says:

"The students at Paris wrangled and disputed not merely about the various sects
or about some discussions; but the differences between the countries also caused
dissensions, hatreds and virulent animosities among them, and they impudently
uttered all kinds of affronts and insults against one another.

"They affirmed that the English were drunkards and had tails; the sons of France
proud, effeminate and carefully adorned like women. They said that the Germans
were furious and obscene at their feasts; the Normans vain and boastful; the
Poitevins traitors and always adventurers. The Burgundians they considered
vulgar and stupid. The Bretons were reputed to be fickle and changeable, and
were often reproached for the death of Arthur. The Lombards were called avari-
'-'ious, vicious and cowardly; the Romans, seditious, turbulent and slanderous; the
Sicilians, tyrannical and cruel; the inhabitants of Brabant, men of blood, incendia-
ries, brigands and ravishers; the Flemish, fickle, prodigal, gluttonous, yielding as
butter, and slothful. After such insults from words they often came to blows."
(Pa. Trans, and Repts. from Sources, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 19-20.)

224

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and into what came to be known sls faculties.^ Thus there came
to be four faculties in a fully organized mediae val university,
representing the four great divisions of knowledge which had been
evolved — Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology. Each faculty
elected a dean, and the deans and councilors elected a rector, who
was the head or president of the university. The chancellor, the
successor of the cathedral school scholasticus , was usually ap-
pointed by the Pope and represented the Church, and a long
struggle ensued between the rector and the chancellor to see who
should be the chief authority in the university. The rector was
ultimately victorious, and the position of chancellor became
largely an honorary position of no real importance.

The Arts Faculty was the successor of the old cathedral-school
instruction in the Seven Liberal Arts, and was found in practically

all the universities.
The Law Faculty em-
braced civil and canon
law, as worked out at
Bologna. The Med-
ical Faculty taught
the knowledge of the
medical art, as worked
out at Salerno and
Montpellier. The The-
ological Faculty, the
most important of the
four, prepared learned
men for the service of
the Church, and was
for some two cen-
turies controlled by
the scholastics. The
Arts Faculty was pre-
paratory to the other
three. As Latin was the language of the classroom, and all the
texts were Latin texts, a reading and speaking knowledge of
Latin was necessary before coming to the university to study.
This was obtained from a study of the first of the Seven Arts
— Grammar — in some monastery, cathedral, or other type of

^ In an American university the term college or school has largely replaced the
term faculty; in Europe the term facully is still used. Thus we say College of Lib-
eral Arts, or School of Law, instead of Faculty of Arts, etc.

Fig. 63. New College, at Oxford

One of the oldest of the Oxford colleges, having been
founded in 1379. The picture shows the chapel, clois-
ters (consecrated in 1400), and a tall tower, once
forming a part of the Oxford city walls. Note the
similarity of this early college to a monastery, as in
Plate I.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 225

school. Thus a knowledge of Latin formed practically the sole
requirement for admission to the mediaeval university, and con-
tinued to be the chief admission requirement in our universities
up to the nineteenth century (R. 186 a). In Europe it is still of
great importance as a preparatory subject, but in South American
countries it is not required at all.

Very few of the universities, in the beginning, had all four of
these faculties. The very nature of the evolution of the earher
ones precluded this. Thus Bologna had developed into a studium
generale from its prominence in law, and was virtually constituted
a university in 11 58, but it did not add Medicine until 13 16, or
Theology until 1360. Paris began sometime before 1200 as an
arts school, Theology with some instruction in Canon Law was
added by 1208, a Law Faculty in 1271, and a Medical Faculty in
1274. Montpellier began as a medical school sometime in the
twelfth century. Law followed a little later, a teacher from
Bologna ^'setting up his chair" there. Arts was organized by
1242. A sort of theological school began in 1263, but it was not
chartered as a faculty until 142 1. So it was with many of the
early universities. These four traditional faculties were well
established by the fourteenth century, and continued as the
typical form of university organization until modem times. With
the great university development and the great multiplication of
subjects of study which characterized the nineteenth century,
many new faculties and schools and colleges have had to be
created, particularly in the United States, in response to new
modem demands.^

Nature of the instruction. The teaching material in each fac-
ulty was much as we have already indicated. After the recovery
of the works of Aristotle he came to dominate the instruction in
the Faculty of Arts.- The Statutes of Paris, in 1254, giving the

^ For example, one of our modern state universities is organized into the following
faculties, schools, and colleges: (i) college of liberal arts; (2) school of medicine;
(3) school of law; (4) school of fine arts; (5) school of pure science; (6) college of
engineering; (7) college of agriculture; (8) school of history, economics, and social
sciences; (9) school of business administration; (10) college of education; (11) school
of household arts; (12) school of pharmacy; (13) school of veterinary medicine;
(14) school of Ubrary science; (15) school of forestry; (16) school of sanitary engineer-
ing; (17) the graduate school; and (18) the university-extension division.

2 "He was called 'The Philosopher'; and so fully were scholars convinced that il
had pleased God to permit Aristotle to say the last word upon each and every branch
of knowledge that they humbly accepted him, along with the Bible, the church
fathers, and the canon and Roman law, as one of the unquestioned authorities which
together formed a complete guide for humanity in conduct and in every branch of
science." (Robinson, J. H., History of Western Europe, p. 272.)

226 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

books to be read for the A.B. and the A.M. degrees (R. 113), show
how fully Aristotle had been adopted there as the basis for instruc-
tion in Logic, Ethics, and Natural Philosophy by that time. The
books required for these two degrees at Leipzig, in 14 10 (R. 114),
show a much better-balanced course of instruction, though the
time requirements given for each subject show how largely Aris-
totle predominated there also. Oxford (R. 115) kept up better
the traditions of the earlier Seven Liberal Arts in its requirements,
and classified the new works of Aristotle in three additional
"philosophies" — natural, moral, and metaphysical. From four
to seven years were required to complete the arts course, though
the tendency was to reduce the length of the arts course as secon-
dary schools below the university were evolved.^

In the Law Faculty, after Theology the largest and most im-
portant of all the faculties in the mediaeval university, the Corpus
Juris Civilis of Justir.ian (p. 195) and the Decrelum of Gratian
(p. 196) were the textbooks read, with perhaps a little more prac-
tical work in discussion than in Arts or Medicine. The Oxford
course of study in both Civil and Canon Law (R. 116 b-c) gives
a good idea as to what was required for degrees in one of the best
of the early law faculties.

In the Medical Faculty a variety of books — translations of
Hippocrates (p. 197), Galen (p. 198), Avicenna (p. 198), and the
works of certain writers at Salerno and Jewish and Moslem writ-
ers in Spain — were read and lectured on. The list of medical
books used at Montpellier,^ in 1340, which at that time was the
foremost place for medical instruction in western Europe, shows
the book-nature and the extent of the instruction given at the
leading school of medicine of the time. It was, moreover, cus-
tomary at Montpellier for the senior students to spend a summer
in visiting the sick and doing practical work. We have here the

^ This tendency increased with time, due both to the development of secondary
schools which could give part of the preparation, and to the increasing number of
students who came to the university for cultural or professional ends and without
intending to pas? the tests for the mastership and the license to teach. Finally
the arts course was reduced to three or four years (the usual college course) , and the
master's degree to on^, and for the latter even residence was waived during the
middle of the nineteenth century. The A.M. degree has recently been rehabilitated
and now usually signifies a year of hard study in English and American universities,
though a few eastern American institutions still play with it or even grant it as an
honorary degree. In Germany the arts course disappeared, being given to the
secondary schools entirely in the late eighteenth century, and the universities now
confer only the degree of doctor.

2 For a list of the books used in the faculty of medicine at Montpellier, in 1340,
see Rashdall, H., UniversUicr, of Fait ope in the Middle Ages, vol. 11, pt. i, p. 123; pt. 11,
p. 780.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 227

merest beginnings of clinical instruction and hospital service, and
at this stage medical instruction remained until quite modem
times. The medical courses at Paris (R. 117) and Oxford (R.
116 d) were less satisfactory, only book instruction being required.

Fig. 64. A Lecture on Civil Law by Guillaume Benedicti

(After a sixteenth-century wood engraving, now in the National Library, Paris,

Cabinet of Designs)

Both Law and Medicine were so dominated by the scholastic
ideal and methods that neither accomplished what might have
been possible in a freer atmosphere.

In the Theological Faculty the Sentences of Peter Lombard
(p. 189) and the Summa Theologia of Thomas Aquinas (p. 191)
were the textbooks used. The Bible was at first also used some-
what, but later came to be largely overshadowed by the other
books and by philosophical discussions and debates on all kinds
of hair-splitting questions, kept carefully within the limits pre-
scribed by the Church. The requirements at Oxford (R. 116 a)
give the course of instruction in one of the best of the theological
faculties of the time. The teachers were scholastics, and scho-
lastic methods and ideals ever^-'where prevailed. Roger Bacon's
(12 14-1294) criticism of this type of theological study (R. 118),
which he calls "horse loads, not at all [in consonance] with the
most holy text of God," and "philosophical, both in substance
and method," gives an idea of the kind of instruction which came

22^

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

to prevail in the theological faculties under the dominance of the
scholastic philosophers.

Years of study were required in each of these three professional
faculties, as is shown by the statement of requirement's as given
for MontpeUier, Paris (R. 117), and Oxford (R. 116 a).

Methods of instruction. A very important reason why so
long a period of study was required in each of the professional
faculties, as well as in the Faculty of Arts, is to be found in the
lack of textbooks and the methods of instruction followed. While
the standard textbooks were becoming much more common, due

Fig. 65. Library of the University of Leyden, in Holland
(After an engraving by J. C Woudanus, dated 1610) \
This shows well the chained books, and a common type of bookcase in use in
monasteries, churches, and higher schools. Counting 35 books to the case, this
shows a library of 35 volumes on mathematics; 70 volumes each on literature,
philosophy, and medicine; 140 volumes of historical books; 175 volumes on civil
and canon law; and 160 volumes on theology, or a total of 770 volumes — a good-
sized library for the time.

to much copying and the long-continued use of the same texts,
they were still expensive and not owned by many.^ To provide

^ After the latter part of the thirteenth century the book-writing and selling
trade was organized as a guild industry, and the copying of texts for sale became
common. Then^arose the practice of erasing as much of the writing from old books

Plate 4. A Lecture on Theology by Albertus Magnus

An illuminated picture in a manuscript of 13 10, now in the royal collection
of copper engravings, at Berlin. The master in his chair is here shown
"reading" to his students.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 229

a loan collection of theological books for poor students we find,
in 1 27 1, a gift by will to the University of Paris (R. 119) of a pri-
vate library, containing twenty-seven books. Even if the stu-
dents possessed books, the master "read" ^ and commented from
his "gloss" at great length on the texts being studied. Besides
the mere text each teacher had a ''gloss" or commentary for it —
that is, a mass of explanatory notes, summaries, cross-references,
opinions by others, and objections to the statements of the text.
The "gloss" was a book in itself, often larger than the text, and
these standard glosses,^ or commentaries, were used in the uni-
versity instruction for centuries. In Theology and Canon Law
they were particularly extensive.

All instruction, too, was in Latin. The professor read from
the Latin text and gloss, repeating as necessary, and to this the
student listened. Sometimes he read so slowly that the text
could be copied, but in 1355 this method was prohibited at Paris
(R. 121), and students who tried to force the masters to follow it
"by shouting or whistling or raising a din, or by throwing stones,"
were to be suspended for a year. The first step in the instruction
was a minute and subtle analysis of the text itself, in which each
line was dissected, analyzed, and paraphrased, and the comments
on the text by various authors were set forth. Next all passages
capable of two interpretations were thrown into the form of a
question; ^r^ and contra, after the manner of Abelard. The argu-
ments on each side were advanced, and the lecturer's conclusion
set forth and defended. The text was thus worked over day after
day in minute detail. Having as yet but little to teach, the mas-
ters made the most of what they had. A good example of the
mediaeval plan of university instruction is found in the announce-
ment of Odofredus, a distinguished teacher of Law at Bologna,
about the middle of the thirteenth century, which Rashdall thinks

as could be done, and writing the new book crosswise of the page. In this way the
expense for parchment was reduced, and in the process many valueless and a few
valuable books were destroyed. Still, the cost for books during the days of parch-
ment must have been high. Walsh estimates that "an ordinary folio volume prob-
ably cost from 400 to 500 francs in our [1914] values, that is, between S80 and
$100."

^ In Germany the old mediaeval expression has been retained, and the announce-
ments of instruction there still state that the professor will "read" on such and
such subjects, instead of "offer courses," as we say in the United States.

- Norton, in his Readings in the History of Education; MedicBval Universities, pp.
59-75, gives an extract from a text (Gratian) and "gloss" by various writers, on the
question — "Shall Priests be Acquainted with Profane Literature, or No?" which
see for a good example of mediaeval university instruction and the manner in which
a small amount of knowledge was spun out by means of a gloss.

230 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

is equally applicable to methods in other subjects. Odofredus

says:

First, I shall give you summaries of each title before I proceed to the
text; secondly, I shall give you as clear and explicit a statement as 1
can of the purport of each Law (included in the title) ; thirdly, I shall
read the text with a view to correcting it; fourthly, I shall briefly repeat
the contents of the Law; fifthly, I shall solve apparent contradictions,
adding any general principles of Law (to be extracted from the passage) ,
and any distinctions and subtle and useful problems arising out of the
Law with their solutions, as far as the Divine Providence shall enable
me. And if any Law shall seem deserving, by reason of its celebrit}'
or difiiculty, of a Repetition, I shall reserve it for an evening Repetition.

It will be seen that both students and professors were bound to
the text, as were the teachers of the Seven Liberal Arts in the
cathedral schools before them. There was no appeal to the
imagination, still less to observ^ation, experiment, or experience.
Each generation taught what it had learned, except that from
time to time some thinker made a new organization, or some new
body of knowledge was unearthed and added.

Another method much used was the debate, or disputation,
and participation in a number of these was required for degrees
(R. ii6). These disputations were logical contests, not unlike a
modem debate, in which the students took sides, cited authorities,
and summarized arguments, all in Latin. Sometimes a student
gave an exhibition in which he debated both sides of a question,
and summarized the argument, after the manner of the professors.
As a corrective to the memorization of lectures and texts, these
disputations served a useful purpose in awakening intellectual
vigor and logical keenness. They were very popular until into
the sixteenth century, when new subject-matter and new ways of
thinking offered new opportunities for the exercise of the intellect.

In teaching equipment there was almost nothing at first, and
but little for centuries to come. Laboratories, workshops, gym-
nasia, good buildings and classrooms — all alike were equally un-
known. Time schedules of lectures (Rs. 122, 123) came in but
slowly, in such matters each professor being a free lance. Nor
were there any libraries at first, though in time these developed.
For a long time books were both expensive and scarce (Rs. 78, 119,
120). After the invention of printing (first book printed in 1456),
university libraries increased rapidly and soon became the
chief feature of the university equipment. Figure 65 shows the
library of the University of Leyden, in Holland, thirty-five years

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

231

Fig. 66. A University Disputation
(From Fick's Aiif Deutschland's Ilohen Schulen)

after its foundation, and about one hundred and fifty years after
the beginnings of printing. It shows a rather large increase in
the size of book collections ^ after the introduction of printing, and
a good library organization.

^ Not many early library catalo<i;ues have been preserved, but those which have
all show small libraries before the clays of printing. At Oxford, where the univer-
sity was broken up into colleges, each of which had its own library, the following
college libraries are known to have existed: Peterhouse College (1418), 304 volumes;
Kings College (1453), 174 volumes; Queens College (1472), igg volumes; University
Library (1473), Zd)*^ volumes. The last two were just before the introduction of
printing.
The Peterhouse library (14 18) was classified as follows:

Subject Chained Loanable

Theology 61 63

Natural Philosophy 26

Moral Philosophy
Metaphysics

Logic

Grammar. .

Poetry

Medicine. . .
Civil Law . .
Canon Law
Totals 152

4 \
15

9
18

3
20

i=;2

(Clarke, J. W., The Care, of Books, pp. 145, 147.)

232

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Value of the training given. Measured in terms of modem
standards the instruction was undoubtedly poor, unnecessarily
drawn out, and the educational value low. We could now teach
as much information, and in a better manner, in but a fraction
of the time then required. Viewed also by the standards of in-
struction in the higher schools of Greece and Rome the conditions
were almost equally bad. Viewed, though, from the standpoint
of what had prevailed in western Europe during the dark period

Fig. 67. A University Lecture and Lecture Room
(From a woodcut printed at Strassburg, 1608)

of the early Middle Ages, it represented a marked advance in
method and content — except in pure literature, where there was
an undoubted decline due to the absorbing interest in Dialectic —
and it particularly marked a new spirit, as nearly critical as the
times would allow. Despite the heterogeneous and but partially
civilized student body, youthful and but poorly prepared for
study, the drunkenness and fighting, the lack of books and equip-
ment, the large classes and the poor teaching methods, and the
small amount of knowledge which formed the grist for their mills
and which they ground exceeding small, these new universities
held within themselves, almost in embryo form, the largest prom-
ise for the intellectual future of western Europe which had ap-

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 22,2>

peared since the days of the old universities of the Hellenic world
(R. 124). In these new institutions knowledge was not only
preserved and transmitted, but was in time to be tremendously
advanced and extended. They were the first organizations to
break the monopoly of the Church in learning and teaching; they
were the centers to which all new knowledge gravitated; under
their shadow thousands of young men found intellectual compan-
ionship and in their classrooms intellectual stimulation; and in
encouraging "laborious subtlety, heroic industry, and intense
application," even though on very limited subject-matter, and in
training "men to think and work rather than to enjoy" (R. 124),
they were preparing for the time when western Europe should
awaken to the riches of Greece and Rome and to a new type of
intellectual life of its own. From these beginnings the university
organization has persisted and grown and expanded, and to-day
stands, the Catholic Church alone excepted, as the oldest organ-
ized institution of human society.

The manifest tendency of the universities toward speculation,
though for long within limits approved by the Church, was ulti-
mately to awaken inquiry, investigation, rational thinking, and
to bring forth the modern spirit. The preservation and transmis-
sion of knowledge was by the university organization transferred
from the monastery to the school, from monks to doctors, and
from the Church to a body of logically trained men, only nomi-
nally members of the clerici. Their successors would in time en-
tirely break away from connections with either Church or State,
and stand forth as the independent thinkers and scholars in the
arts, sciences, professions, and even in Theology. University
graduates in Medicine would in time wage a long struggle against
bigotry to lay the foundations of modem medicine. Graduates
in Law would contend with kings and feudal lords for larger
privileges for the as yet lowly common man, and would help to
usher in a period of greater political equality. The university
schools of Theology were in time to send forth the keenest critics
of the practices of the Church. Out of the university cloisters
were to come the men — Dante, Petrarch, Wycliffe, Huss, Luther,
Calvin, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton — who were to usher in the
modern spirit.

The universities as a public force. Almost from the first the
universities availed themselves of their privileges and proclaimed
a bold independence. The freedom from arrest and trial by the

234 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

civil authorities for petty offenses, or even for murder, and the
right to go on a strike if in any way interfered with, were but
beginnings in independence in an age when such independence
seemed important. These rights were in time given up,' and in
their place the much more important rights of liberty to study as
truth seemed to lead, freedom in teaching as the master saw tbf
truth, and the right to express themselves as an institution on pul
lie questions which seemed to concern them, were slowly but del
nitely taken on in place of the earlier privileges. Virtually a new
type of members of society — a new Estate — was evolved, rank-
ing with Church, State, and nobility, and this new Estate soon
began to express itself in no uncertain tones on matters which
concerned both Church and State. The universities were demo-
cratic in organization and became democratic in spirit, represent-
ing a heretofore unknown and unexpressed public opinion in
western Europe. They did not wait to be asked; they gave their
opinions unsolicited. ' '' The authority of the University of Paris, "
writes one contemporary, ''has risen to such a height that it is
necessary to satisfy it, no matter on what conditions." The uni-
versity ''wanted to meddle with the government of the Pope, the
King, and everything else," writes another. We find Paris inter
vening repeatedly in both church and state affairs,^ and repre-
senting French nationality before it had come into being, as
the so-called Holy Roman Empire represented the Germans, and
the Papacy represented the Italians. In Montpellier, professors
of Law were considered as knights, and after twenty years of
practice they became counts. In Bologna we find the professor
of Law one of the three assemblies of the city. Oxford, Can^
bridge, Paris, and the Scottish universities were given represeii
tation in Parliament. The German universities were from tli'
first prominent in political affairs, and in the reformation struggle
of the early sixteenth century they were the battle-grounds.

In an age of oppression these university organizations stood for
freedom. In an age of force they began the substitution of reason.
In the centuries from the end of the Dark Ages to the Reformation j
they were the homes of free thought. They early assumed nM
tional character and proclaimed a bold independence. Question-

1 Survivals of these old privileges still exist in the German universities whi( '
exercise police jurisdiction over their students and have a university jail, and in tli
American college student's feeling of having the right to create a disturbance in lb
town and break minor police regulations without being arrested and fined.

2 Sec Compayre, G., Abelard, p. 291, for illustrations.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 235

of State and Church they discussed with a freedom before un-
known. They presented their grievances to both kings and popes,
from both they obtained new privileges, to both they freely offered
their advice, and sometimes both were forced to do their bidding.
At times important questions of State, such as the divorce of
Philip of France and that of Henry VIII of England, were sub-
mitted to them for decision. They were not infrequently called
upon to pass upon questions of doctrine or heresy. ''Kings and
princes," says Rashdall, in an excellent summary as to the value
and influence of the medicTval university instruction (R. 124),
''found their statesmen and men of business in the universities,
most often, no doubt, among those trained in the practical science
of Law." Talleyrand is said to have asserted that ''their theo-
logians made the best diplomats." For the first time since the
downfall of Rome the administration of hupian affairs was now
placed once more in the hands of educated men. By the inter-
change of students from all lands and their hospitality, such as it
was, to the stranger,- the universities tended to break down bar-
riers and to prepare Europe for larger intercourse and for more of
a common life.

On the masses of the people, of course, they had little or no
influence, and could not have for centuries to come. Their great-
est work, as has been the case with universities ever since their
foundation, was that of drawing to their classrooms the brightest
minds of the times, the most capable and the most industrious,
and out of this young raw material training the leaders of the
future in Church and State. Educationally, one of their most
important services was in creating a surplus of teachers in the
Arts who had to find a market for their abilities in the rising
secondary schools. These developed rapidly after 1200, and to
these we owe a somewhat more general diffusion of the little
learning and the intellectual training of the time. In preparing
future leaders for State and Church in law, theology, and teaching,
the universities, though sometimes opposed and their opinions
ignored, nevertheless contributed materially to the making and
moulding of national history. The first great result of their work
in training leaders we see in the Renaissance movement of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to which we next turn. In
this movement for a revival of the ancient learning, and the sub-
sequent movements for a purer and a better religious life, the men
trained by the universities were the leaders.

236 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

T. Why would the studia puhlica tend to attract a. diflferent type of scholar
than those in the monasteries, and gradually to supersede them in
importance?

2. Show how the mediaeval university was a gradual and natural evolution,
as distinct from a founded university of to-day.

3. Show that the university charter was a first step toward independence
from church and state control.

4. Show the relation between the system of apprenticeship developed for
student and teacher in a mediaeval university, and the stages of student
and teacher in a university of to-day.

5. Show how the chartered university of the Middle Ages was an "associa-
tion of like-minded men for worldly purposes."

6. To what university mother does Harvard go back, ultimately?

7. Show how the English and the German universities are extreme evolu-
tions from the mediaeval type, and our American universities a combina-
tion of the two extremes.

8. Do university professors to-day have privileges akin to those granted
professors in a medi,aeval university?

9. What has caused the old Arts Faculty to break up into so many groups,
whereas Law, Medicine, and Theology have stayed united?

10. Do universities, when founded to-day, usually start with all four of the
mediaeval faculties represented?

11. Which of the professional faculties has changed most in the nature and
character of its instruction? Why has this been so?

12. Enumerate a number of different things which have enabled the modern
university greatly to shorten the period of instruction?

13. Aside from differences in teachers, why are some university subjects to-
day taught much more compactly and economically than other subjects?

14. After admitting ail the defects of the mediaeval university, why did the
university nevertheless represent so important a development for the
future of western civilization?

15. What does the long continuance, without great changes in character, of
the university as an institution indicate as to its usefulness to society?

16. Does the university of to-day play as important a part in the progress of
society as it did in the mediaeval times? Why?

17. Is the chief university force to-day exerted directly or indirect!
Illustrate.

18. What is probably the greatest work of any university, in any age?

19. Compare the influence of the mediaeval university, and the Greek uni-.
versities of the ancient world. , 1

20. Explain the evolution of the English college system as an effort to im-j
prove discipline, morals, and thinking. Has it been successful in this.H

21. Show how the mediaeval university put books in the place of things
whereas the modern university tries to reverse this.

22. Show how the rise of the universities gave an educated ruling class t(
Europe, even though the nobility may not have attended them.

23. Show how, in an age of lawlessness, the universities symbolized t'
supremacy of mind over brute force.

24. Show how the mediaeval universities aided civihzation by breaking dowr
somewhat, barriers of nationality and ignorance among peoples.

25. Show how the university stood, as the crowning effort of its time, in th'
. slow upward struggle to rebuild civilization on the ruins of what had on(

been.

THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES

SELECTED READINGS

237

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

100. Rashdall and Minerva: University Foundations before 1600.
loi. Fr. Barbarossa: Privileges for Students who travel for Study.

102. Phihp Augustus: Privileges granted Students at Paris.

103. Count Rupert: Charter of the University of Heidelberg.

104. Philip IV: Exemption of Students and Masters from Taxation.

105. Vercelli: Privileges granted to the University by the City.

106. Villani: The Cost to a City of maintaining a University.

107. Pope Gregory IX: Right to suspend Lectures {Ccssatio).

108. Roger of Wendover: a Ccssatio at Oxford.

109. Henry III: England invites Scholars to leave Paris.

no. Pope Gregory IX: Early Licensing of Professors to teach.

111. Pope Nicholas IV: The Right to grant Licenses to teach.

112. Rashdall: A University License to teach.

113. Paris Statutes, 1254: Books required for the Arts Degr^ee.

114. Leipzig Statutes, 1410: Books required for the Arts Degree.

115. Oxford Statutes, 1408-31: Books required for the Arts Degree.

116. Oxford, Fourteenth Century: Requirements for the Professional
Degrees.

(a) In Theology. (c) In Civil Law.

{h) In Canon Law. {d) In Medicine.

117. Paris Statutes, 1270-74: Requirements for the Medical Degree.

118. Roger Bacon: On the Teaching of Theology.

119. Master Stephen: Books left by Will to the University of Paris.

120. Roger Bacon: The Scarcity of Books on Morals.

121. Balaeus: Methods of Instruction in the Arts Faculty of Paris.

122. Toulouse: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1309.

123. Leipzig: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1519.

124. Rashdall: Value and Influence of the Mediaeval University.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. What does a glance at the page giving the university foundations before
1600 (100) show as to the rate and direction of the university movement?

2. How do you account for the very large privileges granted university
students in the early grants (loi, 102) and charters (103)? Should a
university student to-day have any privileges not given to all citizens?
Why?

3. Do universities, when founded to-day, secure a charter? If so, from
whom, and what terms are included? Do normal schools? What form
of a charter, if any, has your university or normal school?

4. Compare the freedom from taxation granted to masters and students
at Paris (104) with the grant to professors at Brown University (187b).
Was the Brown University grant exceptional, or common in other
American foundations?

5. Do any American cities to-day maintain colleges or universities, as did
the Italian cities (105)? Normal schools? Are somewhat similar ends
served?

6. What does the cessatio, as exercised by the mediaeval university (107,
108), indicate as to standards of conduct on the part of teachers and
students?

7. Why is the licensing of university professors to teach not followed in our

238 ?TISTORY OF EDUCATION

American universities? What has taken the place of the license? What
did the mediaeval license (no, in, 112) really signify?

8. Compare the license to teach (112) with a modern doctor's diploma.

9. Compare the requirements for the Arts degree (113, 114, 115) with the
requirements for the Baccalaureate degree at a modern university.

10. Compare the additional length of time for prof essional degrees (i 1 6, 1 17).

11. How do you account for the American practice of admitting students
to the professional courses without the Arts course? What is the best
American practice in this matter to-day, and what tendencies are
observable?

12. Characterize the medical course at Paris (117) from a modern point of
view.

13. Compare the instruction in medicine at Paris (117) and Toulouse (122).
How do you account for the superiority shown by one? Which one?

14. What does the extract from Roger Bacon (118) indicate as to the char-
acter of the teaching of Theology?

15. What was the nature and extent of the hbrary of Master Stephen (119)?
Compare such a library with that of a scholar of to-day.

16. Show how the Paris statute as to lecturing (121) was an attempt at an
improvement of the methods of instruction and individual thinking.

17. What do the two time-tables reproduced (122, 123) reveal as to the
nature of a university day, and the instruction given?

18. Show how Rashdall's statement (i 24) that lawyers have been a civilizing
agent is true.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Boase, Charles William. Oxford (Historic Towns Series).

Clark, Andrew. The Colleges at Oxford.

Clark, J. W. Libraries in the Mediceval and Renaissance Periods.
*Clark, J. W. The Care of Books.

Corbin, John. An American at Oxford.
*Compayr^, G. Abelard, and the Origin and Early History of the Universi-
ties.
*Jebb, R. C. The Work of the Universities for the Nation.

Mullinger, J. B. History of the University of Cambridge.
*Norton, A. O. Readings in the History of Education; Mediceval Universi-
ties.
*Paetow, L. J. The Arts Course at Mediceval Universities. (Univ. III.

Studies, vol. iii, no. 7, Jan. 1910).
*Paulsen, Fr. The German Universities.

Rait, R. S. Life of a Mediceval University.
*Rashdall, H. Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages.

Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. I.

Sheldon, Henry. Stiident Life and Customs.

PART III

THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO MODERN

ATTITUDES

THE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNING

THE REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP

AND THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS

AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

CHAPTER X
THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

The period of change. The thirteenth century has often been
called the wonderful century of the mediaeval world. It was won-
derful largely in that the forces struggling against median^alism to
evolve the modern spirit here first find clear expression. It was a
century of rapid and unmistakable progress in almost every line.
By its close great changes were under way which were destined
ultimately to shake off the incubus of mediaevalism and to trans-
form Europe. In many respects, though, the fourteenth was a
still more wonderful century.

The evolution of the universities which we have just traced
was one of the most important of these thirteenth-century mani-
festations. Lacking in intellectual material, but impelled by the
new impulses beginning to work in the world, the scholars of the
time went earnestly to work, by speculative methods, to organize
the dogmatic theology of the Church into a system of thinking.
The result was Scholasticism. From one point of view the result
was barren; from another it was full of promise for the future,
rhough the workers lacked materials, were overshadowed by the
mediaeval spirit of authority, and kept their efforts clearly within
limits approved by the Church, the "heroic industry" aAd the
"intense application" displayed in effecting the organization,
and the logical subtlety developed in discussing the results, prom-
ised much for the future. The rise of university instruction, and
the work of the Scholastics in organizing the knowledge of the
time, were both a resultant of new influences already at work and
a prediction of larger consequences to follow. In a later age, and
with men more emancipated from church control, the same spirit
was destined to burst forth in an effort to discover and recon-
struct the historic past.

During the thirteenth century, too, the new Estate, which had
come into existence alongside of the clergy and the nobihty, began
to assume large importance. The arts-and- crafts guilds were at-
taining a large development, and out of this new burgher class the
great general public of modem times has in time evolved. Trade
and industry were increasing in all lands, and merchants and sue-

242 . HISTORY OF EDUCATION

cessful artisans were becoming influential through their newly
obtained wealth and rights. The erection of stately churches and
town halls, often beautifully carved and highly ornamented, was
taking place. Great cathedrals, those ''symphonies in stone,"
of which Notre Dame (Figure 53) is a good example, were rising
or being further expanded and decorated at many places in
western Europe. Mystery and miracle plays had begun to be per-
formed and to attract great attention. In the fourteenth century
religious pageants were added. "All art was still religion," but
an art was unmistakably arising amid cathedral-building and the
setting-f 01 th of the Christian mysteries, and before long this was
to flower in modem forms of expression in painting, sculpture,
and the drama.

The new spirit of nationality. The new spirit moving in west-
em Europe also found expression in the evolution of the modem
European States, based on the new national feeling. As the
kingly power in these was consolidated, the developing States,
each in its own domain, began to curb the dominion of the uni-
versal Church, slowly to deprive it of the governmental functions
it had assumed and exercised for so long, and to confine the Pope
and clergy more and more to their original functions as religious,
agents. The Papacy as a temporal power passed the maximum
period of its greatness early in the thirteenth century; in the
nineteenth century the last vestiges of its temporal power were
taken away.

New national languages also were coming into being, and the
national epics of the people — the Cid, the Arthurian Legends,
the Chansons, and the Nibelungen Lied — were reduced to writ-
ing. With the introduction from the East, toward the close of
the thirteenth century, of the process of making paper for writ-
ing, and with the increase of books in the vernacular, the English,
French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages rapidly took
shape. Their development was expressive of the new spirit in
western Europe, as also was the fact that Dante (1264-13 21),
"the first literary layman since Boethius" (d. 524), wrote his
great poem, The Divine Comedy, in his native Itahan instead of in
the Latin which he knew so well — an evidence of independence
of large future import. New native literatures were springing
forth all over Europe. Beginning with the troubadours in south-
em France (p. 186), and taken up by the irouveres in northern
France and by the minnesingers in German lands, the new poetry

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 243

of nature and love and joy of living had spread everywhere.^ A
new race of men was. beginning to "sing songs as blithesome and
gay as the birds" and to express in these songs the joys of the
world here below.

Transformation of the mediaeval man. The fourteenth cen-
tury was a period of still more rapid change and transformation.
New objects of interest were coming to the front, and new stand-
ards of judgment were being applied. National spirit and a na-
tional patriotism were finding expression. The mediaeval man,
with his feeling of personal insignificance, lack of self-confidence,
"no sense of the past behind him, and no conception of the possi-
bilities of the future before him," - was rapidly giving way to the
man possessed of the modem spirit — the man of self-confidence,
conscious of his powers, enjoying life, feeling his connection with
the historic past, and realizing the potentialities of accomplish-
ment in the world here below. It was the great work of the period
of transition, and especially of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies, to effect this change, " to awaken in man a consciousness of
his powers, to give him confidence in himself, to show him the
beauty of the world and the joy of life, and to make him feel his
living connection with the past and the greatness of the future he

^ One of the best known of the Troubadours was Arnaul de Marveil. The follow-
ing specimen of his art reveals both the new love of nature and the reaction which
had clearly set in against the " other- worldUness " of the preceding centuries:

"Oh! how sweet the breeze of April,
Breathing soft as May draws near,
While, through nights of tranquil beauty,

Songs of gladness meet the ear:
Every bird his well-known language
» Uttering in the morning's pride.
Reveling in joy and gladness •

By his happy partner's side.

"When around me all is smiHng,

When to life the young birds spring,
Thoughts of love I cannot hinder

Come, my heart inspiriting —
Nature, habit, both incline me

In such joy to bear my part:
With such sounds of bliss around me
Could I wear a sadden 'd heart? "

^ "In the Middle Ages man as an individual had been held of very little account.
He was only part of a great machine. He acted only through some corporation —
the commune, guild, the order. He had but little self-confidence, and very little
consciousness of his abiUty single-handed to do great things or overcome great diffi-
culties. Life was so hard and narrow that he had no sense of the joy of living, and
no feeling for the beauty of the world around him, and, as if this world were not
dark enough, the terrors of another world beyond were very near and real." (Adams,
G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, zd ed., p. 363.)

244

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

might create." ^ As soon as men began clearly to experience such
feelings, they began to inquire, and inquiry led to the realization
that there had been a great historic past of which they knew but
little, and of which they wanted to know much. When this point
had been reached, western Europe was ready for a' revival of
learning.

The beginnings in Italy. This revival began in Italy. The
Italians had preserved more of the old Roman culture than had
any other people, and had been the first to develop a new political
and social order and revive the refinements of life after the deluge
of barbarism which had engulfed Europe. They, too, had been
the first to feel the inadequacy of mediaeval learning to satisfy
the intellectual unrest of men conscious of new standards of life.
This gave them at least a century of advance over the nations
of northern Europe. The old Roman life also was nearer to
them, and meant more, so that a movement for a revival of inter-
est in it attracted to it the finest young minds of central and north-
em Italy and inspired in them something closely akin to patriotic
fervor. They felt themselves the direct heirs of the political and

intellectual eminence of Imperial Rome,
and they began the work of restoring
to themselves and of trying to under-
stand their inheritance.

In Petrarch (1304-74) we have the
beginnings of the movement. He has
been called "the first modem scholar
and man of letters." Repudiating the
other-worldliness ideal aind the scho-
lastic learning of his time,^ possessed
of a deep love for beauty in nature and
art, a delight in travel, a desire for
worldly fame, a strong historical sense,
and the self-confidence to plan a great
constmctive work, he began the task of
unearthing the monastic treasures to
ascertain what the past had been and known and done. At
twenty-nine he made his first great discovery, at Liege, in the
form of two previously unknown orations of Cicero. Twelve

1 Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, 2d. ed., p. 364.

2 Petrarch refused to have the works of the Scholastics in his library. Though a
university man, he was out of sympathy with the university methods of his time.

Fig. 68. Petrarch

(1304-74)

"The Morning Star of the
Renaissance"

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNTNCx 245

years later, at Verona, he found half of one of the letters of
Cicero which had been lost for ages. All his life he collected
and copied manuscripts. His letter to a friend telling him of his
difficulty in getting a work of Cicero copied, and his joy in doing
the work himself (R. 125), is typical of his labors. He began the
work of copying and comparing the old classical manuscripts, and
from them reconstructing the past. He also wrote many son-
nets, ballads, lyrics, and letters, all filled with a new modem
classical spirit. He also constructed the
Jlrst modem map of Italy.

Through Boccaccio, whom he first met
in 1350, Petrarch's work was made known
in Florence, then the wealthiest and most
artistic and literary city in the world, ^
and there the new knowledge and method
were warmly received. Boccaccio equaled
Petrarch in his passion for the ancient
writers, hunting for them wherever he
thought they might be found. One of
his pupils has left us a melancholy picture
of the library at Monte Cassino, as Boc-
caccio found it at the time of his visit ^*^" (^^i,-^?)"^^*^^*^

(R. 126). He wrote a book of popular -The Father of Italian Prose"
tales and romances, filled with the mod-
em spirit, which made him the father of Italian prose as Dante
was of Italian poetry; prepared the first dictionaries of classical
geography and Greek mythology; and was the first western
scholar to learn Greek.

"In the dim light of learning's dawn they stand,
Flushed with the first glimpses of a long-lost land."

A century of recovery and reconstruction. The work done by
these two friends in discovering and editing was taken up by
others, and during the century (1333-1433) dating from the first
great ''find" of Petrarch the principal additions to Latin litera-
ture were made. The monasteries and castles of Europe were
ransacked in the hope of discovering something new, or more ac-

^_" Florence was essentially the city of intelligence in early modern times. Other
nations have surpassed the Italians in their genius . . . but nowhere else except at
Athens has the whole population of a city been so permeated with ideas, so highly
intellectual by nature, so keen in perception, so witty and so subtle, as at Florence."
(Symonds, J. A., The Renaissance in Italy.)

246 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

curate copies of previously known books. At monasteries and
churches as widely separated as Monte Cassino, near Naples;
Lodi, near Milan; Milan, itself; and Vercelli, in Italy: Saint Gall
and other monasteries, in Switzerland: Paris; Cluny, near the
present city of Macon; Langres, near the source of the Mame;
and monasteries in the Vosges Mountains, in France: Corvey, in
Westphalia ; and Hersf eld, Cologne, and Mainz in Germany —
important finds were made.^ Thus widely had the old Latin
authors been scattered, copied, and forgotten. In a letter to a
friend (R. 127 a) the enthusiast, Poggio Bracciolini, tells of finding
(141 6) the long-lost Institutes of Oratory of Quintilian, at Saint
Gall, and of copying it for posterity. This, and the reply of his
friend (R. 127 b), reveal something of the spirit and the emotions
of those engaged in the recovery of Latin literature and the re-
construction of Roman history.

The finds, though, while important, were after all of less value
than the spirit which directed the search, or the careful work
which was done in collecting, comparing, questioning, inferring,
criticizing, and editing corrected texts, and reconstructing old
Roman life and history.^ We have in this new work a complete
break with scholastic methods, and we see in it the awakening of
the modem scientific spirit.^ It was this same critical, construc-
tive spirit which, when applied later to Christian practices,
brought on the Reformation ; when applied to the problems of the
universe, revealed to men the wonderful world of science; and
when applied to problems of government, led to the questioning
of the theory of the divine right of kings, and to the evolution of
democracy. We have here a modem spirit, a craving for truth
for its own sake, an awakening of the historical sense,"^ and an ap-

^ Sandys, J. E., in his Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning, pp. 35-41, gives
a list of the more important later finds, which see.

2 Of the Florentine scholars one of the most famous was Niccolo Niccoli (1363-
1436), of whom Sandys says: "Famous for his beautiful penmanship, he was much
more than a copyist. He collected manuscripts, compared and collated their vari-
ous readings, struck out the more obvious corruptions, restored the true text, broke
it up into convenient paragraphs, added suitable summaries at the head of each, and
did much toward laying the foundation of textual criticism." (Sandys, J. E.,
Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning, p. 39.)

^ For example, Laurentius Valla (1407-57) of Pavia, exceeded Niccoli in ability
in textual criticism. He extended this method to the New Testament and, at the
request of King Alphonso, of Naples, subjected the so-called " Donation of Constan-
tine," a document upon which the Papacy based in part its claims to temporal power,
to the tests of textual criticism and showed its historical impossibility. This, in-
deed, was a new and daring spirit in the mediaeval world, but it represented the
spirit and method of the modern scholar.

* For example, Ciriaco, of Ancona (1391-1450), has been called "the Schliemann

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 247

preciation of beauty in literature and nature which was soon to be
followed by an appreciation of beauty in art. A worship of
classical literature and classical ideas now set in, of which rich and
prosperous Florence became the center, with Venice and Rome,
as well as a number of the northern Italian cities, as centers of
more than minor importance.

The revival of Greek in the West. With the new interest in
Latin literature it was but natural that a revival of the study of
Greek should follow. While a knowledge of Greek had not abso-
lutely died out in the West during the Middle Ages, there were
very few scholars who knew anything about it, and none who
could read it.^ It was natural, too, that the revival of it should
come first in Italy. Southern Italy {Magna GrcEcia) had re-
mained under the Eastern Empire and Greek until its conquest
by the Normans (1041-71), and to southern Italy a few Greek
monks had from time to time migrated. With southern Italy,
though, papal Italy and the western Christian world seem to have
had little contact. In 1339, and again in 1342, a Greek monk
from southern Italy visited the Pope, coming as an ambassador
from Constantinople, and from him Petrarch learned the Greek
alphabet. In 1353 another envoy brought Petrarch a copy of
Homer. This he could not read, but in time (1367) a poor trans-
lation into Latin was effected. Boccaccio studied Greek, being
the first western scholar to read Homer in the original.

Near the end of the fourteenth century it became known in
Florence that Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1350-1415), a Byzantine of
noble birth, a teacher of rhetoric and philosophy at Constanti-
nople, and the most accomplished Greek scholar of his age, had
arrived in Venice as an envoy from the Eastern Emperor. Flor-
entine scholars visited him, and on his return accompanied him to

of his time." He spent his life in travel and in copying and editing inscriptions.
After exploring Italy, he visited the Greek isles, Constantinople, Ephesos, Crete, and
Damascus. One of his contemporaries, Flavio Blondo, of ForU (1388-1463), pub-
lished a. four-volume work on the antiquities and historj^ of Rome and Italy. These
two men helped to found the new science of classical archaeology.

^ Classical scholars assert that Greek became extinct in the Italy of the Roman
Church in 690 a.d. Greek was taught at Canterbury in the days of the learned
Theodore, of Tarsus (R. 59 a), who died in 690. Irish monks, who carried Greek
from Gaul to Ireland in the fifth century, brought it back in the seventh century to
Saint Gall, founded by them in 614. " John the Scot," an Irish monk who was mas-
ter of the Palace School under Charles the Bald (c. 845-55), is said to have been able
to read Greek. Roger Bacon, the Oxford monk (i 214-94), also knew a little Greek.
William of Moerbeke, in 1260, was able to translate the Rhetoric and Politics of Aris-
totle for Thomas Aquinas. Greek monks were still found in the extreme south of
Italy at the time of the Renaissance, and Greek has remained a living language in
,a few villages there up to the present time.

248 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Constantinople to learn Greek. In 1396 Chrysoloras was invited
by Florence to accept an appointment, in the university there, to
the first chair of Greek letters in the West, and accepted. From
1396 to 1400 he taught Greek in the rich and stately city of Flor-
ence, at that time the intellectual and artistic center of Christen-
dom. For a few years, beginning in 1402, he also taught Greek at
the University of Pavia. He had earlier written a Catechism of
Greek Grammar, and at Pavia he began a literal rendering of
Plato's Repiihlic into Latin. From his visit dates the enthusiasm
for the study of Greek in the West.

Other Greek scholars arrive in Italy. Chrysoloras returned to
Constantinople for a time, in 1403, and Guarina of Verona, who
had been one of his pupils, accompanied him and spent five years
there as a member of his household. When he returned to Italy
he brought with him about fifty manuscripts, and before his death
he had translated a number of them into Latin. He also pre-
pared a Greek grammar which superseded that of Chrysoloras.
In 141 2 he was elected to the chair at Florence formerly held by
Chrysoloras, and later he established an important school at
Ferrara, based largely on instruction in the Latin and Greek
classics, which will be referred to again in the next chapter.

A rage for Greek learning and Greek books now for a time set
in. Aurispa, a Sicilian, went to Constantinople, learned Greek,
and returned to Italy, in 1422, with 238 Greek manuscripts.
Messer Filelfo, of Padua, after seven years at Constantinople, re-
turned, in 1427, with forty manuscripts and with the grand-niecf
of Chrysoloras as his wife. In 1448 Theodorus Gaza (c. 1400-
75), a learned Greek from the city of Thessalonica, who had fled
from his native city just before its capture by the Turks (1430),
came to Ferrara as the first professor of Greek in the university
there. He made many translations, prepared a very popular
Greek grammar, and in 145 1 became professor of philosophy at
Rome.

Another Greek of importance was Demetrius Chalcondyles of
Athens (1424-1511), who reached Italy in 1447. In 1450 he be-
came professor of Greek at Perugia, and of his lectures there one
of his enthusiastic pupils ^ wrote:

A Greek has just arrived, who has begun to teach me with great
pains, and I to listen to his precepts with incredible pleasure, because

1 Gian Antonio Campano; trans, by J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy, vol.
u, p. 249.

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

249

he is a Greek, because he is an Athenian, and because he is Demetrius.
It seems to me that in him is figured all the wisdom, the civility, and
the elegance of those so famous and illustrious ancients. Merely seeing
him you fancy you are looking on Plato; far more when you hear him
speak.

In 1463 Demetrius transferred to Padua as professor of Greek,
and was the first professor of Greek in a western European uni-
versity to be paid a fixed salary.
He also taught for a time at Milan,
and from 1471 to 1491 was profes-
sor of Greek at Florence.

A number of other learned Greeks
had reached Italy prior to the fall of
Constantinople (1453) before the
advancing Turks, ^ and after its
fall many more sought there a new
home. Many of these found, on
landing, that their knowledge of
Greek and the possession of a few
Greek books was an open sesame
to the learned circles of Italy.

Enthusiasm for the new move-
ment; libraries and academies
founded. The enthusiasm for the
recovery and restoration of ancient
literature and history which this
work awakened among the younger
scholars of Italy can be imagined. While most of the profes-
sors in the universities and most of the church officials at first
had nothing to do with the new movement, being wedded to
scholastic methods of thinking, the leaders of the new learning
drew about them many of the brightest and most energetic of the
young men who came to those universities which were hospitable
to the new movement.^ Greek scholars in the university towns

^ For long it was thought that the revival of the study of Greek in the West dated
from the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, but this idea has been exploded by classical
scholars. The events we have enumerated in this chapter show this, and at least
five of the important Greek scholars who taught in Italy came before that date. As
the Turks closed in on this wonderful eastern city, for so long the home of Greek
learning and culture, many other Greek scholars fled westward. The principal
Greek authors had, however, been translated into Latin before then.

2 Some of the Italian universities participated but little in the new movement.
Bologna and Pavia, in particular, held to their primacj^ in law and were but little
affected by the revival.

Fig. 70. Demetrius
Chalcondyles ( 1424-15 1 i)

(Drawn from a picture of a fresco
by Ghirlandajo, painted in 1490, on
the walls of the church of Santa Maria
Novella, at Florence)

250 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

were followed by admiring bands of younger students,' who soon
took up the work and superseded their masters. Academies,
named after the one conducted by Plato in the groves near Ath-
ens, whose purpose was to promote literary studies, were founded
in all the important Italian cities (R. 129). The members usually
Latinized their names, and celebrated the ancient festivals. In
Venice a Greek Academy was formed in which all the proceedings
were in Greek, and the members were known by Greek names.
The Academia of Aldus, at Venice, of which his celebrated press
was a department, became a veritable university for classical
learning, and to participate in its proceedings scholars came from
many lands. It was the curious and enthusiastic Italians who,
more than the Greek scholars who taught them the language,
opened up the literature and history of Athens to the comprehen-
sion of the western world.

The financial support of the movement. came from the wealthy
merchant princes, reigning dukes, and a few church authorities,
who assisted scholars and spent money most liberally in collecting
manuscripts and accumulating books. Says Symonds:

Never was there a time in the world's history when money was spent
more freely upon the collection and preservation of MSS., and when a
more complete machinery was put in motion for the sake of securing
literary treasures. Prince vied with prince, and eminent burgher with
burgher, in buying books. The commercial correspondents of the
Medici and other great Florentine houses, whose banks and discount
offices extended over Europe and the Levant, were instructed to pur-
chase relics of antiquity without regard for cost, and to forward them
to Florence. The most acceptable present that could be sent to a king
was a copy of a Roman historian. The best credentials which a young
Greek arriving from Byzantium could use to gain the patronage of men
like Palla degli Strozzi was a fragment of some ancient; the merchan-
dise insuring the largest profit to a speculator who had special knowl-
edge in such matters was old parchment covered with crabbed char-
acters.^

Cosimo de' Medici (1893-1464), a banker and ruler of Florence,

•spent great sums in collecting and copying manuscripts. Ves-

pasiano, a fifteenth-century bookseller of Florence, has left us an

1 Bessarion (c. 1403-72), at one time Archbishop of Nicaea and afterwards a car-
dinal at Rome, is said to have been surrounded by a crowd of Greek and Latin
scholars whenever he went out, and who escorted him every morning from his palace
to the Vatican. He was a great patron of learned Greeks who fled to Italy. On his
death he gave his entire library of Greek manuscripts to Venice, and this collection
formed the foundation of the celebrated library of Saint Mark's.

2 Symonds, J. A., The Renaissance in Italy, vol. 11, p. 139.

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 251

interesting picture of the work of Cosimo in founding (1444) the
great Medicean hbrary ^ at Florence (R. 130) and of the difficul-
ties of book collecting in the days before the invention of printing.

Fig. 71. Bookcase and Desk in the Medicean Library

AT Florence

(Drawn from a photograph)

This library was founded in 1444. It contains to-day about 10,000
Greek and Latin manuscripts, many of them very rare, and of a
few the only copies known. The building was designed by Michael
Angelo, and its construction was begun in 1525. The bookcases are
of about this date. It shows the early method of chaining books to
the shelves, and cataloguing the volumes on the end of each stack.

Under Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, who died in
1492, two expeditions were sent to Greece to obtain manuscripts
for the Florentine library. Vespasiano also describes for us the
books collected (c. 1475-80) for the great ducal library at Urbino
(R. 131), the greatest library in the Christian world at the time of

^ In 1436, Niccolo de Niccoli, a copyist of Florence, died, leaving his collection
of eight hundred manuscripts to the Medicean Library for the use of the public,
meaning thereby any scholar. This is said to have been the first pubUc-library
collection in western Europe.

252 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

its completion, and the work of Pope Nicholas V ^ (1447-145 5)
in laying the foundations (1450) for the great Vatican Library at
Rome (R. 132). Nicholas was an enthusiast in the new move-
ment, and formed a plan for the translation of all the Greek
writers into Latin. A later Pope, Leo X (1513-1521), planned
to make Rome the international center for Greek learning.

The movement extends to other countries. Petrarch made his
first great find in 1333, and up to 1450 the Revival of Learning,
often termed the Renaissance, was entirely an Italian movement.
By that date the great work in Italy had been done, and the
Italians were once more in possession of the literature and history
of the past. With them the movement was literary, historical,
and patriotic in purpose and spirit. With them the movement
was known as humanism, from an old Roman word {humanitas)
meaning culture, and this term came to be applied to the new
studies in all other lands. In their work with the literatures, in-
scriptions, coins, and archaeological remains of the Greeks and
Romans, their own literature, history, mythology, and political
and social life was reconstructed. The methods employed were
the methods used in modem science, and the result was to develop
in Italy a new type of scholar, possessed of a literary, artistic, and
historical appreciation unknown since the days of ancient Rome,
and with the greatest enthusiasm for Latin as a living language.

By the time the revival had culminated in Italy it began to be
heard of north of the Alps. France was the first country to take
up the study of Greek, a professorship being established at Paris
in 1458. There was but little interest in the subject, however, or
in any of the new studies, until two events of political importance,
forty years later, brought Frenchmen in close touch with what
had been done in northern Italy. In 1494 Charles VIII, of
France, claiming Naples as his possession, took an army into
Italy, and forcibly occupied Rome and Florence. Four years
later his successor, Louis XII, claimed Milan also and seized it
and Naples, maintaining a French court at Milan from 1498 to
1 51 2. Though both these expeditions were unsuccessful, from a
political point of view, the effect of the direct contact with hu-

1 Nicholas as a monk had had his enthusiasm for the new movement awakened,
and had gone deeply into debt for manuscripts. He was helped by Casimo de'
Medici, When he became Pope (1447-55) he collected scholars about him, built up
the university at Rome, laid the foundations of the great Vatican Library, and made
Rome a great literary center. After the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent at Flor-
ence, in 1492, the glory that had been Florence passed to Rome, and it in turn be-
came the cultural center of Christendom.

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

253

manism in its home was lasting. New ideas in architecture, art,
and learning were carried back to France, French scholars trav-
eled to Italy, and early in the sixteenth century Paris became a
center for the new humanistic studies. In Greek, France com-
pletely superseded Italy as the interpreter of Greek life and litera-
ture to the modem world.

In 1473 ^ Spanish scholar, Mebrissensis (1444-1522), returned
home after twenty years in Italy and introduced Greek at Se-
ville, Salamanca, and Alcala.

Rudolph Agricola (1443-85)

Early Dutch Humanist. Lectured at

Heidelberg

(From a contemporary engraving)

Fig. 72.

Thomas LiNACRE (c. 1460-1524)

English Professor of Medicine and

Lecturer on Greek

(From a portrait in the British
Museum)

Two Early Northern Humanists

About 1488 WilHam Linacre (c. 1460-15 24) and William Gro-
cyn (1446-15 14), two Oxford graduates, went to Florence from
England, studying Greek under Demetrius and Chalcondyles,
and, returning, introduced the new learning at Oxford.^ Linacre,
as professor of medicine, translated much of Galen (p. 198) from
the Greek, and he and Grocyn lectured on Greek at the Univer-

^ Much earlier, another Oxford man had returned from study under Guarina at
Ferrara — William Gray (1449) — but he seems to have made no impression. A
few other scholars went before Linacre and Grocyn and Colet, but these men were
the first to attract attention on their return.

254 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

sity. From Oxford the new learning was transmitted to Cam-
bridge, and, over a century afterward, to Harvard in America. A
third Oxford man to study Greek in Italy was John Colet (1467-
1 5 19), who studied in Florence from 1493 to 1496, and returned
home an enthusiastic humanist. He was the first Enghshman to
attract much attention to the new studies, and to hira is chiefly
due their introduction into the English secondary school.

The first German of whom we have any record as having stud-
ied in Italy was Peter Luder (c. 1415-74), who returned in 1456,
and lectured on the new learning at the Universities of Heidel-
berg, Erfurt, and Leipzig, but awakened no response. In 1470
Johann Wessel (1420-89) and m 1476 Rodolph Agricola (1443-
85), two noted Dutch scholars, studied in Italy. On returning,
Agricola,^ who has been called ''the Petrarch of German lands,"
did much "to spread the great inheritance of antiquity and the
new civilization to which it had given birth among his uncouth
countrymen" {barbari, he calls them). He made Heidelberg, for
a time, a center of humanistic appreciatiou. Johann Reuchlin
(1455-1522), a German by birth, studied in Florence and else-
where in Italy in 1481 to 1490, and there learned Hebrew. Re-
turning, he became a professor at Heidelberg and the father of
modem Hebrew studies. In 1506 he published the first Hebrew
grammar. In 1493 the University of Erfurt established a pro-
fessorship of Poetry and Eloquence, this being the first German
university to countenance the new learning. In 1523 the first
chair of Greek was established at Vienna. Thus slowly did the
revival of learning spread to northern lands.

The revival aided by the invention of paper and printing. Ver>'
fortunately for the spread of the new learning an important
process and a great invention now came in at a most opportune
time. The process was the manufacture of paper; the invention
that of printing.

The manufacture of paper is probably a Chinese invention,
early obtained by the Arabs. During the Mohammedan occupa-
tion of Spain paper mills were set up there, and a small supply of
their paper found its way across the Pyrenees. The Christians
who drove the Mohammedans out lost the process, and it now
came back once more from the East. By about 1250 the Greeks
had obtained the process from Mohammedan sources, and in 1276

^ Agricola's real name was Roelof Huysman, meaning " Roelof the husband-
man." In keeping with a common practice of the time he Latinized his name,
taking the equivalent Roman word.

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING

255

the first paper mill was set up in Italy. In 1340 a paper factory
was established at Padua, and soon thereafter other factories be-
gan to make paper at Florence, Bologna, Milan, and Venice. In
1320 a paper factory was established at Mainz, in Germany, and
in 1390 another at Nuremberg. By 1450 paper was in common
use and the way was now open
for one of the world's greatest
inventions.

This was the invention of
printing. From the difiiculty
experienced in securing books
for the great libraries at Flor-
ence, Urbino, and Rome, as
we have seen (Rs. 130, 131,
132), and the great cost of
reproducing single copies of
books, we can see that the
work of the humanists of the
fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies in Italy probably would
have had but little influence
elsewhere but for the inven-
tion of printing. To dissemi-
nate a new learning involving
two great literatures by copy-
ing books, one at a time by
hand, would have prevented
instruction in the new sub-
jects becoming general for
centuries, and would have
materially retarded the pro-
gress of the world. The discovery of the art of printing, coming
when it did, scattered the new learning over Europe.

Spread and work of the press. The dates connected with this
new invention and its diffusion over Europe are:

1423, Coster of Harlem made the first engraved single page.
1438. Gutenberg invented movable wooden types.
1450. Schoeffer and Faust cast first metal type.
1456. Bible printed in Latin by Gutenberg and Faust at Mainz.
This the first complete book printed.^

^ This was bound in two volumes, and in 191 1 a copy of it was sold at a sale of
old books, in New York City, for $50,000.

Fig. 73. An Early Sixteenth-
Century Press

" The prynters haue founde a crafte to make
bokis by brasen letters sette in ordre by a
frame." An engraving, dated 1520. The
man at the right is setting t>T)e, and the
one at the lever is making an impression.
A number of four-page printed sheets are
seen on the table at the right of the press.

256 " HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1457. The Mayence Psalter, the first dated hodk, printed.^

1462. Adolph of Nassau pillaged Mainz, drove out the printers, and

in consequence scattered the art over Europe.
1465. Press set up in the German monastery of Subiaco, in the

Sabine Mountains, in Italy.
1467. This press moved to Rome.

1469. Presses at Paris and Vienna.

1470. Printing introduced into Switzerland.

147 1. Presses set up at Florence, Milan, and Ferrara.

1473. Printing introduced into Holland and Belgium.

1474. Printing introduced into Spain.

1474-77. Printing introduced into England. Caxton set up his press
in 1477.
1476. First book printed in Greek at Milan.
1490. The Aldine press established at Venice, by Aldus Manutius.
1 501. First Greek book printed in Germany, at Erfurt.
1563. First newspaper established, in Venice.

Inventions traveled but slowly in those days, yet in time the
press was to be found in every country of Europe. The profes-
sional copyists made a great outcry against the innovation;
presses were at first licensed and closely limited in number; in
France the University of Paris was given the proceeds of a tax
levied on all books printed; and in England the beginnings of the
modem copyright are to be seen in the necessity of obtaining a
license from the ecclesiastical authorities to be permitted to print
a book.

^TT* C m^j)t$ f)pn) <^a( tboll Ifum fcttgc
J^ Ipff fo ftnotbe t^ craf & of Wfomc 50;
ticine j)(^^ Qtn^ fo^t to 6^|X OdnijmuettK tfce
5^ of ^66»p/fbrdte|imaRcnot«oii)«o

Fig. 74. An Early Specimen of Caxton's Printing

In cutting and casting the first type a style of heavy-faced let-
ter, much like that written by the mediaeval monks — the so-
called Gothic — was used. Caxton, in England, used this at first,

1 A second edition of this Psalter was printed two years later, and contains at the
end, in Latin, a statement which Robinson translates as fol ows: The present vol-
ume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly dmded
by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen, but by an ingenious
invention of printed characters: and was completed to the glory of God and the
honor of Saint James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher ot
Gemsheim, in the year of our Lord 145Q, on the 2C)th of August.

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING . 257

and the Germans have continued its use up to the present time.
The Italians, however, soon devised a type with letters like those
used by the old Romans — the so-called Roman type, this type —
which was soon accepted in all non-German European countries.
The Italians also devised a compressed type — the Italic —
which enabled printers to get more words on a page.

Venice, almost from the first, became the center of the book
trade, and books hterally poured from the presses there. By
1500 as many as five thousand editions, often of as many as a
thousand copies to an edition, had been printed in Italy. ^ Of
this number 2835 had been printed in Venice, and most of them
by the Aldine press of Aldus Manutius, and edited by the Aca-
demia (p. 250) connected therewith.- By 1500 many books had
also been printed in a number of northern cities,^ and Lyons,
Paris, Basel, Nuremberg, Cologne, Leipzig, and London soon
became centers of the northern book trade. Caxton in England
soon vied with Aldus in Venice as a printer of beautiful books.
When we remember that it required fifty-three days (Saadys) to
make by hand one copy of Quintilian's Institutes, and forty-five
copyists twenty-two months to reproduce two hundred volumes
for the Medicean Library at Florence (R. 130), the enormous im-
portance of an invention which would print rapidly a thousand or
more copies of a book, all exactly alike and free from copyist
errors, can be appreciated. It tremendously cheapened books,''
made the general use of the textbook method of teaching possible,
and paved the way for a great extension of schools and learning
(R. 134). From now on the press became a formidable rival to
the pulpit and the sermon, and one of the greatest of instruments
for human progress and individual hberty. From this time on
educational progress was to be much more rapid than it had been
in the past. From an educational point of view the invention of
printing might almost be taken as marking the close of the medi-
aeval and the beginning of modern times.

Rise of geographical discovery. The new influences awakened
by the Revival of Learning found expression in other directions.

^ The usual early edition was three hundred copies.

^ At Florence about three hundred editions are said to have been printed before
1500; at Bologna, 298; at Milan, 625; and at Rome, 925.

^ The following numbers of different editions are said to have been printed at the
northern cities before 1500: Paris, 751; Cologne, 530; Strassburg, 526; Nuremberg,
382; Leipzig, 351; Basel, 320; Augsburg, 256; Louvain, 116; Mayence, 134; Deven-
ter, 169; London, 130; Oxford, 7; Saint Albans, 4.

* By 1500 it is said that a book could be purchased for the equivalent of fifty
cents which a half century before would have cost fifty dollars.

258

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

One of these was geographical discovery, itself an outgrowth of
that series of movements known as the Crusades, with the accom-
panying revival of trade and commerce. These led to travel, ex-
ploration, and discovery. By the latter part of the thirteenth
century the most extensive travel which had taken place since the
days of ancient Rome had begun, and in the next two and a half
centuries a great expansion of the known world took place.

Unknovjn

Uncertain^

(possibly known)

Explored Region C I

Fig. 75. The World as known to Christian Europe before Columbus

Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville made extended travels to
the Orient, and returning (Polo returned, 1295) described to a
wondering Europe the new lands and peoples they had seen. The
Voyages of Polo and the Travels of Mandeville were widely read.
By the beginning of the fourteenth century the compass had been
perfected, in Naples, and a great era of exploration had been be-
gun. In 1402 venturesome sailors, out beyond the ''Pillars of
Hercules," discovered the Canary Islands; in 141 9 the Madeira
Islands were reached; in 1460 the Cape Verde Islands were found;
and in 1487 Vasco da Gama rounded the southern tip of Africa
and discovered the long-hoped-for sea route to India. Five years
later, sailing westward with the same end in view, Columbus dis-
covered the American continent. Finally, in 15 19-21, Magel-
lan's ships circumnavigated the globe, and, returning safely to
Spain, proved that the world was round. In 1507 Waldensee-
miiller published his Introduction to Geography, a book that was
widely read, and one which laid the foundations of this modem
study.
The effect of these discoveries in broadening the minds of men

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 259

can be imagined. The religious theories and teachings of the
Middle Ages as to the world were in large part upset. New races
and new peoples had been found, a round earth instead of a flat
one had been proved to exist, new continents had been discovered,
and new worlds were now ready to be opened up for scientific ex-
ploration and colonization.

About 1500 a stimulating time. The latter part of the fifteenth
century and the earlier part of the sixteenth was a stimulating
period in the intellectual development of Christian Europe. The
Turks had closed in on Constantinople (1453) ^^^ ended the
Eastern Empire, and many Greek scholars had fled to the West.
Though the Revival of Learning had culminated in Italy, its in-
fluence was still strongly felt in such cities as Florence and Venice,
while in German lands and in England the reform movement
awakened by it was at its height. Greek and Hebrew were now
taught generally in the northern universities. Everywhere the
old scholastic learning and methods were being overturned by
the new humanism, and scholastic teachers were being displaced
from their positions in the universities and schools. The new hu-
manistic university at Wittenberg, founded' in 1502, was exerting
large influence among German scholars and attracting to it the
brightest young minds in German lands. Erasmus was the great-
est international, scholar of the age, though ably seconded by dis-
tinguished humanistic scholars in Italy, France, England, the Low
Countries, and German lands. The court schools of Italy (R. 135)
and the municipal colleges of France (R. 136) were marking out
new lines in the education of the select few. Colet was founding
his reformed grammar school (15 10) at Saint Paul's, in London
(R. 138), the first of a long line of English humanistic grammar
schools. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo were
adding new fame to Italy, and carrying the Renaissance move-
ment over into that art which the world has ever since treasured
and admired.

The Italian cities, particularly Genoa and Venice, had become
rich from their commerce, as had many cities in northern lands.
Everywhere the cities were centers for the new life in western
Christendom. England was rapidly changing from an agricul-
tural to a manufacturing nation. The serf was evolving into a
free man all over western Europe. Italian navigators had dis-
covered new sea routes and lands, and robbed the ocean of its ter-
rors. Columbus had discovered a new world, soon to be peopled

260 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and to become the home of a new civilization. Magellan had
shown that the world was round and poised in space, instead of
flat and surrounded by a circumfluent ocean. The printing-press
had been perfected and scattered over Europe, and was rapidly
multiplying books and creating a new desire to read (R. 134).
The Church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had been in
the past, or soon was to be for centuries to come. All of these
new influences and conditions combined to awaken thought as
had not happened before since the days of ancient Rome. The
world seemed about ready for rapid advances in many new direc-
tions, and great progress in learning, education, government, art.
commerce, and invention seemed almost within grasp. Un-
fortunately the promise was not to be fulfilled, and the progress
that seemed possible in 1500 was soon lost amid the bitterness
and hatreds engendered by a great religious conflict, then about
to break, and which was destined to leave, for centuries to come, a
legacy of intolerance and suspicion in all lands.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. In what way was the fact that Dante wrote his Divine Comedy in Italian
instead of Latin an evidence of large independence?

2. Was it a good thing for peace and civilization that the modern languages
arose, instead of all speaking and writing Latin? Why?

3. Of what value to one is a "sense of the past behind him, and a conception
of the possibilities of the future before him," by way of giving perspective
and self-confidence? Do we have many mediaeval- type people to-day?

4. Show how the work of Petrarch required a man with a strong historic
sense.

5. Show the awakening of the modern scientific spirit in the critical and
reconstructive work of the scholars of the Revival.

6. Of what was the exposure of the forgery of the "Donation of Constan-
tine" a precursor?

7. Contrast the modern and the mediaeval spirit as related to learning.

8. Suppose that we should unexpectedly unearth in Mexico a vast literature
of a very learned and scholarly people who once inhabited the United
States, and should discover a key by which to read it. Would the
interest awakened be comparable with that awakened by the revival of
Greek in Italy? Why?

9. What does the fact that no copy of Quintilian's Institutes, a very famous
Roman book, was known in Europe before 14 16 indicate as to the de-
struction of books during the early Christian period?

10. What does the fact that the Christians knew little about Greek literature
or scholarship for centuries, and that the awakening was in large part
brought about by the pressure of the Turks on the Eastern Empire,
indicate as to intercourse among Mediterranean peoples during the
Middle Ages?

11. How do you explain the fact that the recovery of the ancient learning

THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 261

was very largely the work of young men, and that older professors in
the universities frequently held aloof from any connection with the
movement?

12. Compare the financial support of the Revival in Italy with the support
of universities and of scientific undertakings in America during recent
times.

13. Explain the long-delayed interest in the Revival in the northerji countries.

14. Trace the larger steps in the transference of Greek literature and learn-
ing from Athens, in the fifth century B.C., to its arrival at Harvard, in
Massachusetts, in 1636.

15. What was the importance of the rediscovery of Hebrew?

16. Show how the invention of printing was a revolutionary force of the
first magnitude.

17. Why should a license from the Church have been necessary to print a
book? Have we any remaining vestiges of this church control over
books?

18. Do you see any special reason why Venice should have become the early
center of the book trade?

19. Show how the printing-press became "a formidable rival to the pulpit
and the sermon, and one of the greatest instruments for human progress
and liberty."

JO. One writer has characterized the Revival of Learning as the beginnings
of the emergence of the individual from institutional control, and the
substitution of the humanities for the divinities as the basis of education.
Is this a good characterization of a phase of the movement?

21. Counting each edition of a printed book at only three hundred copies,
how many volumes had been printed before 1500 at the places listed in
footnote 3, page 257?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced :

125. Petrarch: On copying a Work of Cicero.

126. Benvenuto: Boccaccio's Visit to the Library at Monte Cassino.

127. Symonds: Finding of Quintilian's Institutes at Saint Gall.

(a) Letter of Poggio Bracciolini on the ''Find."

(b) Reply of Lionardo Bruni.

128. MS.: Reproducing Books before the Days of Printing.

129. Symonds: Italian Societies for studying the Classics.

130. Vespasiano: Founding of the Medicean Library at Florence.

131. Vespasiano: Founding of the Ducal Library at Urbino.

132. Vespasiano: Founding of the Vatican Library at Rome.
133- Green: The New Learning at Oxford.

134. Green: The New Taste for Books.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Is it probable that Petrarch's explanation (125) of why many of the
older Latin books were copied so infrequently, psalters being preferred
instead, is correct?

2. How do you explain the later neglect of so valuable a library as that at
Monte Cassino (126) or Saint Gall (127 a)?

3. Was Lionardo Bruni's letter toPoggio (127 b) overdrawn?

262 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

4. Was there anything unnatural about the work and customs of the ItaHan
societies for studying the classics (129)? Compare with a modern lit-
erary or scientific society, or with the National Dante Society.

5. What does the extract from Vespasiano, telling how he got books for
Cosimo de' Medici (130), indicate as to the scarcity of books in Italy
toward the middle of the fifteenth century?

6. The library of the Duke of Urbino (131) was the most complete collected
up to that time. List the larger classifications of the books copied, as
to the lines represented in a great library of that day.

7. What does the work of Pope Nicholas V, in estabhshing the Vatican
Library (132), indicate as to his interest in the new humanistic move-
ment?

8. Show from the selection from Green (133) that the revival movement in
England was essentially a religious revival.

9. Explain Green's cause-and-effect theory, as given in selection 134.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.

Blades, William. William Caxton.

Duff, E. G. Early Printed Books.
*Ficld, Lilian F. Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance.
*Howells, W. D. Venetian Days (Venetian commerce).
*Keane, John. The Evolution of Geography.

La Croix, Paul. The Arts in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the
Renaissance.
*Loomis, Louise. Mediceval Hellenism.

OHphant, Mrs. Makers of Venice.
*Robinson, J. H., and Rolfe, H. W. Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar and
Man of Letters.

Sandys, J. E. History of Classical Scholarship, vol. 11.
*Sandys, J. E. Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning.

Scaife, W. B. Florentine Life during the Renaissance.

Sedgwick, H. D. Italy in the Thirteenth Century.
*Symonds, J. A. The Renaissance in Italy; vol. 11, The Revival of Learning.

Thorndike, Lynn. History of MedicBval Europe.

Whitcomb, M. Source Book of the Italian Renaissance.
*Walsh, Jas. J. The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries.

CHAPTER XI

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL OF

LEARNING

Significance of the Revival of Learning. It is often stated that
the roots of all our modem educational practices in secondary
education He buried deep in the great Italian Revival of Learning.
If we limit the statement to the time preceding the middle of the
nineteenth century we shall be more nearly correct, as tremendous
changes in both the character and the purpose of secondary edu-
cation have taken place since that time. The important and out-
standing educational result of the revival of ancient learning by
Italian scholars was that it laid a basis for a new type of education
below that of the university, destined in time to be much more
widely opened to promising youths than the old cathedral and
monastic schools had been. This new education, based on the
great intellectual inheritance recovered from the ancient world by
a relatively small number of Italian scholars, dominated the sec-
ondary-school training of the middle and higher classes of society
for the next four hundred years. It clearly began by 1450, it
clearly controlled secondary education until at least after 1850.
Out of the efforts of Italian scholars to resurrect, reconstruct, un-
derstand, and utilize in education the fruits of their legacy from
the ancient Greek and Roman world, arose modem secondary
education, as contrasted with mediaeval church education.

Mediasval education, after all, was narrowly technical. It
prepared for but one profession, and one type of service. There
was little that was liberal, cultural, or humanitarian about it. It
prepared for the world to come, not for the world men live in here.
The new education developed in Italy aimed to prepare directly
for life in the world here, and for useful and enjoyable life at that.
Combining with the new humanistic (cultural) studies the best
ideals and practices of the old chivalric education — physical
training, manners and courtesy, reverence — the Italian pioneers
devised a scheme of education, below that of the universities,
which they claimed prepared youths not only for an intellectual
appreciation of the great and wonderful past of which they were
descendants, but also for intelligent service in the two great non-

264

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

church occupations of Italy in the fifteenth century — public
service for the City-State, and commerce and a business life.
This new type of education spread to other lands, and a new
type of secondary-school training, actuated by a new and a
modem purpose, thus came out of the revival of learning in Italy.
The movement in Italy patriotic. The inspiration for the re-
vival of learning in Italy did not originate with the universities.

Even the new chairs when
established in the universities
were regarded as inferior, and,
in true university fashion, the
occupants were tolerated by
the other professors rather
than approved of by them.
Some of the universities —
Pavia and Bologna, in partic-
ular — had practically noth-
ing to do with the new move-
ment.^ Even in the rich and
learned city of Florence, the
head and front of the revival
movement, the church schol-
ars and many university men
took little or no part in the
restoration of the old studies.
The learned archbishop, Saint
Antoninus, who presided over
the cathedral at Florence dur-
ing the brightest days of that
city's history, pursued his
mediaeval scholastic instruction undisturbed, and even wrote a
Summa Theologica of his own.

The revival movement, on the contrary, was directed in its
beginnings by a small group of patriotic Italians possessed of a
modem spirit, and was financed by intelligent and patriotic mer-
chants, bankers, and princes. Surrounded on all sides by monu-
ments and remains testifying to Roman greatness, and with

1 Much as universities have contributed to intellectual progress, hostiHty to
new types of thinking and to new subjects of study has been, through all time, a
characteristic of many of their members, and often it has required much pressure
from progressive forces on the outside to overcome their opposition to new lines of
scholarship and public service.

Fig. 76. Saint Antoninus and his
Scholars

Saint Antoninus (1389-1459) was the
learned and pious Archbishop of Florence
from 1446 until his death. The picture of
him giving instruction is from the Venice
(1503) edition of his Summa Theologica.

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 265

Roman speech in constant use by the scholars of the Church, the
revival of Latin literature meant more to Italian scholars than to
those of any other country. It seemed to them still possible to
revive Roman life and make Roman speech once more the lan-
guage of the learned world. The revival of Latin literature, too,
meant much more to them than the revival of Greek. The chief
value of the latter was to open up a still greater past, and through
this to illuminate Roman life and literature. After about 1500
the enthusiasm for Greek rapidly died out in Italy, and the fur-
ther interpretation of Greek life and thought was left to the
northern nations.

In this effort to revive the old Roman world the Italian scholars
received the sympathy of the great men of wealth, and of some of
the popes of the time. It was the Medici family at Florence who
aided the movement liberally there, rejuvenated the university of
Florence along new humanistic lines, accumulated libraries there
(R. 130) and at Venice, and aided scholars all over Italy. At
Milan the Visconti family paid the expenses of a chair of Latin
and Greek, estabhshed in the university there in 1440. Popes
Nicholas V and Leo X were prodigal in their support of the new
learning at Rome (R. 132), and the university there was recon-
structed along modern lines. At Venice the rulers gave large
financial and other support to the leaders of the new learning.
Academies (R. 129), under the patronage of the nobility, were
founded in almost all the northern Italian cities, and those in po-
Htical power did much to make their cities notable centers for
classical studies.

New schools created. The "finds" began with Petrarch's dis-
covery of two orations of Cicero, in 1333, and by the time "the
century of finds" (1333-1433) was drawing to a close the mate-
rials for a new type of secondary education had been accumulated.
Not only was the old literature discovered and edited, but the
finding of a complete copy of Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory at
Saint Gall (R. 127), in 1416, gave a detailed explanation of the old
Roman theory of education at its best. A number of "court
schools" now arose in the different cities, to which children from
the nobihty and the baaking and merchant classes were sent to
enjoy the advantages they offered over the older types of religious
schools.

Two of the most famous teachers in these court schools were
Vittorino da Feltre, who conducted a famous school at Mantua

266

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

from 1423 to 1446, and Guarino da Verona, who conducted an-
other almost equally famous school at Ferrara from 1429 to 1460.
Taking boys at nine or ten and retaining them until twenty or
twenty-one, their schools were much like the best private board-
ing-schools of England and America to-daj^ Drawing to them a

Guarino da Verona (13 74-1460)

(Drawn from a photograph of a con

temporary painting. School

at Ferrara, 1429-1460)

VlTTORINO da FeLTRE (1378-1446)

(Drawn from a medallion in the

British Museum. School at

Mantua, 1423-46)

Fig. 77. Two Early Italian Humanist Educators

selected class of students; emphasizing physical activities, man-
ners, and morals; employing good teaching processes; and provid-
ing the best instruction the world had up to that time known —
the influence of these court schools was indeed large. Many of
the most distinguished leaders in Church and State and some of
the best scholars of the time were trained in them. By better
methods they covered, in shorter time, as much or more than was
provided in the Arts course of the universities, and so became ri-
vals of them. The ultimate result was that, with the evolution of
a series of secondary schools which prepared for admission to the
universities, the gradual "humanizing" of the universities, and
the introduction of printed textbooks, the Arts courses in the
universities were advanced to a much higher plane. We have
here one of the first of a number of subsequent steps by means of

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 267

which new knowledge, organized into teaching shape, has been
passed on down to lower schools to teach, while the universities
have stepped forward into new and higher fields of endeavor.

The humanistic course of study. The new instruction was
based on the study of Greek and Latin, combined with the courtly
ideal and with some of the physical activities of the old chivalric
education. Latin was begun with the first year in school, and the
regular Roman emphasis was placed on articulation and proper
accent. After some facility in the language had been gained, easy
readings, selected from the greatest Roman writers, were at-
tempted. As progress was made in reading and writing and
speaking Latin as a living language, Cicero and Quintilian among
prose writers, and Vergil, Lucan, Horace, Seneca, and Claudian
among the poets, were read and studied. History was introduced
in these schools for the first time and as a new subject of study,
though the history was the history of Greece and Rome and was
drawn from the authors studied. Livy and Plutarch were the
chief historical writers used. Nothing that happened after the
fall of Rome was deemed as of importance. Much emphasis was
placed on manners, morality, and reverence, with Livy and Plu-
tarch again as the great guides to conduct. Throughout all this
the use of Latin as a living language was insisted upon; declama-
tion became a fine art; and the ability to read, speak, and com-
pose in Latin was the test. Cicero, in particular, because of the
exquisite quality of his Latin style, became the great prose model.
Quintilian was the supreme authority on the purpose and method
of teaching (R. 25). Greek also was begun later, though studied
much less extensively and thoroughly. The Greek grammar of
Theodorus Gaza (p. 248) was. studied, followed by the reading of
Xenophon, Isocrates, Plutarch, and some of Homer and Hesiod.

This thorough drill in ancient history and literature was given
along with careful attention to manners and moral training, and
each pupil's health was watchfully supervised — an absolutely
new thought in the Christian world. Such physical sports and
games as fencing, wrestling, playing ball, football, running, leap-
ing, and dancing were also given special emphasis. Competitive
games between different schools were held, much as in modern
times.

The result was an all-round physical, mental, and moral train-
ing, vastly superior to anything previously offered by the cathe-
dral and other church schools, and which at once established a

268

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

new type which was widely copied. A number of these new
teachers, called humanists, wrote treatises on the proper order of
studies, the methods to be employed, the right education of a
prince, liberal education, and similar topics.^ One of these, Bat-
tista Guarino, describing the education provided in the school
which his father founded at Ferrara (R. 135), laid down a dictum
which was accepted widely until the middle of the nineteenth
century, when he wrote:

I have said that abihty to write Latin verse is one of the essential
marks of an educated person. I wish now to indicate a second, which
is of at least equal importance, namely, familiarity with the literature
and language of Greece. The time has come when we must speak in
no uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarship.

Humanism in France. From Italy the new humanism was
carried to France, along with the retreating armies that had occu-
pied Naples, Florence, and Milan (p. 252), and when Francis I
came to the French throne, in 1515,- the new learning found in
him a willing patron. Though there had been beginnings before
this, the new learning really found a home in France now for the

first time. Here, too, it became asso-
ciated with court and noble, and the
schools created to furnish this new
instruction were provided at the insti-
gation of some form of public author-
ity. The greatest humanistic scholar in
France at the time, Budaeus, was made
royal librarian, in 1522. His study of
the old Roman coinage, upon which he
spent nine years, would pass to-day as
a study representing a high grade of
scholarship, and was in marked con-
trast with the scholastic methods of the
university. In his writings Budaeus set
forth for France the dictum that every
man, even if he be a king, should be devoted to letters and Hberal
learning, and that this culture can be obtained only through Greek
and Latin, and of these, unlike the Italians, he held Greek to be
the more important. Other scholars now helped to transfer the
center for Greek scholarship to Paris, where it remained for the
next two centuries.

^ For a list of these treatises, see Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, vol. v, p. 154-

Fig. 78. GuiLLAUME
BuD^us (1467-1540)

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 269

Fig. 79. College de France

Founded at Paris, in 1530, by King Francis I. for
instruction in the new humanistic learning

A royal press was set up in Paris, in 1526, to promote the in-
troduction of the new learning. Libraries were built up, as in
Italy. Humanist scholars were made secretaries and ambassa-
dors. The College de France was established at Paris, by direc-
tion of the King, with
chairs in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, and mathe-
matics. To Hebrew
the Italians had given
almost no attention,
but in France, and
particularly in Ger-
many, Hebrew be-
came an important
study. The devel-
opment of schools in
northern France was
hindered by the dis-
sensions following the
religious revolts of Luther and Calvin, but in southern France
many of the cities founded municipal colleges, much like the court
schools of northern Italy in type. The work of the city of Bor-
deaux in reorganizing its town school along the new lines was
typical of the work of other southern cities. Good teachers, lib-
eral instruction, and a broad-minded attitude on the part of the
governing authorities ^ made this school, known as the College de
Guyenne, notable not only for humanistic instruction, but for
intelhgent public education during the second half of the six-
teenth century. The picture of this college (school) left us by
its greatest principal, Elie Vinet (R. 136), gives an interesting
description of its work.

Humanism in Germany. The French language and life was
closely related to that of northern Italy, and French religious
thought had always been so closely in touch with that of Rome
that something of the Italian feeling for the old Roman culture
and institutions was felt by the humariists of France. In Ger-
many and England no such feeling existed, and in these countries
any effort to discredit the rising native languages was much more
likely to be regarded as mere pedantry. In both these countries,
though, Latin was still the language of the Church, of the univer-

^ The distinguished author, Montaigne, was mayor in 1580.

270

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

si ties, of all learned writing, and the means of international inter-
course, and after the new humanism had once obtained a foothold
it was welcomed by scholars as a great addition to existing knowl-
edge. Erasmus, the foremost scholar of his day, not only labored
hard to introduce the new learning in the schools, but welcomed
the restored Roman tongue as an international language for schol-
arship, as a potent weapon for destroying barriers of language, re-
ligion, law, and possibly in time governments based on national-
ity, and for the promise it gave of peace in international relation-
ships. In both Germany and England, in place of the patriotic
fervor of the Italians, religious zeal, as we shall see later on, was
kindled by the new humanistic studies.

Among the universities Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, Tubingen,
and Leipzig (see Figure 61) were foremost in the introduction of
the new learning. Erfurt became the center of a group of human-
istic scholars during the closing years of the fifteenth century, and

the first Greek book printed in Germany
appeared there, in 1 501. At both Tubingen
and Heidelberg Reuchhn (p. 254) taught
for a time, and both institutions early be-
came centers for the study of Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew. At Leipzig the reigning duke
brought various humanistic scholars to the
university to lecture, after 1507, and in
1 5 19 entirely reformed the university by
subordinating the mediaeval disciplines to
the new studies. Four new universities
— Wittenberg (1502), Marburg (1527),
Konigsburg (1544), and Jena (1558) —
were established on the new humanistic
basis, and from their beginning were cen-
ters for the new learning. At Wittenberg,
Martin Luther had been made Professor of Theology, in 1508,
when but twenty-five years of age, and to Wittenberg the Elec-
toral Prince, in 15 18, brought the young Melanchthon, then but
twenty-one, as Professor of Greek. The universities of Germany
were more profoundly affected by the introduction of the new
learning than were those of any other country. The monastic
orders and the Scholastics, who had for long controlled the Ger-
man institutions, were overthrown by the aid of the ruling
princes, and by the close of the first quarter of the sixteenth

Fig. 80. JoHANN
Reuchlin (1455-1522)

' Father of modern Hebrew
Studies"

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 271

century the new humanism was everywhere triumphant in Ger-
man lands.

German secondary schools. The enthusiasm of the human-
ists for the new learning led them to urge the estabHshment of
humanistic secondary schools in the German cities. The schools
of ''The Brethren of the Common Life" (Hieronymians) , a teach-
ing order founded by Gerhard Grote at Deventer, Holland, in
1384, and which had established forty-five houses by the time the
new learning came into the Netherlands from Italy, at once
adopted the new studies, soon trebled the number of its houses,
;md for decades supplied teachers of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew to
all the surrounding countries.^ Wessel, Agricola, Hegius, Reuch-
lin, and Sturm were among their greatest teachers, and Erasmus
their greatest pupil. Here and there in German cities Latin
schools, teaching the subjects of the Trivium, but principally the
elements of Latin and grammar, had been established in the
course of the later Middle Ages, and to these scholars trained in
the new learning gradually made their way, secured employment,
and thus quietly introduced a purified Latin and the intellectual
part of the new humanistic course of study. Up to 1520 this
method was followed entirely in German lands.

As in Italy, the commercial cities were among the first to pro-
vide schools of the new type. In 1526 the commercial city of
Nuremberg, in southern Germany, opened one of the first of the
new city humanistic secondary schools, Melanchthon being
present and giving the dedicatory address. A number of similar
schools were founded about this time in various German cities — ■
Ilfeld, Frankfort, Strassburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzig —
among the number. Many of these failed, as did the one at Nu-
remberg, to meet the needs of the people in essentially commer-
cial cities. Whatever might have been true in more cultured
Italy, in German cities a rigidly classical training foj- youth and
early manhood was found but poorly suited to the needs of the
sons of wealthy burghers destined to a commercial career. The
rising commerce of the world apparently was to rest on native
languages, and not on elegant Latin verse and prose. The com-
mercial classes soon fell back on burgher schools, elementary
vernacular schools, writing and reckoning schools, business ex-

' This order had begun as an institution for the instruction of the poor, emphasiz-
ing the use of the Bible and the vernacular, but when the new learning came in from
Italy, classical learning was added and the instruction of the brotherhood became
largely humanistic.

2']2

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

perience, and travel for the education of their sons, leaving the
Latin schools of the humanists to those destined for the service of
the Church, the law, teaching, or the higher state service.

The Work of Johann Sturm. The most successful classical
school in all Germany, and the one which formed the pattern for

future classical creations, was
the gymnasium ^ at Strassburg,
under the direction (1536-82)
of the famous Johann Sturm,
or Sturmius, as he came to call
himself. This was one of the
early classical schools founded
by the commercial cities, but
it had not been successful. In
1536 the authorities invited
Sturm, a graduate of the Uni-
versity of Louvain, and at that
time a teacher of classics and
dialectic at Paris, where he
had come in contact with the
humanism brought from Italy,
to become head of the school
and reorganize it. This he
did, and during the forty-five
years he was head of the school it became the most famous
classical school in continental Europe. His Plan of Organization,
pubHshed in 1538; his Letters to the Masters on the course of
study, in 1565; and the record of an examination of each class

1 The influence of the old Greek classical terms in this connection is interesting,
and is another evidence of the permanence of Greek ideas. Sturm here adopted
the Italian nomenclature, Vittorino da Feltre having called his school a Gymnasitim
Palatinum, or Palace School. Guarino wrote of gymnasia Italorum. Both derived
the term from the Gymnasia of ancient Greece, just as the academies of the Italian
cities took the'r name from the Academy of Plato at Athens (p. 44). Another
famous Greek school was the Lyceum., founded by Aristotle (p. 44). All these
names came in during the Revival of Learning in Italy, and were applied to the new
classical schools at a time when every term, and even the names of men, were given
classical form. As a result the Italian secondary schools of to-day are known as
ginnasio, and the German classical secondary schools as gymnasia. The French
took their term from the Lyceum, hence the French lycecs. The English named their
classical schools after the chief subject of study, hence the English grammar schools.
In 1638 Milton visited Italy, and was much entertained in Florence by members of
the academy and university there. In 1644 he published his Tractate on Education,
in which he outlined his plan for a series of classical academies for England. Milton
was a church reformer, as were the Puritans, and the Puritans, in settling America,
brought over first the terrh grammar school, and later the term academy to New
England.

Fig. 81. Johann Sturm (1507-89)

(After a contemporary engraving by
StofHin)

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 273

in the school, conducted in 1578, all of which have been pre-
served, give us a good idea as to the nature of the organ-
ization and instruction (R. 137).

Sturm was a strong and masterful man, with a genius for or-
ganization. Probably adopting the plan of the French colleges
(R. 136), he organized his school into ten classes,'' one for each
year the pupil was to spend in,the school, and placed a teacher in
charge of each. The aim and end of education, as he stated it,
was ''piety, knowledge, and the art of speaking," and "every
effort of teachers and pupils " should bend toward acquiring
"knowledge, and purity and elegance of diction." Of the ten
years the pupil was to spend in the gymnasium, seven were to be
spent in acquiring a thorough mastery of pure idiomatic Latin,
and the three remaining years to the acquisition of an elegant
style. Cicero was the great model, but Vergil, Plautus, Terence,
Martial, Sallust, Horace, and other authors were read and stud-
ied. Except that the Catechism was first studied in the native
German, Latin was made the language of the classroom. Great
emphasis was placed on letter-writing, declamation, and the act-
ing of plays. Rhetoric, too, was made a very important subject
of study. Greek was begun in the fifth year of school and con-
.tinued throughout, ail instruction in Greek being given through
the medium of the Latin. ^ The instruction in both Latin and
Greek was much like that of the court schools of Italy, except
that in Greek the New Testament was read in addition. The
plays and games and physical training of the Italian schools, how-
ever, were omitted; much less emphasis was placed on manners
and gentlemanly conduct; and in educational purpose a narrow
drill was substituted for the broad cultural spirit of the French
and Italian schools.

Sturm was the greatest and most successful schoolman of his
day. In clearly defined aim, thorough organization, carefully
graded instruction, good teaching, and sound scholarship, his
school surpassed all others. Sturm's aim was to train pious,
learned, and eloquent men for service in Church and State, using
religion and the new learning as means, and in this he was very
successful. In a short time after taking charge his gymnasium

^ Melanchthon. in his famous Saxony plan of 1528, had provided for but three
classe? (R. 161). The class-for-each-year idea was new in German lands.

^ This became a fixed practice, Latin being the one language of the school. A
century later, when it was attempted by the Jansenists, in France, to teach Greek
directly through the vernacular, the practice was loudly condemned by the Jesuits
as impious, because it broke the connection between France and Rome.

274

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

had six hundred pupils, and in 1578 there were "thousands of
pupils, representing eight nations," in attendance. Sturm be-
"came widely known throughout northern Europe, and scholars
and princes passing through Strassburg stopped to visit his school
and secure his advice.. He corresponded with scholars in many
lands, and the influence of his institution was enormous. He was

^the author of many school
textbooks, and of half a dozen
works on the theory and prac-
tice of education. He fixed
both the type and the name
— gymnasium — of the Ger-
man classical secondary school,
which to-day is not very ma-
terially changed from the iorm.
and character which Sturm
gave it. Sturm's work deeply
influenced many later foun-
dations in Germany, and also
helped to mould the educa-
tional system devised later on
by the Jesuits.

Humanism in England.
Grocyn, Linacre, and Colet
had introduced the new learn-
ing at Oxford, as we have al-
ready seen (p. 253), in the
closing years of the fifteenth
century (R. 133), but had made but Httle impression. They
were ably seconded by Erasmus, who taught Greek at Cambridge
(15 10-14), ^i^d who labored hard to substitute true classical cul-
ture for the poor Latin and the empty scholasticism of his time.
He wrote textbooks ^ to help introduce the new learning, urged
the importance of history, geography, and science as serving to
elucidate the classics, edited editions of the classical authors,

^ His phrase book, De Copia Verborum et Rernm, went through sixty editions in
his Hfetime, and was popular for a century after his death. His book of proverbs,
the Adagia, was in both Latin and Greek, and was widely used. His Book of Say-
ings from the Ancients {Apophthcgmata) was a collection of little stories, much like
some of our best modern books for elementary-school use. His Colloquies, or Latin
dialogues, were widely used for two centuries in Protestant countries. These four
were written between 151 1 and 15 19, and largely for use in Saint Paul's School. His
Latin edition of Theodorus Gaza's Greek Grammar (15 16) gave English schools
for the first time a standard text.

Fig. 82. DEsroERius Erasmus
(1467-1536)

A contemporary portrait by the German

artist, Hans Holbein the Younger,

in the Louvre, Paris

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 275

wrote two treatises of importance on education,^ and in two other
books ^ ridiculed those who mistook the form for the spirit of
the ancient learning. His Latin Greek edition of the New Tes-
tament definitely fixed the place of the New Testament in the
humanistic schools.

In spite of the opposition of monks and scholastics in the uni-
versities of Oxford and Cambridge, and in the face of the coming
religious turmoil in the days of Henry VIII, the new learning
made steady progress in the universities,^ with the court, and
among the scholars and statesmen of the time. With the coming
of Elizabeth to the throne, "* in 1558, the court, from the Queen
down, was imbued with the spirit of the new learning (R. 139).
Elizabeth appointed new chancellors for the two universities, and
these institutions were soon transformed from places for the
training of mediaeval scholars and theologians into places for the
production of a "due supply of fit persons to serve God in Church
and State." As Sir Thomas Elyot so well expressed it, in his The
Governour (1544) — a book on the education of rulers for a State,
and which was permeated by the new spirit — '' the new political
order requires qualified instruments for its administration, and a
trained governing class must henceforth take the place of the
privileged caste and the clerk [cleric] education under the mediae-
val disciphnes."

Colet and Saint PauPs School. The first real establishment of
the new learning in England came through the secondary schools,
and through the refounding of the cathedral school of Saint
Paul's, in London, by the humanist John Colet, in 15 10. Colet
had become Dean of Saint Paul's Church, and Erasmus urged him
to Embrace the opportunity to reconstruct the school along hu-
manistic lines. This he did, endowing it with all his wealth, and
in a series of carefully drawn-up Statutes (R. 138), which were
widely copied in subsequent foundations, Colet laid special em-
phasis on the school giving training in the new learning and in

^ They were On the First Liberal Education of Children (1529), and On the Order oj
Study (151 1).

^ His Praise of Folly (1509), and his Ciceronian (1528).

^ The introduction of the new learning into the English universities was easier
than elsewhere, because the English universities had broken up into groups of resi-
dence halls, known as colleges. If the old colleges could not be reformed new ones
could be created, and this took place. Trinity College, at Cambridge, founded in
1540, was from the first a center of humanistic studies. That same year the King
founded royal professorships of Civil Law, Hebrew, and Greek at Cambridge.

* Elizabeth had had for her tutor Roger Ascham, author of The Scholcmastcr, and
y. teacher of Greek at Cambridge (R, 139).

276

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Christian discipline. Erasmus gave much of his time for years to
finding teachers and writing textbooks for the school. William
Lily (1468-15 2 2), another early humanist recently returned from
study in Italy, and the author of a widely known and much used
textbook ^ — Lily's Latin Grammar (R. 140) — was made head-
master of the school.

The course of study was of the humanistic type already de-
scribed, coupled with careful religious instruction. In place of

Fig. ?>2,. Saint Paul's School, London

the monkish Latin pure Latin and Greek were to be taught, and
the best classical authors took the place of the old mediaeval dis-
ciplines. The school met with much opposition, was denounced
as a temple of idolatry and heathenism by the men of the old
schools, and even the Bishop of London tried twice to convict
Colet of heresy and suppress the instruction. Notwithstanding
this the school became famous for its work, not only in London
but throughout England. From its desks came a long line of
capable statesmen, learned clergy, brilliant scholars, and literary
men.

^ For generations this famous grammar was to England what Donatus was to
mediaeval Europe. It was also used in the grammar schools of New England. Lily
visited Jerusalem and studied under the best Latin teachers in Rome, so that he
ranks with Linacre, Grocyn, and Colet as an introducer of classical culture into
England.

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 2^^

Influence on other English grammar schools. In a preceding
chapter (p. 152) we mentioned the founding of many English
grammar schools after 1200. At the time Saint Paul's School
was refounded there were something like three hundred of these,
of all classes, in England. They existed in connection with the
old monasteries, cathedrals, collegiate churches, guilds, and char-
ity foundations in connection with parish churches, while a few
were due to private benevolence and had been founded independ-
ently of either Church or State. The Sevenoaks Grammar
School, founded by the will of WilHam Sevenoaks, in 1432 (R,
141), and for which he stated in his will that he desired as master
''an honest man, sufficiently advanced and expert in the science

Fig. 84. GiGGLESWicK Grammar School

One of the chief schools of Yorkshire, England, and dating back to 1499. This
building was erected in 1507-12 by a chantry priest named James Carr (Ker).
Drawn from an old print. On the front of the building was a Latin tablet (shown in
the drawing) , now in the British Museum, which, translated, read : "Kindly mother
of God, defend James Ker from ill. For priests and young clerks this house is
made, in i =512. Jesus, have mercy on us. Old men and children praise the name
of the Lord."

of Gramme, B.A., by no means in holy orders," and the chantry
grammar school founded by John Percy vail, in 1503 (R. 142), are
examples of the parish type. The famous Winchester Public
School, founded by Bishop William of Wykeham, in 1382, to em-
phasize grammar, religion, and manners, and to prepare seventy

278 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

scholars for New College, at Oxford,^ where they were to be
trained as priests; and Eton College, founded by Henry VI, in
1440, to prepare students for King's College, at Cambridge, are
examples of the larger private foundations. A few, such as the
grammar school at Sandwich (1579), owed their origin (R. 143) to
the initiative of the city authorities. Most of these grammar
schools were small, but a few were large and wealthy establish-
ments.

These old foundations, with their mediaeval curriculum, after a
time began to feel the influence of Colet's school. Within a cen-
tury, due to one influence or another, practically all had been re-
modeled after the new classical type set up by Colet. In the
course of study given for Eton (R. 144), for 1560, we see the new
learning fully established, and in the course of study for a small
country grammar school, in 1635 (R. 145), we see how fully the
new learning, with its emphasis on Latin as a living language, had
by this time extended to even the smallest of the English grammar
schools. The new foundations, after 15 10, were almost entirely
new-learning grammar schools, with large emphasis on grammar,
good Latin and Greek, games and sports, and the religious spirit.
One of the most conspicuous of these later foundations was Mer-
chant Taylor's School,^ founded in London in 1561, and of which
Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), the author of two important
books on educational theory,^ was for long the headmaster. The
first American Latin grammar school (Boston, 1635) was a direct
descendant of these English influences and traditions.

The reaction against mediaevalism. Having traced the intro
duction of the new learning by countries, it still remains to point
out certain significant educational features of the movement

1 Winchester was the first of the so-called "great public schools" of England, o\
which Eton, Saint Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charterhouse, Rugby, Shrewsbury
and Merchant Taylors' are the other eight. The foundation statutes of Winchestt r
made elaborate provision for "a Warden, a Head Master, ten Fellows, three Chaj)
lains, an Usher, seventy scholars, three Chapel Clerks, sixteen Choristers, and :!
large staff of servants," as did Henry VIII later on for Canterbury (R. 172 a). Th;
Warden and Fellows were the trustees. In addition to the seventy scholars (Foun
dationers) other non-foundationers (Commoners) were to be admitted to instruction
The admission requirements were to be "reading, plain song, and Old Donatus,'
and the school was to teach Grammar, the first of the Liberal Arts. Except for tin
change in the nature of the instruction when the new learning came im, this and tin
other "public schools" remained almost unchanged until the second half of the nine-
teenth century.

2 Statutes for this school had provided the following entrance regulations: "Bui
first see that they can the Catechisme in English or Latyn, that every one of thi
said two hundred & fifty schollers can read perfectly & write competently, or el-
lett them not be admitted in no wise."

^ His The Positions (1581), and The Elementarie (1582). See Chapter xviii.

Plate 5. Stratford-on-Avon Grammar School

Established by the Holy Cross Guild of Stratford-on-iVvon, at the beginning of the
fifteenth century. The Grammar School was built in 1426, of wood, and at a cost
of £10, 55., 3§(i. The stone guild-chapel to the left is older. The school was held on the
upper floor, the lower being used as a guild-hall. Here Shakespeare went to school,
and saw companies of strolling players in the hall below. The lower picture shows
the grammar-school room after its "restoration," in 1892,

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 279

which were common in all lands, and which profoundly modified
subsequent educational practice. Both the purpose and the
method of education were permanently changed.

Up to about the middle of the fourth Christian century the aim
of both Greek and Roman education had been to prepare men to
become good and useful citizens in the State. Then the Church
gained control of education, and for a thousand years the chief
object was to prepare for the world to come. Success and good
citizenship in this world counted for little, religious devotion took
the place of the old state patriotism, the salvation of souls took the
place of the promotion of the social welfare, and the aim and end
of life here was to attain everlasting bHss in the world to come.
To be able to appease the dread Judge at the Day of Judgment,
prayer, penance, and holy contemplation were the important
things here below. It was preeminently the age of the self abas-
ing monk, and this mental attitude dominated all thinking and
learning.

The spirit behind the Revival of Learning was a protest against
this mediaeval attitude, and the protest was vigorous and success-
ful. The Revival of Learning was a clear break with mediaeval
traditions and with mediaeval authority. It restored to the world
the ideals of earlier education — self-culture, and preparation for
usefulness and success in the world here. In Italy, France, Ger-
many, and England the movement, too, met with the most thor-
ough approval from modern men — merchants, court officials,
and scholars who were ready to break with the mediaeval type of
thinking. The court and other types of secondary schools now
established were popular with the higher classes in society, and
this aristocratic stamp the humanistic schools and courses have
ever since retained. These schools restored to the world the prac-
tical education of the days of Cicero, and preparation for intelli-
gent service in the Church, State, and the larger business life be-
came one of their important purposes. Supported as they were
by the ruling classes, the new schools were close to the most pro-
gressive forces in the national life of the different countries. They
represented an unmistakable reaction against the world of the
mediaeval monk and the Scholastic, and their early success was in
large part because of this.

Modification of the mediaeval curriculum. The mediaeval
curriculum, as we have seen (chap, vii), was based on instruction
in the Seven Liberal Arts. Grammar at first was the great sub-

28o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ject, but later Dialectic became the master science. Knowledge
was regarded as an organic whole, capable of being stated in a
brief encyclopaedia, and each man could learn it all. With the
rise of university instruction some new knowledge was added,
chiefly from Moslem sources, and the old knowledge was minutely
re-ground. With the revival of the ancient learning there came,
within a little more than a century, an enormous increase in the
world's sum of knowledge, and the invention of printing came
just in time to multiply and scatter this new knowledge through-
out western Europe. To all the old subjects a new wealth of de-
tail was added which made teaching encyclopaedias impossible.
New purposes in education now came to prevail, and the great
mediaeval teaching curriculum was changed in content and in
relative importance.

Of the subjects in the old Trivium, Dialectic or Logic, which
Scholastics had raised to the place of first importance, was de-
throned, and relegated to a minor position in university instruc-
tion. In its place Grammar, as Quintilian knew and used the
term (R. 76) and as based on and including Literature, was raised
once more to the place of first importance. Out of this. Litera-
ture — at first the classical and later the modern — - later came as
a separate study, as did also the study of History and Mythology.
By the latter part of the sixteenth century technical Grammar
had been separated from Literature, and made a more elementary
subject, while Rhetoric had developed into a critical study of lit-
erary art. Of the subjects of the Quadrivium, Arithmetic, Geom-
etry, and Astronomy were each greatly expanded, as a result of
the introduction of much new knowledge, and each was reduced
to textbook form, while Algebra and Trigonometry were now
organized as teaching subjects. Due to their newness and diffi-
culty these subjects were taught chiefly in the universities. There
they remained for a long time before being passed down to the
secondary schools. Out of the very elemental instruction given
in Geography and Astronomy were in time evolved all the biologi-
cal and physical sciences, though this development belongs to a
later chapter (xvii), and these new subjects did not reach the
secondary schools until well into the nineteenth century. The
last of the quadrivial subjects, Music, experienced a different his-
tory in different countries. In the Germanic countries it con-
tinued to receive its old emphasis, while in England and France
much less was made of it. After the setting-in of Puritanism

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 281

£ar/y Middle
Ages

Later Middle
Ages

Period of the Revival
of Learning

Later evolution

<;
C!i
W
pq

HH
h-l ■

w
>

1-3

1— 1

Q
<

'GRAMMAR

Rhetoric
.Dialectic

Grammar

Rhetoric
DIALECTIC

GRAMMAR

Rhetoric
Dialectic

( Grammar
1 LITERATURE
j History
I Mythology
Rhetoric

Logic (To Univs.)

Arithmetic
Geometry

Astronomy
MUSIC

Arithmetic

[ Geometry

[ Geography
[ Astronomy

Physics
MUSIC

Arithmetic

Geometry

Geography
Astronomy

Physics

1 Arithmetic

1 Algebra

J Geometry

1 Trigonometry

j Geography

1 Botany, Zoology

Astronomy, Me-
chanics

Physics, Chemistry

j In Teutonic Countries — Music
I In English Countries — ?

Fig. 85. The Evolution of Modern Studies

The great study of each period is in capitals; subjects in italics indicate that
they also were quite important. Least important subjects in ordinary type

in England, when music was regarded with great disfavor, it in
large part passed out of the Enghsh curriculum. As a result the
Germanic and Scandinavian nations are to-day singing nations,
while the English and American are not. In early America, in par-
ticular, was the religious reaction against music especially strong.
New teaching methods. Such important changes naturally
called for a progressively evolving series of printed textbooks,
and these now came fast from the presses. The day of one text-
book, which could dominate all instruction for hundreds of years,
was over forever. A few books, such as Lily's or Melanchthon's
Latin grammars and the textbooks of Erasmus, were still used for
a long time, but throughout the sixteenth century, before the
schools became formalized and lost their earlier purpose, each
textbook issued was soon superseded by a better one. The inven-
tion of printing, too, changed teaching from a reading-by-the-
professor to a textbook method, and tremendously shortened the
time necessary to give instruction in any subject. With the
manufacture of paper the written theme, too, displaced the dis-

282 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

putation, with great gains in accuracy of thinking and refinement
in the use of words. It was still the Latin theme or verse or ora-
tion, to be sure, and the object of the new instruction was to
teach Latin as a living language, but before long the time was to
come when the same methods would be transferred to instruction
in the native tongues and for national ends.

To make the instruction as practical as possible, and thus pre-
pare the pupils for service as Latin scholars in public or scholarly
pursuits, the ancient literature was studied in part as a storehouse
of adequate and elegant expression, and numerous phrase books ^
were written for use in the schools. When we remember that
Latin was still the language of all learned literature, of the univer-
sity classroom, of most diplomatic and legal documents, and a
practical necessity for travel or communication abroad, we can
realize why so much emphasis was placed on the constant use of
Latin as the language of the school.^ As Leach ^ so well puts it:

The learned professions required a competent knowledge of Latin
far more directly then than now. A need for Latin was not confined
to the Church and the priest. The diplomatist, the lawyer, the civil
servant, the physician, the naturalist, the philosopher, wrote, read, and
to a large extent spoke and perhaps thought in Latin. Nor was I>atin
only the language of the higher professions. A merchant, or a bailiff
of a manor, wanted it for his accounts; every town clerk or guild clerk
wanted it for his minute bobk. Columbus had to study for his voyages
in Latin; the general had to study tactics in it. The architect, the
musician, every one who was neither a mere soldier nor a mere handi-
craftsman, wanted, not a smattering of grammar, but a living acquaint-
ance with the tongue, as a spoken as well as a written language.

The schools become formal. After the new learning had ob-
tained a firm footing in the schools there happened what has often

^ Solomon Lowe, in his Grammar, published in 1726, gives a bibliography of
128 Phrase Books which had appeared by that time. The following selection from
the Colloquies of Corderius (R. 136) illustrates their nature:

Col. 7. Clericus, ' Col. 7. Clericus,

The Master. Magister.

C. Master, may not I and my uncle's Licetne, Magister, ut ego & patru^lis

son go home? edmus domom?

M. To what end? Quid e6?

C. To my sister's daughter's wedding. Ad nuptias consobrinae.
M. When is she to be married? Quando ets nuptura?

C. To-morrow. Crastino die.

M. Why will you go so quickly? Cur tarn cit6 vultis ire?

C. To CHANGE OUR CLOATHS. Ut mtilemus vestimenta.

2 Sturm, Trotzendorf, and Neander insisted on the use of Latin in all conversa-
tion in the school, and the Jesuits later on subjected boys to a whipping if reported
as having used the vernacular.

* Leach, A. F., English Schools at the Reformation, p. 105.

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 283

happened in the history of new educational efforts — that is, the
new learning became narrow, formal, and fixed, and lost the lib-
eral spirit which actuated its earlier promoters. In the beginning
the Italian humanists had aimed at large personal self-culture and
individual development, and the northern humanists at moral
and religious reform and preparation for useful service, both using
the classics as a means to these new ends. After about 1500 in
Italy, and i6co in the northern countries, when the new-learning
schools had become well established and thoroughly organized,
the tendency arose to make the means an end in itself. Instead
of using the classical literatures to impart a liberal education, give
larger vision, and prepare for useful public service, they came to
be used largely for disciplinary ends. The teaching of Campion
at Prague (1574) well illustrates this degeneracy (R. 146). This
change ahenated practical men from the schools. French now in
turn became the language of the court and of diplomacy, and the
work of the schools tended to be confined largely to preparing
students to enter the universities or the service of the Church.
Men of the world hence turned to a new type of schools which
now arose (chapter xvii) , and which made preparation for social
efiiciency in a modern world their aim.

In consequence the aim of the new humanistic education came
in time to be thought of in terms of languages and literatures, in-
stead of in terms of usefulness as a preparation for intelligent liv-
ing, and educational effort was transferred from the larger human
point of view of the early humanistic teachers to the narrower and
much less important one of mastering Greek and Latin, writing
verses, and cultivating a good (Ciceronian) Latin style. Sturm's
school at Strassburg clearly shows the beginnings of such a trans-
formation (R. 137). As Latin came to be less and less used by
scholars in writing, passed out of use as the language of govern-
ment and of international communication, was replaced by
French as the language of polite society, and was gradually super-
seded in the university lecture room by the vernaculars, the prac-
tical motive for learning Latin died out, except for service in the
Church, and the disciplinary and cultural value of the study of
the classics alone remained. The disciplinary, being easier to
give, and better within the understanding of most teachers, grad-
ually won over the cultural. As a result, classical education
gradually became narrow and formal, and drill in composition
and declamation and imitation of the style of ancient authors —

284 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

particularly Cicero, whence the term '' Ciceronianism '' which came
to be applied to it — grew to be the ruling motives in instruction.
By the end of the sixteenth century this change had taken place
in both the secondary schools and the universities, and this nar-
row linguistic attitude continued to dominate classical education,
in German lands until the mid-eighteenth, and in all other west-
ern European countries and in America until near the middle of
the nineteenth century. It was not until vigorously challenged
by the enthusiasts for modern scientific studies that the teachers
of the classics awoke to the need of improving their instruction
and restoring something of the old cultural value to what they
were teaching.

The new learning in northern and western Europe was also
much changed in character by the violent religious dissensions,
following the Protestant Revolt, to a consideration of which we
next turn.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain just what is meant by the statement that mediaeval education
was narrowly technical.

2. State the educational ideals of the new secondary schools evolved by the
Italian humanistic scholars, and show whether these ideals have been
best embodied in the German gymnasium or the English grammar school.

3. How do you explain the merchants and bankers and princes of Italy
being more interested in the revival-of-learning movement than the
Church and university scholars? Do such classes to-day show the same
type of interest in aiding learning?

4. What was the particular importance of the recovery of Quintilian's
histilutcs? Of Cicero's Orations and Letters?

5. What better methods could the Itahan court schools have used to enable
them to cover the university Arts course in shorter time? How would
this have advanced the character of the instruction in Arts in the uni-
versity?

6. Show how the type of education developed in the Italian court schools
was superior to that of the best of the cathedral schools. To that devel-
oped by Sturm.

7. Show how the new type of secondary schools was naturally associated
with court and nobility and men of large worldly affairs, and how in
consequence the new secondary education became and for long con-
tinued to be considered as aristocratic education.

8. Explain how the terms college, lycee, gymnasiicm, academy, and grammar
school all came to be employed, in different countries, to designate about
the same type of secondary school.

9. Had the purified Latin been restored, as the general international lan-
guage of learning and government, would it have helped materially in
bringing about the civilizing influences Erasmus saw in it?

10. Has the development of separate nationalities and different national
languages aided in advancing international peace and civihzation?
Why? ■ ■

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL 285

1 1 . Why should the new humanistic studies have developed religious fervor
in Germany and England, in place of the patriotic fervor of the Italian
scholars?

12. Was the struggle against the introduction of the new learning into the
German universities parallel to the late struggle against the introduc-
tion of science into American universities?

13. Contrast the aim of Sturm's school with that of the Italian court schools,
and the English grammar schools. Point out the new tendencies in his
work.

14. Does the sentence quoted from Elyot's Governour express well the changed
conditions in England at the middle of the sixteenth century? Do such
changed conditions always demand educational reorganizations?

15. What basis, if any, did the opponents of Colet's school have for denounc-
ing it as a temple of idolatry and heathenism?

16. Show how it was natural that the first American school should have been
a Latin grammar school in type.

17. Show that the new conception as to education, as expressed by the new
humanism, found a public ready to support it. What was the nature of
this public?

18. Show how the new schools were "close to the most progressive forces in
the national life," and the influence of this, particularly in England and
America, in fixing classical training as the approved type of secondary
education.

19. Explain how the written theme of to-day is the successor of the mediaeval
disputation.

20. Show how the methods of instruction employed in the new Latin gram-
mar schools have been passed over to the native-language schools.

21. From the paragraph quoted from Leach (p. 282), explain why a knowl-
edge of Latin was for so long regarded as synonymous with being
educated.

22. Show how instruction in Latin, by being changed from cultural to disci-
plinary ends, made French the language of diplomacy and society,
tended to elevate all the vernacular tongues, and marked the beginnings
of the end of the importance of Latin as a school study except for the
purposes of the Roman Catholic Church.

2T). What was the purpose of the Latin instruction, as you received it?
24. Does it require a higher quality of teaching to impart the cultural aspect
of a study than is required for the disciplinary?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

135- Guarino: On Teaching the Classical Authors.

136. Vinet: The College de Guyenne at Bordeaux.

137. Sturm: Course of Study at Strassburg.

138. Colet: Statutes for St. Paul's School, London.

(a) Religious Observances.

(b) Admission of Children.
(f) The Course of Study.

139. Ascham: On Queen Elizabeth's Learning.

140. Colet: Introduction to Lily's Latin Grammar.

141. William Sevenoaks: Foundation Bequest for Sevenoaks Grammar

School.

142. John Percy vail: Foundation Bequest for a Chantry Grammar School.

286 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

143. Sandwich: A City Grammar School Foundation.

144. Eton: Course of Study in 1560.

145. Mar tindale : Course of Study in an EngUsh Country Grammar School.

146. Simpson: Degeneracy of Classical Instruction.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show the large scope of Grammar, as outlined by Guarino (135).

2. How generally was his dictum that a knowledge of Latin and Greek were
essential for a well-educated gentleman (135) accepted?

3. Compare the course of study in Sturm's school (137) with that at Bor-
deaux (136), and with that at Eton (144) a little later.

4. From Ascham's statements (139), what do you infer as to the reception
of the new learning at the English court?

5. Show how Colet (138 a) and WiUiam Sevenoaks (141) both aimed to
provide for real teachers, specialized for the service, and not for teaching
as an adjunct to priestly duties. What was the significance of these
provisions?

6. Show that Colct (138 b) desired to train leaders, rather than followers.

7. Show that he clearly provided (138 c) for a humanistic school of the
reformed type.

8. Characterize Colet's Introduction to Lily's Grammar (140).

Q. What was the educational significance of such a bequest as that of
William Sevenoaks (141)?

10. What did the founding of a chantry grammar school (142), instead of a
song school, indicate as to the progress of education?

11. Would the action taken by the authorities of the City of Sandwich (143)
indicate that the humanistic grammar school had taken a deep hold
on English thought, or not? The same wdth reference to the course given
in a small EngUsh country grammar school, as described by Martindale

(145)?

12. Just what does the instruction described as given by Campion (146)

indicate?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

* Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.
Jebb, R. C. Humanism in Education.

Laurie. S. S. Development of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance.
Laurie, S. S. "The Renaissance and the School, 1440-1580"; in School
Review, vol. 4, pp. 140-48, 202-14.
*Lupton, J. H. A Life of John Colet.
Palgravc, F. T. "The Oxford Movement in the Fifteenth Century";

in Nineteenth Century, vol. 28, pp. 812-30. (Nov. 1890.)
Seebohm, F. The Oxford Reformers of 1498; Colet, Erasmus, More.
*Stowe, A. M. EngUsh Grammar Schools in the Reign of Queen Elirabeth.
*Thurber, C. H. " Vittorino da Feltre"; in School Review, vol. 7. pp. 295-
300.
Watson, Foster. English Grammar Schools to 1660.
*Woodward, W. H. Vittorino da Feltre, and other Humanistic Educators.
*Woodward, W. H. Education during the Renaissance.
Woodward, W. H. Desiderius Erasmus, Concerning the Method and Aim
of Education.

CHAPTER XII
THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY

The new questioning attitude. The student can hardly have
followed the history of educational development thus far without
realizing that a serious questioning of the practices and of the
dogmatic and repressive attitude of the omnipresent mediaeval
Church was certain to come, sooner or later, unless the Church
itself realized that the mediaeval conditions which once demanded
such an attitude were rapidly passing away, and that the new life
in Christendom now called for a progressive stand in religious
matters as in other affairs. The new life resulting from the Cru-
sades, the rise of commerce and industry, the organization of city
governments, the rise of lawyer and merchant classes, the forma-
tion of new national States, the rise of a new "Estate" of trades-
men and workers, the new knowledge, the evolution of the uni-
versity organizations, and the discovery of the art of printing —
all these forces had united to develop a new attitude toward the
old problems and to prepare western Europe for a rapid evolution
out of the mediaeval conditions which had for so long dominated
all action and thinking. This the Church should have realized,
and it should have assumed toward the progressive tendencies of
the time the same intelligent attitude assumed earlier toward the
rise of scholastic inquiry. But it did not, and by the fifteenth
century the situation had been further aggravated by a marked
decline in morality on the part of both monks and clergy, which
awakened deep and general criticism in aH lands, but particularly
among the northern peoples.

The Revival of Learning was the first clear break with mediae-
valism. In the critical and constructive attitude developed by
the scholars of the movement, their renunciation of the old forms
of thinking, the new craving for truth for its own sake which they
everywhere awakened, and their continual appeal to the original
sources of knowledge for guidance, we have the definite begin-
nings of a modern scientific spirit which was destined ultimately
to question all things, and in time to usher in modern conceptions
and modern ways of thinking. The authority of the mediaeval
Church would be questioned, and out of this questioning would

288 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

come in time a religious freedom and a religious tolerance un-
known in the mediaeval world. The great world of scientific
truth would be inquired into and the facts of modern science es-
tablished, regardless of what preconceived ideas, popular or re-
ligious, might be upset thereby. The divine right of kings to rule,
and to dispose of the fortunes and happiness of their peoples as
they saw fit, was also destined to be questioned, and another new
*' Estate" would in time arise and substitute, instead, in all pro-
gressive lands, the divine right of the common people. Religious
freedom and toleration, scientific inquiry and scholarship, and
the ultimate rise of democracy were all involved in the critical,
questioning, and constructive attitude of the humanistic scholars
of the Renaissance. These came historically in the order just
stated, and in this order we shall consider them.

Humanism became a religious reform movement in the North.
In Italy the Revival of Learning was classical and scientific in its
methods and results, and awakened little or no tendency toward
religious and moral reform. Instead it resulted in something of a
paganization of religion, with the result that the Papacy and the
Italian Church probably reached their lowest religious levels at
about the time the great religious agitation took place in northern
lands. In the latter, on the contrary, the introduction of human-
ism awakened a new religious zeal, and religious reform and classi-
cal learning there came to be associated almost as one movement.
In England, Germany, the Low Countries, and in large parts of
northern France, the new learning was at once directed to relig-
ious and moral ends. The patriotic emotions roused in the Ital-
ians by the humanistic movement were in the northern countries
superseded by religious and moral emotions, and the constant ap-
peal to sources turned the northern leaders almost at once back to
the Church Fathers and the original Greek and Hebrew Testa-
ments for authority in religious matters.

Colet, from England, who had spent the years 1493-96 in
Florence (p. 254), during the period when Savonarola (1452-98)
was preaching moral reform there, returned home, not only a
humanist, but a religious reformer as well, and began to lecture at
Oxford on the Epistles of Saint Paul in the Greek. Linacre, Gro-
cyn, Colet, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (author of Utopia),
among others, formed a little group of humanists all of whom
were also deeply interested in a reform of the practices of the
Church. Erasmus, in particular, labored hard by his writings to

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 289

remove religious abuses. His Colloquies (15 19), a widely used
Latin reading book, was banned from the classrooms of the Uni-
versity of Paris (1528), and forbidden to be used in CathoHc lands
by the Church Council of Trent (1564), because of the way in
which it held up to ridicule the abuses in the Church, the super-
stitions of the age, and the immoralities in the lives of the monks
and clergy. His work as Professor of Divinity at Cambridge, his
numerous editions of the writings of the Church Fathers, and his
Latin-Greek edition (15 16), of the New Testament ^ all alike
tended to turn theological scholars back to the original sources
instead of to the scholastics for the foundations of their religious
faith. Li Germany such men as Hegius (p, 271), Rcuchlin (p.
254), and Melanchthon (p. 270) began, by similar methods, to go
back to Greek and Hebrew sources and to the Church Fathers for
new interpretations as to religious doctrines. In so doing they
discovered that many practices and demands of the Church, all of
which had grown up during the long mediasval period, were not in
harmony with the earlier teachings of Christ, the Apostles, or the
early Fathers. In France, Jacques Lefevre (c. 1455-1536), a hu-
manist and a pioneer Protestant, contended for the rule of the
Scriptures and for justification by faith, and translated the Bible
into the French (New Testament, 1523; complete, 1530) that the
people might read it.

Evolution or revolution. The reaction against the mediaeval
dogmas of the Church and the demand by the humanists of the
North for a return to the simpler religion of Christ gradually
grew, and in time became more and more insistent. This demand
was not something which broke out all at once and with Luther,
as many seem to think. Had this been so he would soon have
been suppressed, and little more would have been heard of him.
Instead, the literature of the time clearly reveals that there had
been, for two centuries, an increasing criticism of the Church, and

^ Up to this time the only Latin Bible had been the Vulgate (p. 131), translated
by Jerome in the fourth century. Erasmus went back to and edited the original
Greek manuscripts, and then prepared a new parallel Latin translation, the two
being printed side by side. He also added many explanations of his own which
mercilessly exposed the mistakes of the theologians and the Church, and pointed
out the errors in translation which were embodied in the Vulgate. This work passed
through numerous editions and sold in thousands of copies all over Europe.

So dangerous was this comparative method that "Greek was judged a heretical
tongue. No one should lecture on the Nev/ Testament, it was declared, without a
previous theological examination. It was held to be heresy to say that the Greek
or Hebrew text read thus, or that a knowledge of the original language is necessary
to interpret the Scriptures correctly."

290

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

a number of local and unsuccessful efforts at reform had been at-
tempted. The demand for reform was general, and of long stand-
ing, outside of Italy and southern France. Had it been heeded
probably much subsequent history might have been different. A
few of the more important attempts at reform may be mentioned
here, as a background for our study.

The first organized revolt against the Church occurred in south-
ern France, in the early thirteenth century, and the revolters (Al-
bigenses) were so fearfully punished by fire and sword that it was
not attempted there again.

In 1378 there was a disputed papal election, and for nearly
forty years there were two Popes, one at Rome, and one at Avig-
non in southern France, each
attempting to control the
Church and each denouncing
the other as Antichrist. The
discussions which accompanied
this '' Great Schism " did much
to weaken the authority of the
Church in all Christian lands.
In England a popular preach-
er and Oxford divinity gradu-
ate by the name of John
Wy cliff e was led, by the sad
condition of the Church there,
to a careful study of the Bible.
He came to the conclusion
that many of the claims of the
Popes and many practices
of the Church were wrong
(R. 147), and he refused to
accept teachings of the Church
for which he could not find
sanction in the Bible. His revolt was as direct and vigorous as
that of Luther, in German lands, a century and a half later
(R. 148) . So great was his zeal for reform that he and his scholars
attempted a translation of the Bible ^ into English (see Figure 93),

1 This was accomplished between 1382 and 1384. WycHflfe translated only a
part of the Old Testament, and the Gospels of Saint Matthew and Saint Mark of
the New. The remainder was done under his direction by others. The translation
was from the Latin Vulgate, and was crude and imperfect. The large number of
copies of parts of this translation which have survived, in manuscript form, to the

Fig. 86. John Wycliffe (i32o?-84)
A popular English preacher
(Drawn from an old print)

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 291

that the people might read it, and he and his followers (called
Lollards) went about the country teaching what they believed
to be the true Christianity. What had before in England been
a widespread but undefined feeling of disaffection for the rich
and careless clergy and monks, the work of Wy cliff e organized
into a political and social force.

Due to the then close connection of the English and Bohemian
courts, through royal marriages, WycHffe's teachings were carried
to Bohemia, where a popular
preacher and university the-
ologian by the name of John
Huss (1373-1415) expounded
them. He denounced the evil
conduct of the clergy, and he
and his followers tried to in-
troduce several new customs
into the Church. For this
Huss was first excommuni-
cated, and then burned at
the stake as a dangerous
heretic.^ After a series of
terrible massacres his follow-
ers were forced, in large part,
to accept once more the old
system.

In 14 14 a Council of the
Church was called at Con-
stance, in Switzerland, to
heal the papal schism, and
this Council made a serious attempt at church reform, A/fter
reuniting the Church under one Pope, it drew up a Hst of abuses
which it ordered remedied (R. 149) . It also attempted to estab-
lish a democratic form of organization for the government of the
Church, with Church Councils meeting from time to time to

present time show that it must have awakened much interest, and been widely
copied and recopied during the century before the invention of printing.

^ The heretic, it should be remembered, was the anarchist of the Middle Ages.
The Church regarded heresy as a crime, worthy of the most severe punishments.
The Church and the civil governments proceeded against the heretic as against an
enemy of society and order. Heretics could not give evidence in a civil court, were
prohibited from marrying or from giving a son or daughter in marriage, and even
to speak with a heretic was an offense. Even torture and death were regarded as
justified to stamp out heresy.

Fig. 87. Religious Warfare in

Bohemia
Sacking a village in true German style

(From a picture in the Germanic Museum
at Nuremberg)

292 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

advise with the Pope and formulate church poHcy, much like the
government of a modern parliament and king. Had this suc-
ceeded, much future history might have been different ^ and the
civilization of the world to-day much advanced. But the attempt
failed, and the absolutism of the reunited Papacy became stronger
than ever before. Protests of princes, actions of legislative as-
semblies,- protests sometimes of bishops," the failing allegiance of
men of affairs, the increasing condemnation and ridicule from
laymen and scholars — all signs of a strong undercurrent of
public opinion — seemed to have no effect on those responsible
for the policy of the Church.

That the different rebellions and refusals of reform helped di-
rectly to the ultimate break of Luther is not probable, as Luther
seems to have worked out his position by himself. Each of these
earlier defiances of authority and the later defiance of Luther
were alike, though, in two respects. Each demanded a return
to the usages and beliefs and practices of the earlier Christian
Church, as derived from a study of the Bible and of the writings
of the early Christian Fathers; and each insisted that Christians
should be permitted to study the Bible for themselves, and reach
their own conclusions as to Christian duty. In this demand to
be allowed to go back to the original sources for authority, and
the assertion of the right to personal investigation and conclu-
sions, we see the new intellectual standards established by the
Revival of Learning in full force. After 1500 the rising demands
for moral reform and the recognition of individual judgment
could not be put aside much longer. Unless there could be evolu-

^ "What would have been the result had the Council of Constance succeeded
where it failed? It seems certain that one result would have been the formation
of a government for the Church like that which was taking shape at the same time
in England — a limited monarchy with a legislature gradually gaining more and
more the real control of affairs. It seems almost equally certain that with this the
churches of each nationality would have gained a large degree of local independence,
and the general government of the Church have assumed by degrees the character
of a great federal and constitutional State. If this had been the case, it is hard to
see why all the results which were accomplished by the reformation of Luther might
not have been attained as completely without the violent disruption of the Church."
(Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, p. 403.)

2 In 1302 the first "Estates-General" of France supported the King, and denied
the right of the Pope to any supremacy over the State in France. In England,
about the same time, the right of the Pope to levy taxation on the English was dis-
puted by King and Parliament. In 1446 William III of Saxony limited the powers
of ecclesiastical courts, and forbade appeals from Saxon decisions to any foreign
court.

^ The London Academy, 1893, p. 197, published evidence to show that there was
a widespread demand among the bishops of Spain for church reformation, during
the fifteenth century, and along the same lines that Luther advocated later.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AU'l ilORlTY 293

tion there would be revolution. Evolution was refused/ and
revolution was the result.

Discontent in German lands. It happened that the first revolt
to be successful in a large way broke out in Germany, and about
the person of an Augustinian monk and Professor of Theology in
the University of Wittenberg by the name of Martin Luther
(1483-1546). Had it not centered about Luther the revolt would
have come about some one else ; had it not come in Germany it
would have come in some other land. It was the modern scien-
tific spirit of inquiry and reason in conflict with the mediaeval
spirit of dogmatic authority, and two such forces are sooner or
later destined to clash. Whether we be Catholic or Protestant,
and whether we approve or disapprove of what Luther did or of
his methods, makes httle difference in this study. Over a ques-
tion involving so much religious partisanship we do not need to
take sides. All that we need concern ourselves with is that a cer-
tain Martin Luther lived, did certain things, made certain stands
for what he believed to be right, and what he did, whether right
or wrong, whether beneficial to progress and civihzation or not,
stands as a great historical fact with which the student of the his-
tory of education must take account. That the same or even bet-
ter results might have been arrived at in time by other methods
may be true, but what we are concerned with is the course which
history actually took.^

^ "But all these attempts at reformation in the Church, large and small, had
failed, as had those of the early fifteenth century to reform its government, leaving
the Church as thoroughly mediaeval in doctrine and in practical religion as it was in
polity. It was the one power, therefore, belonging to the Middle Ages which still
stood unaffected by the new forces and opposed to them. In other directions the
changes had been many; here nothing had been changed. And its resisting power
was very great. Endowed with large wealth, strong in numbers in every State,
with no lack of able and thoroughly trained minds, its interests, as it regarded them,
in maintaining the old were enormous, and its power of defending itself seemed
scarcely to be broken. . . .

"The Church had remained unaffected by the new forces which had transformed
everything else. It was still thoroughly mediaeval. In government, in doctrine,
and in life it still placed the greatest emphasis upon those additions which the pecu-
liar conditions of the Middle Ages had built upon the foundations of the primitive
Christianity, and it was determined to remain unchanged." (Adams, G. B., Civili-
zation during the Middle Ages, pp. 406, 412.)

2 Every reform movement produces two kinds of reformers, each seeking the
same ultimate goal, but differing materially as to methods of work. In the religious
conflict these two types are well represented by Erasmus and Luther. Erasmus was
as deeply interested in religious reform as Luther and devoted the energies of a life-
time to trying to secure reform, but he believed that reformation should come from
within, and that the way to obtain it was to remain within the old organization and
work to reform it. Luther represented the other type, the type which feels that
things are too bad for mere reform to be effective, and that what is wanted is rebel-
lion against the old. The two types seldom agree as to means, and usually part

294 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

There were special reasons why the trouble, when once it broke,
made such rapid headway in German lands. The Germans had a
long-standing grudge against the Italian papal court, chiefly be-
cause it had for long been draining Germany of money to support
the Italian Church. Germany's greatest minnesinger, Walther
von der Vogelweide (i 170-1228), three centuries before Luther
had sung to the German people how the Pope made merry over
the stupid Germans.

"All their goods will be mine,

Their silver is flowing into my far-away chest;
Their priests are living on poultry and wine,
And leaving the silly layman to fast."

Many positions in the German Church had been filled by the
Pope with Itahans, who not infrequently drew the perquisites,
but did not reside in Germany. The princely and feudal Arch-
bishops of Mayence, Treves, Cologne, and Salzburg, with their
fortified castles and lands and troops and large governmental
powers, frequently proved to be serious sources of irritation. The
most widespread discontent, though, arose over the heavy church
taxation, which drained the money of the people to Italy. The
whole German people, from the princes down to the peasants,
felt themselves unjustly treated, that the German money which
flowed to Rome should be kept at home, and that the immoral
and inefficient clergy should be replaced by upright, earnest men
who would attend better to their religious duties (R. 150). It
was these conditions which prepared the Germans for revolt, and
enabled Luther to rally so many of the princes and people to his
side when once he had defied authority.

The German revolt. The crisis came over the sale of indul-
gences for sins by the papal agent, Tetzel, who began the practice
in the neighborhood of Wittenberg, where Luther was a Professor
of Theology, in 15 16. There is Httle doubt but that Tetzel, in
his zeal to raise money for the rebuilding of the church of Saint
Peter's at Rome, a great undertaking then under way, exceeded
his instructions and made claims as to the nature and efficacy of
indulgences which were not warranted by church doctrines.
Such would be only human. The sale, however, irritated Luther,
and he appealed to the Archbishop of Magdeburg to prohibit it.
Failing to obtain any satisfaction, he followed the old university

company. One is content to be known as a conservative or a conformer; the other
delights in being classed as a progressive or even as a radical.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 295

custom, made out ninety-five theses, or reasons, why he did not
beheve the practice justifiable, detailed the abuses, set forth what
he conceived to be the true Christian doctrine in the matter, and
challenged all comers to a debate on the theses (R. 151). Fol-
lowing true university custom, also, these theses were made out in
Latin, and in October, 1517, Luther followed still another univer-
sity custom and nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg.
Luther was probably as much surprised as any one to find that
these were at once translated into German, printed, and in two
weeks had been scattered all over Germany. Within a month
they were known in all the important centers of the Western
Christian world. They had been carried everywhere on the cur-
rents of discontent™ Luther at first intended no revolt from the
Church, but only a protest against its practices. From one step
to another, though, he was gradually led into open rebellion, and
finally, in 1520, was excommunicated from the Church. He then
expressed his defiance by publicly burning the bull of excommuni-
cation, together with a volume of the canon law. This was open
rebellion, and such heresy (R. 152) must needs be stamped out.
Luther took his stand on the authority of the Scriptures, and the
battle was now joined between the forces representing the author-
ity of the Church versus the authority of the Bible, and salvation
through the Church versus salvation through personal faith and
works. ^ Luther also forced the issue for freedom of thought in
religious matters. It was, to be sure, some three centuries before
freedom in religious thinking and worship became clearly recog-
nized, but what the early university masters and scholars had
stood for in intellectual matters, Luther now asserted in religious
affairs as well.

We do not need to follow the details of the conflict. Suffice it
to know that great portions of northern and western Germany
followed Luther, as is shown in Figure 88, and that the Western
Church, which had remained one for so many centuries and been

^ '.'The early Protestant theory was that an individual's Christian religious life,
convictions, and salvation were to be worked out through a direct study of the
Scriptures, acceptance of the obvious teachings of Christ as there presented, and
direct appeal to God through prayer for help in leading a Christian life. The Catho-
lic position, on the other hand, came to be that the individual's religious life was to
be achieved through the intervention of the Church, which claimed on historical
grounds to have been founded by Christ, and to be his official representative and
mediator in the world. It was through the teachings of this Church that the indi-
vidual was to receive his ideas of the Christian religion, to be stimulated to beUeve
these, to be kept in the path of righteousness, and to obtain salvation." (Parker,
S. C, History of Modern Elementary Education, p. 35.)

296

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the one great unifying force in western Europe, was permanently
split by the Protestant Revolt. The large success of Luther is
easily explained by the new life which now permeated western
Europe. The world was rapidly becoming modern, while the

Fig. 88. Showing the Results of the Protestant Revolts

Church, with a perversity almost unexplainable, insisted upon re-
maining mediaeval and tried to force others to remain mediaeval
with it. Adams expresses the situation well when he says: ^

A revolution had been wrought in the intellectual world in the cen-
tury between Huss and Luther. At the death of Huss the world had
only just begun the study of Greek. Since that date, the great body of
classical literature had been recovered, and the sciences of philology
and historical criticism thoroughly established. As a result Luther
had at his command a well-developed method . . . impossible to any
earlier reformer. . . . The world also had become familiar with inde-
pendent investigation, and with the proclamation of new views and the
upsetting oj old ones. By no means the least of the great services of
Erasmus to civilization had been to hold up before all the world so
conspicuous an example of the scholar following, as his inalienable
^ Adams, G. B., Civilizalion duritig the Middle Ages, p. 413.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 297

right, the truth as he found it and wherever it appeared to lead him,
and honest in his pubHc utterances as to the results of his studies. . . .
His was the crowning work of a century which had produced in the
general public a greatly changed attitude of mind toward intellectual
independence since the days of Huss. The printing press was of itself
almost enough to account for Luther's success as compared with his
predecessors. Wycliffe made almost as direct and vigorous an appeal
to the public at largCj and with "an amazing industry he issued tract
after tract in the tongue of the people," but Luther had the advantage
in the rapid multiplication of copies and in their cheapness, and lie
covered Europe with the issues of his press. . . . Luther spoke to a
very different pubhc from that which Wycliffe or Huss had addressed,
— a public European in extent, and one not merely familiar with tho
assertion of new ideas, but tolerant, in a certain way, of the innovator,
and expectant of great things in the future.

A revolution it undoubtedly was, but a revolution in thinking
much more than a political revolution. It was but a further man-
ifestation of the inquiring and questioning tendency awakened
by the Revival of Learning. It might in a sense be dated from
Wycliffe and Huss, as well as from Erasmus and Luther. Luther
did not create the Reformation. He rather popularized the work
of preceding protesters, giving the impress of his powerful person-
ality to the movement, and directing and moulding its form.

Revolts in other lands. The outbreak in Gennany soon spread
to other lands. Lutheranism made rapid headway in Denmark,
where the German grievances against Ital-
ian rule were equally familiar, and in 1537
the Danish Diet severed all connection with
Rome and established Lutheranism as the
religion of the country. Norway, being then
a part of Denmark, was carried for Luther-
anism also. In Sweden the Church was
shorn of some of its powers and property in
1527, and in 1592 Lutheranism was defi-
nitely adopted as the religion for the na-
tion. This included Finland, then a part
of Sweden. An independent reform move-
ment, closely akin to Lutheranism in its
aims, made considerable headway in Ger-
man Switzerland contemporaneously with
the reform work of Luther in Germany,
leadership of a popular humanist preacher in Zurich by the name
of Huldreich Zwingli. In 15 19 he began a series of sermons on

Fig. 89. Huldreich
Zwingli (1487-1531)

This was under the

298 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

real religion, as he had learned it from a study of the New
Testament writings. Zwingli, being supported by the people,
made many changes in church practices and worship, eventually
even aboHshing the mass. Many other towns took up this re-
form movement, and civil war was the result. Zwingli was
killed in battle between Swiss partisans of the old regime and
reformers, in 1531, but his work though checked persisted, and
German Switzerland became mixed CathoHc and Protestant. ^

In England the struggle came nominally over the divorce (1533)
of Henry VIII from Catherine of Aragon, though the independ-
ence of the English Church had been asserted from time to time
for two centuries, and a free National Church had for long been a
growing ideal with Enghsh statesmen. In 1534 Parliament
passed the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) which severed England
from Rome. By it the King was made head of the Enghsh Na-
tional Church. The change was in no sense a profound one, such
as had taken place in Lutheran Germany. The priests who took
the new oath of allegiance to the King instead of the Pope as the
head of the Church, as most of them did, continued in the
churches, the service was changed to English, some reforms were
instituted, but the people did not experience any great change in
religious feeling or ideas. This new National Church became
known as the Enghsh or Anglican Church.

So far as the early history of America is concerned, the most
important reform movement was neither Lutheranism nor Angh-
canism, but Calvinism. In 1537 John Calvin, a French Protes-
tant who had fled to Switzerland,- was invited to submit a plan
for the educational and rehgious reorganization of the city of
Geneva, and in 1541 he was entrusted with the task of organizing
there a little religious City- Republic. For this he established a
combined church and city government, in which religious affairs
and the civil government were as closely connected as they had

1 A good illustration of the way parts of Germany and German Switzerland were
divided by religious differences is to be found in the Canton of Appenzell, in north-
eastern Switzerland. As each small governmental division had to follow the reli-
gion of the ruling prince in Germany, so in Switzerland the cantons divided on reli-
gious lines. To compromise matters in Appenzell the canton was divided into two
half cantons, following the rehgious wars of 1597 — Inner Rhoden, of sixty-three
square miles, excUisively Roman Catholic, and Outer Rhoden, of ninety-six square
miles, entirely under the Swiss Reformed Church.

2 Calvinism is also a product of the northern humanism, Calvin's difficulties with
the Church arising out of his study of the Greek texts. Calvin had received an
excellent theological and legal education, and used the knowledge and training
derived from both to help him formulate a comprehensive system of belief.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 299

Fig. 90. John Calvin

(i 509-1 564)

(Drawn from a contemporary
painting)

ever been in any Catholic country. During the twenty-three

years that Calvin dominated Geneva it became the Rome of

Protestantism. Calvin's The Institutes of Christianity, published

in Latin in 1536, and in French in 1541,

was the first orderly presentation of

the principles of Christian faith from

the Protestant standpoint/ while his

French Catechism (1537) was extensively

used 2 in Calvinistic lands as a basis

for elementary religious instruction.

From Geneva a reformed Calvinistic
religion spread over northern France/^
where its followers became known as
Huguenots ; to Scotland (1560), where
they were known as Scotch Presbyteri-
ans; to the Netherlands (1572), where
originated the Dutch Reformed Church ;
and to portions of central England,
where those who embraced it became
known as Puritans. Through the Puri-
tans who settled New England, and
later through the Huguenots in the Carolinas, the Scotch Presby-
terians in the central colonies, and the Dutch in New York,
Calvinism was carried to America, was for long the dominant
religious belief, and profoundly colored all early American edu-
cation. Lutheranism also came in through the Swedes along the
Delaware and the Germans in Pennsylvania, while the Anglican
Church, known in America as the Episcopalian, came in through
the landed aristocracy in Virginia and the later settlers in New
York. The early settlement of America was thus a Protestant

- Like the famous Sentences of Peter Lombard (p. 171), it formed a splendid text-
book of the new faith. Calvin based his work on the infallibility of the Bible, as
against that of the Church and Pope, and presented, in a remarkably clear and
logical manner, the principles of Calvinistic doctrine. Before 1630, as many as
seventy-four full editions and fourteen partial editions of the Institutes had been
printed, and in nine different languages.

^ This went through seventy-seven editions (fourteen in English) before 1630, and
in nearly all the languages of Europe, and was one of four Catechisms, one of which
was required of all Oxford undergraduates in 1578. It was adopted by the Scotch,
Huguenot, French-Swiss, and Walloon (Dutch) churches, and was widely used in
Holland, England, and America. (See " Calvin and Calvinisrn," in Monroe's Cyclo-
pedia of Education, vol. 1.)

* By 1560 the Calvinists had two thousand houses for religious worship in France,
and demanded religious freedom. In 1562 the persecutions began in earnest, and
for the next thirty-six years religious warfare ruled in France. In 1598 the Edict
of Nantes established religious freedom, though this was revoked in 1685.

300 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

settlement, while the migration to America of large numbers
of peoples from Catholic lands is a relatively recent move-
ment.

Religious freedom and religious warfare. Of course the revolt
against the authority of the Church, once inaugurated, could not
be stopped. The same right to freedom in religious belief which
Luther claimed for himself and his followers had of course to be
extended to others. This the Protestants were not much more
willing to grant than had been the Cathohcs before them. The
world was not as yet ready for such rapid advances, and religious
toleration,^ though established in principle by the revolt, was an
idea to which the world has required a long time to become accus-
tomed. It took two centuries of intermittent religious warfare,
during which Catholic and Protestant waged war on one another,
plundered and pillaged lands, and murdered one another for the
salvation of their respective souls, before the people of western
Europe were willing to stop fighting and begin to recognize for
others that which they were fighting for for themselves. When
religious tolerance finally became established by law, civilization
had made a tremendous advance.

The religious wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
were waged with greatest intensity in Spain, France, and the
German States, though no land wholly escaped. The result of
this religious strife was to check the progress of the higher civiliza-
tion of the people for nearly three centuries, and to delay greatly
the coming of the great blessing of freedom in matters of reli-
gious belief, while the poverty and misery resulting from the devas-
tation of these religious wars left neither the energy for nor the
interest in educational or political progress.

The struggle to suppress Lutheranism in Germany was post-
poned for twenty-five years — due to outside pressure, chiefly
that of the Turks in southeastern Europe — from the time that
the Diet of Worms decided against Luther (15 21). Finally, in
1546, the German-Spanish Emperor Charles V felt at last free to
proceed against the Lutheran heresy, and from the breaking-out
in that year of the struggle between Charles and the German

^ Even the celebrated Peace of Augsburg (1555) which left to each German prince
and each town and knight the liberty to choose between the beliefs of the Roman
Church and the Lutheran, provided only for religious freedom for the rulers, and
only one alternative. Calvinists, for example, hated equally by Catholic and
Lutheran, were not included. So deeply was the idea of Church and State as insep-
arable embedded in the minds of men that no provision was made for the religious
freedom of subjects. Tliis was a much later evolution, coming first in America.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 301

princes who sided with Luther, to the Peace of Westphaha, in
1648, represents a century of almost continual religious warfare in
the German States. The worst of the period was the last thirty
years, when religious ferocity and hatred reached its climax in the
period known as the Thirty Years' War (1618-48). Though
fought on German soil, France, Spain, and Sweden were deeply
involved in the struggle. It left Germany a ruin. ■ From the
most prosperous State in Europe, in 1550, Germany was so re-
duced that it was not until the second third of the nineteenth cen-
tury that central and southern Germany had fully recovered.
More than half the population and two thirds of the movable
property were swept away. The people were so reduced by star-
vation that cannibalism was openly practiced. But one tenth of
the inhabitants of the Duchy of Wlirtemberg were left alive.
Land tilled for centuries became a wilderness, thousands of towns
were destroyed, whole trades were swept away, and the genera-
tion which survived the war came to manhood without knowing
education, religion, law and order, or organized industry. Not
until the end of the eighteenth century was Germany again able
to make any significant contribution to educa-
tion or civilization, and not until the middle of
the nineteenth century did parts of Germany
come to have as many people or cattle as
before this devastating religious war broke out.
From 1560 to 1629 in France, also, a period
of carnage and devastation prevailed, due
to an attempt to exterminate the Calvinistic
Huguenots. In the massacre of Saint Bar-
tholomew's eve, in 1572, ten thousand Protes-
tants are said to have perished in Paris alone,
and forty-five thousand additional outside the
city. Though the Edict of Nantes (1598) had
granted religious toleration, this never was fully
accompHshed, and in 1685 the Edict was re-
voked. The Huguenots were now given fif-
teen days to become Catholics or leave France.
The demands were enforced with great se-
verity, and the sect, which embraced one
tenth of the population of France, was stamped out and France
became once more a Catholic country. In a short time four
hundred thousand thrifty and highly intelligent Huguenots had

Fig. 91. a French
Protestant (c. 1600)

A restoration, Musee
dArtillerie, Paris

302 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

left France for other lands. In Southern German lands, Holland,
England, and America many found a new home.

Changed attitude toward the old problems. The Peace of
Westphaha (1648), which ended the bloody Thirty Years' War, it-
self the culmination of a century of bitter and vindictive religious
strife, has often been regarded as both an end and a beginning.
Though the persecution of minorities for a time continued, es-
pecially in France, this treaty marked the end of the attempt
of the Church and the Catholic States to stamp out Protestant-
ism on the continent of Europe. The religious independence of
the Protestant States was now acknowledged, and the begin-
nings of religious freedom were established by treaty. This new
freedom of conscience, once definitely begun for the ruling princes,
was certain in time to be extended further. Ultimately the day
must come, though it might be centuries away, when individual
as well as national freedom in religious matters must be granted
as a right, and one of the greatest blessings of mankind finally be
firmly established by law.^

The end of the period of bitter religious warfare, too, was fol-
lowed by a reaction against religious intolerance which contained
within itself the germs of much future liberty and human prog-
ress. Paulsen has well expressed the change, in the following
words: ^

The long and terrible wars to which the ecclesiastical schism had
everywhere given rise — the wars of the Huguenots in France, the
Thirty Years War, and the Civil War in England — had, in the end.
created a feeling of indifference toward religious and theological prol>
lems. Did it really pay, people asked themselves, to kill each other
and devastate each other's countries for the sake of such questions?
Could these problems ever be decided at all? If not, was it not much
more reasonable to let everyone believe what he could, and, instead of
wasting breath and arguments, convincing to nobody, on transubstan
tiation, predestination, and real presence, to cultivate sciences which
really placed lasting and verifiable truths within the reach of the
understanding, such as mathematics and natural philosophy, geog-
raphy and astronomy? Here were sciences which offered knowledge
to the mind that could be turned to account in this earthly life, wherea>
those transcendental speculations were of no use at all. . . . Toward
the end of the seventeenth century this spirit of indifference and scep-
ticism toward theology, and sometimes even toward religion in general

^ In the proposals for the League of Nations Covenant, made at the conclusion
of the World War, in 1919; religious freedom for all persons in any State in the
League was finally decided to be a necessary principle for any world league.

2 Paulsen, Fr., German Education, Past and Present, pp. 96-97.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 303

and the future world, formed a most important factor in the changing
intellectual attitude of the times. ^

Physically exhausted, and recognizing at last the futility of fire
and sword as means for stamping out opposing religious convic-
tions, but still thoroughly convinced as to the correctness of their
respective points of view, both sides now settled down to another
century and more of religious hatred, suspicion, and intolerance,
and to a close supervision of both preaching and teaching as safe-
guards to orthodoxy. During the century following the Peace of
WestphaHa greater reliance than ever before was placed on the
school as a means for protecting the faith, and the pulpit and the
school now took the place of the sword and the torch as convert-
ing and holding agents.

Religious reform. The effect of the Protestant Revolts on the
Church was good. For the first time in history CathoHc church-
men learned that they could not rely on the general acceptance of
any teachings they promulgated, or any practices they saw lit to
approve. The spirit of inquiry which had been aroused by the
methods of the humanists would in the future force them to ex-
plain and to defend. If they were to make headway against this
great rebellion they must reform abuses, purify church practices,
and see that monks and clergy led upright Christian lives. Un-
less the mass of the people could be made loyal to the Church by
reverence for it, further revolts and the ultimate break-up of the
institution were in prospect. The Council of Trent (1545-63) at
last undertook the reform which should have come at least a cen-
tury before. Better men were selected for the church offices, and
bishops and clergy were ordered to reside in their proper places
and to preach regularly. New religious orders arose, whose pur-
pose was to prepare priests better for the service of the Church
and for ministry to the needs of the people. Irritating practices
were abandoned. The laws and doctrines of the Church were re-
stated, in new and better form. Moral reforms were instituted.
In most particulars the reforms forced by the work of Luther were
thorough and complete, and since the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury the Catholic Church, in morals and government, has been a
reformed Church. Above all, attention was turned to education
rather than force as a means of winning and holding territory. A

• The terms atheist and atheism now arose, as the modern substitutes for excom-
munication and imprisonment, and during the next two centuries these were applied,
by the churchmen of the time, to almost every prominent philosopher and scientist
and independent thinker.

304 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

rigid quarantine was, however, established in Cathohc lands
against the further spread of heretical text books and hterature.
Especially was the reading of the Bible, which had been the cause
of all the trouble, for a time rigidly prohibited.^

Such, in brief, are the historical facts connected with the various
revolts against authority which split the Roman Catholic (^hurch
in the sixteenth century. These have been stated, as briefly and
as impartially as possible, because so much of future educational
history arose out of the conditions resulting from these revolts.
The early educational history of America :s hardly understand-
able without some knowledge of the religious forces awakened
by the work of the Protestants. To the educational significance
and consequences of these revolts we next turn.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How do you explain the difference in the effect, on the scholars of the
time, of the Revival of Learning in Italy and in northern lands?

2. How do you explain the serious church opposition to the different at-
tempts of northern scholars to try to turn the Church back to the simpler
religious ideals and practices of early Christianity?

3. Explain how opposition to the practices of the Church could be organ-
ized into a political force.

4. Explain the analogy of a heretic in the fifteenth century and an anarchist
of to-day.

5. Assuming that the Church had encouraged progressive evolution as a
policy, and thus warded off revolution and disruption, in what ways
might history have been different?

6. How can the bitter opposition to the reading and study of the Bible be
explained?

7. Show the analogy between the freedom of thinking demanded by Luther,
and that obtained three centuries earlier by the scholars in the rising
universities. Why were the universities not opposed?

8. Enumerate the changes which had taken place in western Europe be-
tween the days of Wycliffe and Huss and the time of Luther, which en-
abled him to succeed where they had failed.

9. Explain in what ways the Protestant Revolt was essentially a revolution
in thinking, and that, once started, certain other consequences must
inevitably follow in time.

10. Was it perfectly natural that the reformers should refuse to their follow-
ers the same right to revolt, and separate off into smaller and still differ-
ent sects, which they had contended for for themselves? Why?

1 Very severe measures were enacted to prevent the spread of the contagion of
heresy. All Protestant literature was forbidden circulation in Catholic lands. The
printing-press, as a disseminator of heresy, was placed under strict license. Certain
books were ordered burned. Perhapsthe most extreme and ruthless measure was
the prohibition, under penalty of death, of the reading of the Bible. That this harsh
act was carried out the record of martyrs shows. As one example may be mentioned
the sister of the Flemish artist Matsys and her husband, he being decapitated and
she buried aUve in the square fronting the cathedral at Louvain, in 1543, for having
been caught reading the sacred Book.

THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY 305

11. On what basis could Catholic and Protestant wage war on one another
to try to enforce their own particular belief?

12. Compare the individuahsm of the Greek Scphists vith that of the
Protestant reformers. Did Greece attempt to deal with them in the
same way?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced :

147. Wycliffe: On the Enemies of Christ.

148. WycHffites: Attack the Pope and the Practice- of Indulgences.

149. Council of Constance: List of Church Abuses demanding Reform.
150 (jciler: A German Priest's \'iew as to Coming Reform.

151. Luther: Illustritions from his Ninety-Five Theses.

152. Saint Thomas Aquinas: On the Treatment of Heresy.

153. Henry VIII: The EngHsh Act of Supremacy.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Was W^cliffe's attack (147) as direct and fierce as Luther's (151)?

2. Explain the difference in the results attained by the two attacks?

3. Was the challenge of Wy cliff e's followers on indulgences (148) any less
direct than that of Luther (151)?

4. Does the list of items drawn up by the Church Council of Constance
(149) indicate a general recognition of the need for extensive Church
reform?

5. Try to state the possible change in the progress of human history and
civilization, had the demands of the Council of Constance (149) been
carried out in good faith.

6. Considering the nature of heresy at the time, does the extract from
Thomas Aquinas (152) indicate a narrow or a liberal attitude?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Adams, G. B. Civilizaiion during the Middle Ages.
Beard, Charles. Martin Luther and the Reformation.
Beard, Charles. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation
' to Modern Thought and Knowledge. (Hibbert Lectures, 1883.)
Fisher, George P. History of the Reformation.
Gasquet, F. A. Eve of the Reformation.
Johnson, A. H. Europe in the Sixteenth Century.
Perry, George G. History of the Reformation in England.

CHAPTER XIII

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT

REVOLTS

I. AMONG LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS

Ultimate consequences of the break with authority. That the
Protestant Revolts in the different lands produced large immedi-
ate and permanent changes in the character of the education pro-
vided in the revolting States is no longer accepted as being the
case. In every phase of educational history growth has pro-
ceeded by evolution rather than by revolution, and this applies to
the Protestant Revolts as well as to other revolutions. Many
changes naturally resulted at once, some of which were good and
some of which were not, while others which were enthusiastically
attempted failed of results because they involved too great ad-
vances for the time. Much, too, of the progress that was inaugu-
rated was lost in the more than a century of religious strife which
followed, and the additional century and more of suspicion, ha-
tred, religious formalism, and strict rehgious conformity which
followed the period of religious strife. The educational signifi-
cance of the reformation movement, though, lies in the far-reach-
ing nature of its larger results and ultimate consequences rather
than in its immediate accomplishments, and because of this the
importance of the immediate changes effected have been over-
estimated by Protestants and underestimated by CathoHcs.

The dominant idea underlying Luther's break with authority,
and for that matter the revolts of Wycliffe, Huss, Zwingh, and
Calvin as well, was that of substituting the authority of the Bible
in religious matters for the authority of the Church; of substitut-
ing individual judgment in the interpretation of the Scriptures
and in formulating decisions as to Christian duty for the collective
judgment of the Church; and of substituting individual respon-
sibility for salvation, in Luther's conception of justification
through personal-faith and prayer, for the collective responsibilit}'
for salvation of the Church.^ Whether one believes that the

^ Dr. Philip Schaflf, the Church historian, says: " Schleiermacher reduced the whole
difference between Romanism and Protestantism to the formula, ' Romanism makes
the relation of the individual to Christ depend on his relation to the Church:
Protestantism, vice versa, makes the relation of the individual to the Church depend
on his relation to Christ.'" (Quoted by G. B. Adams, from a pamphlet, Luther
Symposiac, Union Seminary, 1883.)

RESULTS AMONG LUTHEI^NS 307

Protestant position was sound or not depends almost entirely
upon one's religious training and beliefs, and need not concern
us here, as it makes no difference with the course of history. We
can believe either way, and the course that history took remains
the same. The educational consequences of the position taken
by the Protestants, though, are important.

Under the older theory of collective judgment and collective
responsibility for salvation — that is, the judgment of the Church
rather than that of individuals — it was not important that more
than a few be educated. Under the new theory of individual
judgment and individual responsibility promulgated by the Prot-
estants it became very important, in theory at least, that every
one should be able to read the word of God, participate intelli-
gently in the church services, and shape his life as he understood
was in accordance with the commandments of the Heavenly
Father. This undoubtedly called for the education of all. Still
more, from individual participation in the services of the Church,
with freedom of judgment and personal responsibility in religious
matters, to individual participation in and responsibility for the
conduct of government was not a long step, and the rise of demo-
cratic governments and the provision of universal education were
the natural and ultimate corollaries, though not immediately
attained, of the Protestant position regarding the interpretation
of the Scriptures and the place and authority of the Church. This
was soon seen and acted upon. The great struggle of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, in consequence, became one for reli-
gious freedom and toleration ; the great struggle of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries has been for political freedom and polit-
ical rights; to supply universal education has been left to the nine-
teenth and the twentieth centuries.

Schools and learning before the sixteenth century. After the
rise of the universities, as we have seen, many Latin secondary
schools were founded in western Europe, and a more extensive
development of the cathedral and other larger church schools took
place. Rashdall (R. 154) thinks that by 1400 the opportunity
to attend a Latin grammar school was rather common, an opinion
in which Leach and Nohle concur. After the humanistic learning
had spread to northern lands these opportunities were increased
and improved. In England, for example, some two hundred
and fifty Latin grammar schools are known to have been in
existence by 1500. In Germany, as we have seen (chapter xi),

3o8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

many such schools were founded before the time of Luther.
These offered a form of advanced education, in the language of
the educated classes of the time, for those intending to go to the
universities to prepare for service in either Church or State, and
for teaching. The Church had also for long maintained or exer-
cised control over a number of types of more elementary schools
— parish, song, chantry, hospital (chapter vii) — the chief pur-
pose of which was to prepare for certain phases of the church serv-
ice, or to enter the secondary schools. These schools, too, were
taught partly or wholly in Latin. In consequence, while Latin
schools came to be rather widely diffused, schools in the vernacu-
lar hardly existed outside of a few of the larger commercial cities
of the north. Even the burgh and guild schools (p. 205), estab-
lished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were essentially
Latin schools.

In the commercial cities of the North, however, though often
only after quite a struggle with the local church authorities, which
throughout the Middle Ages had maintained a monopoly of all
instruction as a protection to orthodoxy, different types of ele-
mentary vernacular schools had been developed to meet local
commercial needs, such as writing- schools to train writers,^ and
reckoning-schools to train young men to handle accounts.^ Read-
ing, manners, and religion were also taught in these schools.
Other city schools, largely Latin in type, but containing some
vernacular instruction to meet local business needs not met by
the cathedral or parish schools of the city, were also developed.
Up CO the time of the Protestant Revolts, however, there was
almost no instruction in the vernacular outside of the commercial
cities, nor was there any particular demand for such instruction

^ The importance of writing before the days of printing can readily be appreci-
ated. Just as the monk was carefully trained to copy manuscript, so the clerk for a
city or a business house needed to be carefully trained to read and write. Writing
formed a distinct profession, there being the "city writer" (city clerk, we say),
Latin and vernacular secretaries, traveling writers, writing teachers, etc. Writing
masters sometimes taught reading also, but usually not. In some French cities
the guild of writing masters was granted an official monopoly of the privilege of
teaching writing in the city.

2 Reckoning schools were to meet direct commercial needs in the cities, and were
seldom found outside of commercial towns. The arithmetic taught in the Latin
schools as a part of the Seven Liberal Arts was largely theoretical; the arithmetic
in the reckoning schools was practical. The work of the professional reckoner in
time developed similarly to that of the professional writer, and often the two were
combined in one person. When employed by a city he was known as the city clerk.
In 1482 the first reckoning book to be published in Germany appeared, filled with
merchant's rules and applied problems in denominate numbers and exchange. See
an interesting monograph by Jackson, L. L., Sixteenth Century Arithmetic (Trs.
College Pubs., No. 8, 1906).

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RESULTS AMONG LUTHERANS

309

elsewhere. If one wished to be a scholar, a statesman, a diplo-
mat, a teacher, a churchman, or to join a religious brotherhood,
he needed to study the learned language of the time, — Latin.

German French

(From a woodcut, printed at (After a drawing by Soquand,

Nuremberg, 1505) 1528)

Fig. q2. Two Early Vernacular Schools

With this he could be at home with people of his kind anywhere
in western Europe. The vernacular he could leave to tradesmen,
craftsmen, soldiers, laborers, and the servant classes.

These people, on the other hand, had practically no need for a
written language, aside from a very small amount for business
needs. Even here the sign of the cross would do. There were
but few books written in the vernacular tongues, and these had
to be copied by hand and, in consequence, were scarce and expen-
sive. There were no newspapers (first newspaper, Venice, 1563)
or magazines. Spectacles for reading were not known until the
end of the thirteenth century, and were not common for two cen-
turies after that. There was httle knowledge that could not pass
from mouth to mouth. Such little vernacular literature as did exist
was transmitted orally, and no great issue which appealed to the
imagination of the masses had as yet come to the front to create
any strong desire for the ability to read. As a result, the educa-
tion of the masses was in hand labor, the trades, and religion, and
tnot in books, and the need for book education was scarcely felt.

310 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

A new demand for vernacular schools. The invention of print-
ing and the Protestant Revolts were in a sense two revolutionary
forces, which in combination soon produced vast and far-reaching
changes. The discovery of the process of making paper and the
invention of the printing-press changed the whole situation as to
books. These could now be reproduced rapidly and in large num-
bers, and could be sold at but a small fraction of their former cost.
The printing of the Bible in the common tongue did far more to
stimulate a desire to be able to read than did the Revival of
Learning (Rs. 155, 170). Then came the religious discussions of
the Reformation period, which stirred intellectually the masses
of the people in northern lands as nothing before in history had
ever done. In an effort to reach the people the refonners origi-
nated small and cheap pamphlets, written in the vernacular, and
these, sold for a penny or two, were peddled in the market-places
and from house to house. While there had been imperfect trans-
lations of the Bible in German before Luther's, his translation
(New Testament, 1522) was direct from the original Greek and so
carefully done that it virtually fixed the character of the German
language.^ Calvin's Institutes of Christianity (French edition,
1 541) in a similar manner fixed the character of the French lan-
guage,^ and Tyndale's translation of the New Testament (1526)
was into such simple and homely language ^ that it fixed the char-
acter of the English tongue, and was made the basis for the later
Authorized translation.

The leaders of the Protestant Revolts, too, in asserting that
each person should be able to read and study the Scriptures as a

1 Luther tried to make a translation so simple that even the unlearned might
profit by listening to its reading. To insure that his translation should be in a lan-
guage that would be perfectly clear and natural to the common people, he went
about asking questions of laborers, children, and mothers to secure good colloquial
expressions. It sometimes took him weeks to secure the right word, but so satis-
factory was the result that it fixed the standard for modern German, and still stands
as the most conspicuous landmark in the history of the German language.

2 The French version of this great original work represents the first use of French
as a language for an argumentative treatise, and, as Calvin's work was more widely
discussed than any other Protestant theological treatise, it did much to fix the char-
acter of this national language.

* "Tyndale's translation is not only the first which goes back to the origin J
tongues, but it is so noble a translation in its mingled tenderness and majesty, its
Saxon simplicity, and its smooth, beautiful diction that it has been but little im-
proved on since. Every succeeding version is little more than a revision of Tyn-
dale's." (J. Paterson Smyth, How We Got Our Bible.)

The following extract from Matthew is illustrative: "O oure father which art in
heven, halewed be thy name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy wyll be fulfilled, as well
in erth, as hit ys in heven. Geve vs this daye oure dayly breade. And forgeve vs
oure treaspases, even as we forgeve them whych treaspas vs. Lede vs nott in to
temptacion, but delyvre vs from yvell. Amen."

RESULTS AMONG LUTHERANS

311

means to personal salvation, created an entirely new demand, in
Protestant lands, for elementary schools in the vernacular. Here-
tofore the demand had been for schools only for those who ex-
pected to become scholars or leaders in Church or State, while
the masses of the people had little or no interest in learning. Now
a new class became desirous of learning to read, not Latin, but the
language which they had already learned to speak. WycHffe,

-y

c^m

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Depmrte tofltns fro t^atns/miO^oD maJi^pe ftr
emO 0^artiDr)icil>ftin5 vtrncmi^vTi&i^
^yc emmuctttrtoj^cC^fltnsT^at mcit^
mftmmttttU?asDatiC9/aii0p0(i^rpc6rmflmct;

Fig. 93. The First Page or Wycliffe's Bible
Translated between 1382 and 1384. Facsimile of the first verses of Genesis

Huss, Zwingli, Luther, Calvin, and Knox alike insisted on the
importance of the study of the Bible as a primary necessity in the
rehgious life. In an effort to bring the Bible within reach of the
people Wycliffe's followers had attempted the laborious and im-
possible task of multiplying by hand (p. 290) copies of his transla-
tion. Zwingli had written a pamphlet on The Manner of Instruc-
tion and Bringing up Boys in a Christian Way (1524), in which he
urged the importance of religious education. Luther, besides
translating the Bible, had prepared two general Catechisms, one

312 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

for adults and one for children, had written hymns/ and issued
numerous letters and sermons in behalf of religious education.
All these were printed in the vernacular and scattered broadcast.
Luther thought that "every human being, by the time he has
reached his tenth year, should be familiar with the Holy Gospels,
in which the very core and marrow of his life is bound." In his
sermons and addresses he urged a study of the Bible and the duty
of sending children to school. Calvin's Catechism similarly was
extensively used in Protestant lands.

I. Lutheran School Organization

Educational ideas of Luther. Luther enunciated the most
progressive ideas on education of all the German Protestant re-
formers. In his Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities
of Germany in hehalf of Christian Schools (1524) (R. 156), and in
his Sermon on the Duty of Sending Children to School (1530), wc
find these set forth. That his ideas could be but partially carried
out is not surprising. There were but few among his followers
who could understand such progressive proposals, they were
entirely too advanced for the time, there was no body of vernacu-
lar teachers ^ or means to prepare them, the importance of such
training was not understood, and the religious wars which fol-
lowed made such educational advantages impossible, for a long
time to come. The sad conditi n of the schools, which he said
were ''deteriorating throughcac Germany," awakened his deep
regret, and he begged of those in authority "not to think of the
subject lightly, for the instruction of youth is a matter in which
Christ and all the world are concerned." All towns had to spend
money for roads, defense, bridges, and the like, and why not some
for schools? This they now could easily afford, ''since Divin'
Grace has released them from the exaction and robbery of the
Roman Church." Parents continually neglected their educational
duty, yet there must be civil government. "Were there neither
soul, heaven, nor hell," he declared, "it would still be necessar)
to have schools for the sake of affairs here below. . . . The world

^ The most famous of Luther's German hymns, and one expressive of the Protes-
tant spirit, is the one beginnin-, :

'•Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, "A mighty fortress is our God,
Ein gute Wehr und Waffen." A bulwark never failing."

This hymn has often been called "The Marseillaise of the Reformation."
2 The evolution, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, of the German
vernacular school-teacher out of the parish sexton is one of the interesting bits of
our educational history.

RESULTS AMONG LUTHERANS 313

has need of educated men and women to the end that men may
govern the country properly and women may properly bring up
their children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of
their households." "The welfare of the State depends upon the
intelligence and virtue of its citizens," he said, ''and it is therefore
the duty of mayors and aldermen in all cities to see that Christian
schools are founded and maintained" (R. 156).

The parents of children he held responsible for their Christian
and civic education. This must be free, and equally open to all

Fig. 94. Luther giving Instruction
An ideal drawing, though representative of early Protestant popular instruction

— boys and girls, high and low, rich and poor. It was the inher-
ent right of each child to be educated, and the State must not only
see that the means are provided, but also require attendance at
the schools (R. 158). At the basis of all education lay Christian
education. The importance of the services of the teacher was
beyond ordinary comprehension (R. 157). Teachers should be
trained for their work, and clergymen should have had experience
as teachers. A school system for German people should be a
state system, divided into:

I. Vernacular Primary Schools. Schools for the common people,
to be taught in the vernacular, to be open to both sexes, to include
reading, writing, physical training, singing, and religion, and to give
practical instruction in a trade or in household duties. Upon this

314

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

attendance should be compulsory. " It is my opinion," he said, "that
we should send boys to school for one or two hours a day, and have
them learn a trade at home the rest of the time. It is desirable that
these two occupations march side by side."

2. Latin Secondary Schools. Upon these he placed great emphasis
(R. 156) as preparatory schools by means of which a learned clergy
was to be perpetuated for the instruction of the people. In these he
would teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, dialectic, history, science,
mathematics, music, and gymnastics.

3. The Universities. For training for the higher service in Church
and State.

The organizing work of Bugenhagen. Luther assisted in re-
organizing the churches at Wittenberg (1523), Leipzig (1523), and

Magdeburg (1524), in con-
nection with all of which he
provided for Lutheran-type
schools.^ Luther, though, was
not -essentially an organizer.
The organizing genius of the
Reformation, in central and
southern Germany, was Lu-
ther's colleague, Philipp Me-
lanchthon (149 7- 15 60), Pro-
fessor of Greek at the Uni-
versity of Wittenberg. In
northern Germany it was Jo-
hannes Bugenhagen (1485-
1558), another of Luther's col-
leagues at Wittenberg. More
than any other Germans these
two directed the necessary re-
organization of religion and
education in those parts of Germany which changed from Roman
Cathohcism to German Lutheranism. The churches, of course,
had to be reorganized as Lutheran churches, and the schools
connected with them refounded as Lutheran schools. For the
reorganization of eaclj of these a more or less detailed Ordnung
had to be written out (Rs. 159, 160). In this change cathedral
and other large church schools became Latin secondary schools,
while the song, chantry, and other types of parish elemen-

1 Magdeburg is typical, where the Lutherans united all the parish schools under
the supervision of one pastor.

Fig. 95. Johannes Bugenhagen

(1485-1558)

Father of the Lutheran Volksschule in
northern Germany

RESULTS AMONG LUTHERANS 315

tary schools were transformed into Lutheran vernacular parish
schools.

Bugenhagen was sent to reorganize the churches of northern
Germany. Being in close sympathy with Luther's ideas, he made
good provision for Lutheran parish schools in connection with
each of the churches he reorganized. At Brurswick (1528), Ham-
burg (1529) (R. 159), Liibeck (1530), for his native State of
Pomerania (1534), for Schleswig-Holstein (1537), and elsewhere
in northern Germany, he drew up church and school plans
( Kir c hen und Schule-Ordnungen) which formed models (Rs. 159,
160) for many northern German cities and towns. Besides pro-
viding for a Latin school for the city, he organized elementary
vernacular schools in each parish, for both boys and girls, in which
instruction in reading, writing, and religion was to be given in the
German tongue. He has been called the father of the German
Volksschule, though probably much of what he did was merely
the redirection of existing schools. In 1537 he was called to
Denmark, by the Danish King, to reorganize the University of
Copenhagen and the Danish Church and schools as Lutheran
institutions.

Efforts were also made to create Protestant schools in the
Scandinavian countries. In Denmark writing-schools for both
boys and girls were organized, and the sexton of each parish was
ordered to gather the children together once a week for instruc-
tion in the Catechism. In Sweden little was done before 1686,
when Charles XI ordained that the sacristan of each parish should
instruct the children in reading, while the religious instruction
should be conducted by the clergy, and carried on by means of
sermons, the Catechism, and a yearly public examination. The
ability to read and a knowledge of the Catechism was made nec-
essary for communion. A Swedish law of this same time also
ordered that, ''No one should enter the married state without
knowing the lesser Catechism of Luther by heart and having re-
ceived the sacrament." This latter regulation drove the peasants
to request the erection of children's schools in the parishes, to be
supported by the State, though it was not for more than a century
that this was generally brought about. The general result of this
legislation was that the Scandinavian countries, then including
Finland, early became literate nations.

The Reorganizing work of Melanchthon. Melanchthon, un-
hke Bugenhagen, was essentially a humanistic scholar, and his

3i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

interest lay chiefly in the Latin secondary schools. He prepared
plans for schools in many cities and smaller States of central and
southern Germany, among which were Luther's native town,
Eisleben (1525), and for Nuremberg (1526; p. 271), Herzeberg
(1538), Cologne (1543). and Wittenberg (1545) among cities; and
Saxony (1528), Mecklenberg (1552), and the Palatinate (1556)
among States. The schools he provided for Saxony may be
described as typical of his work.

In 1527 he was asked by the Elector of Saxony to head a com-
mission of three to travel over the kingdom and report on its needs
as to schools. In his Report, or Book of Visitation, which was
probably the first school survey report in history, he outHned in
detail plans for school organization for the State (R. 161), of which
the following is an abstract:

Each school was to consist of three classes. In the first class there
was to be taught the beginnings of reading and writing, in both the
vernacular and in I>atin, Latin grammar (Donatus), the Creed, the
Lord's prayer, and the prayers and hymns of the church service. In
the second class Latin became the language of instruction, and Latin
grammar was thoroughly learned. Latin authors were read, and reli-
gious instruction was continued. In the third class more advanced
work in reading Latin (Livy, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, and Cicero) was
given, and rhetoric and dialectic were studied.

These were essentially humanistic schools with but a little prepar-
atory work in the vernacular, and their purpose was to prepare
those likely to become the future leaders of the State for entrance
to the universities. How different was Melanchthon's conception
as to the needs for education from the conceptions of Luther and
Bugenhagen may easily be seen. Yet, so great were his services
in organizing and advising, and so well did such schools mefet the
great demand of the time for educational leaders that he has,
very properly, been called "the Preceptor of Germany." His
work was copied by other leaders, and the result was the organi-
zation of a large number of humanistic gymnasia throughout
northern Germany, in which the new learning and the Protestant
faith were combined. Sturm's school at Strassburg (p. 272) was
one of the more important and better organized of this type, many
of which have had a continuous existence up to the present. By
1540 the process was begun of endowing such schools from the
proceeds of old monasteries, confiscated by the State, and many
German gymnasia of to-day trace their origin back to some old

RESULTS AMONG LUTHERANS 317

monastic foundation, altered by state authority to meet modern
needs and purposes.

Early German state school systems. Melanchthon's Saxony
plan was put into partial operation as a Lutheran Church school
system, but the first German State to organize a complete system
of schools was Wiirtemberg (R. 162), in southwestern Germany, in
1559. This marks the real beginning of the German state school
systems. Three classes of schools were provided for:

(i) Elementary schools, for both sexes, in which were to be taught
reading, writing, reckoning, singing, and religion, all in the vernacular.
These were to be provided in every village in the Duchy.

(2) Latin schools {P articular schulen) , with five or six classes, in which
the abihty to read, write, and speak Latin, together with the elements
of mathematics and Greek in the last year, were to be taught.

(3) The universities or colleges of the State, of which the University
of Tubingen (f. 1476) and the higher school at Stuttgart were declared
to be constituent parts.

Acting through the church authorities, these schools were to be
under the supervision of the State.

The example of Wiirtemberg was followed by a number of the
smaller German States. Ten years later Brunswick followed the
same plan, and in 1580 Saxony revised its school organization
after the state-system plan thus established. In 16 19 the Duchy
of Weimar added compulsory education in the vernacular for all
children from six to twelve years of age. In 1642, the same date
as the first Massachusetts school law (chapter xv), Duke Ernest
the Pious of little Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg established the
first school system of a modern type in German lands. An
intelligent and ardent Protestant, he attempted to elevate his
miserable peasants, after the ravages of the Thirty Years' War,
by a wise economic administration and universal education.
With the help of a disciple of the greatest educational thinker of
the period, John Amos Comenius (chapter xvii), he worked out
a School Code {Schulmethode, 1642) which was the pedagogic
masterpiece of the seventeenth century (R. 163). In it he pro-
vided for compulsory school attendance, and regulated the details
of method, grading, and courses of study. Teachers were paid sal-
aries which for the time were large, pensions for their widows and
children were provided, and textbooks were prepared and sup-
pHed free. So successful were his efforts that Gotha became one
of the most prosperous little spots in Europe, and it was said

31 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

that ''Duke Ernest's peasants were better educated than noble-
men anywhere else."

By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German
States had followed the Wiirtemberg plan of organization. Even
Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria, which was a CathoUc State, or-
dered the estabHshment of ''German schools" throughout his
realm, with instruction in reading, writing, and the CathoHc
creed, the schools to be responsible through the Church to the
State.

Protestant state school organization. We see here in German
lands a new, and, for the future, a very important tendency.
Throughout all the long Middle Ages the Church had absolutely
controlled all education. From the suppression of the pagan
schools, in 579 a.d., to the time of the Reformation there had been
no one to dispute with the Church its complete monopoly of edu-
cation. Even Charlemagne's attempt at the stimulation of edu-
cational activity had been clearly within the lines of church con-
trol. Until the beginnings of the modern States, following the
Crusades, the Church had been the State as well, and for long
humbled any ruler who dared dispute its power. In the later
Middle Ages nobles and rising parliaments had at times sided with
the king against the Church — warnings of a changing Europe
that the Church should have heeded — but there had been no
serious trouble with the rising nationalities before the sixteenth
century. Now, in Protestant lands, all was changed. The
authority of the Church was overthrown. By the Peace of Augs-
burg (1555) each German prince and town and knight were to be
permitted to make choice between the Catholic and Lutheran
faith, and all subjects were to accept the faith of their ruler or
emigrate.

This established freedom of conscience for the rulers, but for
no one else. It also gave them control of both religious and secu-
lar affairs, thus uniting in the person of the ruler, large or small,
control of both Church and State. This was as much progress
toward religious freedom as the world was then ready for, as
Church and State had been united for so many centuries that a
complete separation of the two was almost inconceivable. It was
left for the United States (1787) to completely divorce Church
and State, and to reduce the churches to the control of purely
spiritual affairs.

The German rulers, however, were now free to develop schools

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS

319

as they saw fit, and, through their headship of the Church in their
principaHty or duchy or city, to control education therein. We
have here the beginnings of the transfer of educational control
from the Church to the State,

The
Middle
Agea

Lutheran

State - Church - School

Early

Reformation

Period.

Bujrenhagen
Melanchthon

Lutheran

State _f

Church

School

Later

Reformation

Period.

Saxony

Wiirtemberg

Gotha

Bavaria

the ultimate fruition of which
came first in German lands,
and which was to be the great
work of the nineteenth century.
It was through the kingly or
ducal headship of the Church,
and through it of the educa-
tional system of the kingdom
or duchy, that the great edu-
cational development in Wiir-
temberg, Saxony, and Gotha
was brought about by their rul-
ers, and it was through the rul-
ing princes that the German
universities were reformed ^
and the new Protestant uni-
versities established.^ Even
in Catholic States, as Bavaria, the German state-control idea
took root early. Many of the important features of the modern
German school systems are to be seen in their beginnings in these
Lutheran state-church schools.

Roman Catholic

CHURCH
State School

GERMAN STATES

IGerman Schoolsl

i ^ "s L

Lutheran
Church

Catholic
Church

The

Nineteenth

Century

Prussia

Saxony

Wiirtemberg

Bavaria

Baden

Fig. 96. Evolution. OF German
State School Control

2 . A nglican foundations

The Reformation and education in England. The Reformation
in England took a very different direction from what it did in
Germany, and its educational results in consequence were very
different. In England the reform movement was much more
political in character than in German lands. Henry VIII was no
Protestant, in the sense that Luther or Calvin or Zwingli or Knox

^ Wittenberg, founded in 1502 as a new-learning university, and in which Luther,
Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen were professors, was the first of the universities to
become Protestant. Gradually the other universities in Protestant Germany threw
off their allegiance to the Pope, and took on that of the ruling prince.

2 The first Protestant university to be founded was Marburg, in Hesse, in 1527.
When this later went over to Calvinism, a new university was founded at Giessen,
in 1607, by a migration of the Lutheran professors. Other Protestant universities
founded were Konigsberg (1544) Jena (,iSS6), Helmstadt (1576), and the free-city
universities of Altdorf (1573), Strassburg (1621), Rinteln (1621), Duisberg (1655)
and Kiel (1665). The support of these came, to a considerable extent, from old mo-
nastic or ecclesiastical foundations which had been dissolved after the Reformation.

320 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

was. He distrusted their teachings, and was always anxious to
explain objections to the old faith. The people of England as a
body, too, had been much less antagonized by the exactions of
the Roman Church and the immoral lives of the monks and
Roman clergy; the new learning had awakened there somewhat
less of a spirit of moral and religious reform ; and the reformation
movement of Luther, after a decade and a half, had roused no
general interest. The change from the Roman Catholic faith
to an independent Enghsh Church, when made, was in conse-
quence much more nominal than had been the case in German
lands. As a result the severance from Rome was largely carried
out by the ruling classes, and the masses of the people were in
no way deeply interested in it. The English National Church
merely took over most of the functions formerly exercised by the
Roman Church, in general the same priests remained in charge
of the parish churches, and the church doctrines and church
practices were not greatly altered by the change in allegiance.
The changing of the service from Latin to English was perhaps the
most important change. The English Church, in spirit and serv-
ice, has in consequence retained the greatest resemblance to the
Roman Catholic Church of any Protestant denomination. In
particular, the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salva-
tion, and hence the need of all being taught to read, made scarcely
any impression in England.

By the time of Elizabeth (1558-1603) it had become a settled
conviction with the English as a people that the provision of edu-
cation was a matter for the Church, and was no business of the
State, and this attitude continued until well into the nineteenth
century. The English Church merely succeeded the Roman
Church in the control of education, and now licensed the teach-
ers (R. 168), took their oath of allegiance (R. 167), supervised
prayers (R. 169) and the instruction, and became very strict as
to conformity to the new faith (Rs. 164-166), while the schools,
aside from the private tuition and endowed schools, continued to
be maintained chiefly from religious sources, charitable funds,
and tuition fees. Private tuition schools in time flourished, and
the tutor in the home became the rule with ,families of means.
The poorer people largely did without schooling, as they had done
for centuries before. As a consequence, the educational results
of the change in the headship of the Church relate almost entirely
to grammar schools and to the universities, and not to elementary

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS

321

education. The development of anything approaching a system
of elementary schools for England was consequently left for
the educational awakening of the
latter half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. When this finally came the
development was due to political
and economic, and not to religious
causes.

The Enghsh Act of Supremacy
(R. 153), which severed England
from Rome, had been passed by
parliament in 1534. In 1536 an
English Bible was issued to the
churches,^ the services were or-
dered conducted in Enghsh, and
in 1549 the English Prayer Book,
Psalter, and Catechism were put
into use. In 1538 the English Bi-
ble was ordered chained in the
churches,- that the people might
read it (R. 170), and the people
were ordered instructed in Enghsh
in the Creed, the Lord's Prayer,
and the Ten Commandments. The
change of the service to English
was perhaps the largest educational gain the masses of the
people obtained as the result of the Reformation in England.^

Suppression of the monasteries and the founding of grammar
schools. Between 1536 and 1539 the most striking result of the
Reformation in England took place, — the dissolution of the
monasteries. Their doubtful reputation enabled Henry and Par-

^ This was in response to a petition to the King, nearly two years before. The
King finally granted the request, "though maintaining that he was not compelled
by God's Word to set forth the Scriptures in English, yet 'of his own liberality and
goodness was and is pleased that his said loving subjects should have and read the
same in convenient places and times.' " (Procter and Frere, History of the Book
of Common Prayer, p. 30.)

2 "The injunctions directed that 'a Bible of the largest volume in English' be
set up in some convenient place in every church, where it might be read, only with-
out noise, or disturbance of any public service, and without any disputation, or
exposition." {Ihid., p. 30.)

^ The right to read the Bible was later revoked, during the closing years of
Henry VIII's reign (d. 1547), by an act of Parliament, in 1543, which provided that
"no woman (unless she be a noble or gentle woman), no artificers, apprentices,
journeymen, servingmen, under the degree of yeomen . . . husbandmen, or laborers "
should read or use any part of the Bible under pain of fines and imprisonment.

Fig. 97. A Chained Bible

(Redrawn from an old print showing
a chained Bible in a church in York,
England)

322 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

liament to confiscate their property, and 'Hhe dead hand of
monasticism was removed from a third of the lands of England."
There were precedents for this in pre-Reformation times, the
church authorities themselves having converted several monastic
foundations into grammar schools. At one blow Parliament now
suppressed the monasteries of all England, some eight thousand
monks and nuns were driven out, many of the monasteries, nun-
neries, and abbey churches were destroyed, and the monastic
lands were forfeited to the Crown. It was a ruthless proceeding,
though in the long course of history beneficial to the nation.
Much of the land was given to influential followers of the king in
return for their support, and a large part of the proceeds from
sales was spent on coast defenses and a navy, though more than
was formerly thought to be the case was used in refounding gram-
mar schools. A number of the monasteries were converted into
collegiate churches, with schools attached. Some of the alms-
houses and hospitals confiscated at the same time were similarly
used, and the cathedral churches in nine Enghsh cities were taken
from the monks (R. 171), who had driven out the regular clergy
during the tenth to the twelfth centuries, and were refounded as
cathedral church schools. The cathedral church school at Can-
terbury, which Henry refounded in 154 1 as a humanistic grammar
school, with a song school attached, and for the government of
which he made detailed provisions (R. 172), is typical of a school
which had fallen into bad repute (R. 171), and was later refounded
as a result of the confiscation of the monastic property. The
College of Christ Church at Oxford, and Trinity College at Cam-
bridge, were also richly endowed from the monastic proceeds.

In 1546 another Act of Parliament vested the title of all chan-
try foundations, some two hundred in number, in the Crown that
they might be "altered, changed, and amended to convert them
to good and godly uses as in the erecting of grammar schools,"
but so pressing became the royal need for money that, after their
sale, the intended endowments were never made. As the song
schools had been established originally to train a few boys "to
help a priest sing mass," and as the service was now to be read
rather than sung, the need for choristers largely disappeared.
Being regarded as nurseries of superstition, they were abandoned
without regret.

Result of the Reformation in England. The result of the
change in religious allegiance in England was a material decrease

Plate 7. The Free School at Harrow

One of the " Great Public" Grammar Schools of England. Founded in 1571, in
the reign of Elizabeth; building finished in 1593. The names of famous "old
boys" are seen lettered on the wall at the back. Pupils are seen seated in
"forms," reciting to the masters. (From a picture pubHshed by Ackermann, in
his illustrated History of the Colleges of Winchester, Eton, Westminster, etc.
London, 1816.)

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS 323

in the number of places offering grammar-school advantages,
though with a material improvement in the quality of the instruc-
tion provided, and a consequent decrease in the number of boys
given free education in the refounded grammar schools. As for
elementary education, the abolition of the song, chantry, and
hospital schools took away most of the elementary schools which
had once existed. The clerk of the parish usually replaced them
by teaching a certain number of boys ''to read English intelli-
gently instead of Latin unintelligently," many new parish ele-
mentary schools were created, especially during the reign of
Elizabeth, and in time the dame school, the charity school, the
writing school, and apprenticeship training arose (chapter xviii)
and became regular English institutions. These types of school-
ing constituted almost all the elementary-school advantages pro-
vided in England until well into the eighteenth century.

The post-Reformation educational energy of England was given
to the founding of grammar schools, and during the century and
a half before the outbreak of the struggle with James II (1688) to
put an end in England for all time to the late-mediasval theory
of the divine right of kings, a total of 558 grammar schools were
founded or refounded.^

The grammar schools thus founded were, one and all, grammar
schools of the reformed humanistic type. What was to be taught
in them was seldom mentioned in the foundation articles, as it was
assumed that every one knew what a grammar school was, so well
by this time had the humanistic type become established. They
were one and all modeled after the instruction first provided in
Saint Paul's School (p. 275) in London, and such modifications
as had been sanctioned with time, and this continued to be the
type of EngHsh secondary school instruction until well into the
nineteenth century.

The dominating religious purpose. The reHgious conflicts fol-
lowing the reformation movement everywhere intensified reli-
gious prejudices and stimulated religious bigotry. This was soon

^ These were, distributed by reigns, as follows:

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

Edward VI (iS47-iS53)

Mary (iS53-iSS8)

Elizabeth (1558-1603)

James I (1603-1625)

Charles I (1625-1649) 142

Protectorate (1649-1660)

Charles II (1660-1685)

James II (1685-1688) 146

63 schools

138

324 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

reflected in the schools of al] lands. In England, after the resto-
ration under Catholic Mary (1553-58) and the final reestablish-
ment of the English Church under Elizabeth (1558), all school
instruction became narrowly religious and English Protestant in
type. By the middle of the seventeenth century the grammar
schools had become nurseries of the faith, as well as very formal
and disciplinary in character. In England, perhaps more than in
any other Protestant country, Christianity came to be identified
with a strict conformity to the teachings and practices of the
Established Church, and to teach that particular faith became
one of the particular missions of all types of schools. Bishops
were instructed to hunt out schoolmasters who were unsound in
the faith (R. 164 a), and teachers were deprived of their positions
for nonconformity (R. 164 b). More effectively to handle the
problem a series of laws were enacted, the result of which was to
institute such an inquisitorial policy that the position of school-
master became almost intolerable. In 1580 a law (R. 165) im-
posed a fine of £10 on any one employing a schoolmaster of
unsound faith, with disability and imprisonment for the school-
master so offending; in 1603 another law required a license from
the bishop on the part of all schoolmasters as a condition prece-
dent to teaching; in 1662 the obnoxious Act of Uniformity (R. 166)
required every schoolmaster in any type of school, and all private
tutors, to subscribe to a declaration that they would conform to
the liturgy of the Church, as established by law, with fine and
imprisonment for breaking the law; in 1665 the so-called "Five-
Mile Act" forbade Dissenters to teach in any school, under pen-
alty of a fine of £40; and in that same year bishops were instructed
to see that

the said schoolmasters, ushers, schoolmistresses, and instructors, or
teachers of youth, publicly or privately, do themselves frequent the
public prayers of the Church, and cause their scholars to do the same;
and whether they appear well affected to the Government of his
Majesty, and the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England.

Thi^ attitude also extended upward to the universities as well,
where nonconformists were prohibited by law (1558) from re-
ceiving degrees, a condition that was not remedied until 1869.
The great purpose of instruction came to be to support the
authority and the rule of the Established Church, and the almost
complete purpose of elementary instruction came to be to train
pupils to read the Catechism, the Prayer Book, and the Bible.

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS 325

This intense religious attitude in England was reflected in early
colonial America, as we shall see in a following chapter.

The Poor-Law legislation, and its educational significance.
After the thirteenth century, due in part to the rise of the wool
industry in Flanders, England began to change from a farming
to a sheep-raising country. Accompanying this decline in the
importance of farming there had been a slow but gradual growth
of trade and manufacturing in the cities, and to the cities the sur-
plus of rural peasantry began to drift. The cost of living also in-
creased rapidly after the fifteenth century. As a result there was
a marked shifting of occupations, much unemployment, and a
constantly increasing number of persons in need of poor-relief.
In the time of Elizabeth (15 58-1 603) it has been estimated that
one half the population of England did not have an income suffi-
cient for sustenance, and great numbers of children were running
about without proper food or care, and growing up in idleness and
vice.

The situation, which had been growing worse for two centuries,
culminated at the time of the Reformation when the religious
houses, which had previously provided alms, were confiscated as
a result of the reformation activities. The groundwork of the
old system of religious charity was thus swept away, and the
relation which had for so long existed between prayer and pen-
ance and almsgiving and charity was altered. The nation was
thus forced to deal with the problem of poor-relief, and with the
care of the children of the poor. In the place of the old system
the people were forced, by circumstances, to develop a new con-
ception of the State as a community of peoples bound together
by community interest, good feeling, charity, and service.

As this new conception dawned on the English people, a series
of laws were enacted which attempted to provide for the situation
which had been created. These were progressive in character,
and ranged over much of the sixteenth century. First the poor
were restricted from begging, outside of certain specified limits.
Next church collections and parish support for the poor were
ordered (1553), and the people were to be urged to give. Then
workhouses for the poor and their children, and materials with
which to work, were ordered provided, and those persons of means
who would not give freely were to be cited before the bishop first
(R. 173), and the justices later, and if necessary forcibly assessed
(1563). The next step was to permit the local authorities to

326 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

raise needed funds by strictly local taxation (1572). In 1601 the
last step was taken, when the compulsory taxation of all persons
of property was ordered to provide the necessary poor-relief, and
the excessive burdens of one parish were to be shared by neighbor-
ing parishes. Thus, after a long period of slowly evolving legis-
lation (R. 173), the English Poor-Law of 1601 (R. 174) finally
gave expression to the following principles :

1. The compulsory care of the poor, as an obligation of the State.

2. The compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, male
and female, to learn a useful trade.

3. The obligation of the master to train his apprentices in a trade.

4. The obligation of the overseers of the poor to supply, where neces-
sary, the opportunity and the materials for such training of the
children of the poor.

5. The compulsory taxation of all persons of property to provide the
necessary funds for such a purpose, and without reference to any
benefits derived from the taxation.

6. The excessive burdens of any one parish to be pooled throughout
the hundred or county.

In this compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor,
with the obligation imposed that such children must be trained
in a trade and in proper living, with general taxation of those of
property to provide workhouses and materials for such a purpose,
we have the germ, among English-speaking peoples, of the idea
of the general taxation of all persons by the State to provide
schools for the children of the State. The apprenticing of the
children of the poor to labor and the requirement that they be
taught the elements of religion soon became a fixed English prac-
tice (R. 217), and in the seventeenth century this idea was carried
to the American colonies and firmly established there. It was
on the foundations of the English Poor-Law of 1601, above stated,
that the first Massachusetts law relating to the schooling of all
children (1642) was framed (R. 190), but with the significant
Calvinistic addition that:

7. " In euery towne ye chosen men" shall see that parents and mas-
ters not only train their children in learning and labor, but also
" to read & understand the principles of religion & the capitall
lawes of this country," with power to impose fines on such as
refuse to render accounts concerning their children.

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS 327

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Why is progress that is substantial nearly always a product of slow rather
than rapid evolution?

2. Show why the evolution of many Protestant sects was a natural conse-
quence of the position assumed by Luther. What is the ultimate out-
come of the process?

3. Why was it not important that more than a few be educated under the
older theory of salvation?

4. Show how modern democratic government was a natural consequence of
the Protestant position.

5. Why was universal education involved as a later but ultimate conse-
quence of the position taken by the Protestants?

6. Explain why the local Church authorities, before 1520, tried so hard to
prevent the estabhshment of vernacular schools.

7. Explain why the religious discussions of the Reformation should have
so strongly stimulated a desire to read.

8. Explain the fixing in character of the German, French, and English lan-
guages by a single book. What had fixed the Italian?

9. Was Luther probably right when he wrote, in 1524, that the schools
"were deteriorating throughout Germany"? Why?

10. Give reasons why Luther's appeals for schools were not more fruitful.

11. What was the significance of the position of Luther for the future educa-
tion of girls?

12. Was Luther's idea that a clergyman should have had some experience as
a teacher a good one, or not? Why?

13. How do you explain Luther's ideas as to coupling up elementary and
trade education in his primary schools?

14. Point out the similarity of Luther's scheme for a school system with the
German school system as finally evolved (Figure 96).

15. Show how Melanchthon's Saxony Plan differed from Luther's ideas.
For the times was it a more practical plan? Why?

16. Explain why the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation
made so little headway in England, and show that the natural educa-
tional consequences of this resulted.

17. Show what different conditions were likely to follow, in later centuries,
from the different stands taken as to the relation of the State and Church
to education by the German people by the middle of the sixteenth
century, and by the English at the time of Elizabeth.

18. Compare the origin of the vernacular elementary-school teacher in
Germany and England.

19. Leach estimates that, in 1546, there were approximately three hundred
grammar schools in England for a total population of approximately
two and one half milhons. About what opportunities for grammar-
school education did this afford?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced :

154. Rashdall: Diffusion of Education in Mediaeval Times.

155. Times: The Vernacular Style of the Translation of the Bible.

156. Luther: To the Mayors and Magistrates of Germany.

157. Luther: Dignity and Importance of the Teacher's Work.

328 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

158. Luther: On the Duty of Compelling School Attendance.

159. Hamburg: An Example of a Lutheran Kirchenordnung.

160. Brieg: An Example of a Lutheran Schuleordnung.

161. Melanchthon: The Saxony School Plan.

162. Raumer: The School System Established m Wiirtemberg.

163. Duke Ernest: The Schukmethodus for Gotha.

164. Strype: The Supervision of a Teacher's Acts and Religious Beliefs
in England.

{a)' Letter of Queen's Council on.

{h) Dismissal of a Teacher for non-conformity.

165. Elizabeth: Penalties on Non-conforming Schoolmasters.

166. Statutes: Enghsh Act of Uniformity of 1662.

167. Carlisle: Oath of a Grammar School Master.

168. Strype: An English Elementary-School Teacher's License.
i6g. Cowper: Grammar School Statutes regarding Prayers.

170. Green: Effect of the Translation of the Bible into English.

171. Old MS.: Ignorance of the Monks at Canterbury and Messenden.

172. Parker: Refounding of the Cathedral School at Canterbury.

173. Nicholls: Origin of the English Poor-Law of 1601.

174. Statutes: The English Poor Law of 1601.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. From the selection from Rashdall (154), what do you infer as to the
effect of the Reformat'on on the schools? What kind of schools does
Rashdall describe as existing?

2. Contrast the vernacular style of the Bible (155) with the Ciceronian.

3. Characterize the three extracts (156-58) from Luther.

4. How advanced was the ground taken by Luther (158)? Would we ac-
cept the logic of his argument to-day?

5. Just what do the Hamburg (159) and Brieg (160) Ordnimgen indicate?

6. Compare Melanchthon's Saxony Plan (161) with Sturm's (137) and the
French College de Guyenne (136), and grade the three in order of im-
portance.

7. Show the close similarity of the Wiirtemberg plan of 1559-65 (162) and
a modern German state school system.

8. How advanced for the time was the work of Duke Ernest of Gotha

(^63)?

9. What kind of a school attitude is indicated by the close supervision of
Enghsh teachers, as described in 164 and 165?

10. What would be the natural effect on the teaching occupation of such
legislation as the Act of Uniformity (166)?

11. Compare the form of license of an elementary teacher (168) with a
modern form. What have we added and omitted?

12. What do the statutes regarding prayers (169) indicate as to the nature
of the grammar schools of the time?

13. Characterize the educational importance of the translations of the Bible
into the native tongues (170).

14. What are the marked features of the refounding act (172) for Canter-
bury cathedral school? What improvements are indicated?

15. State the steps in the development (173) of the Enghsh Poor-Law of
1 601, just what the law provided for (174), and just what elements
necessary to the creation of a state school system were incorporated
into it.

RESULTS AMONG ANGLICANS 329

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Adams, G. B. Civilization during the Middle Ages.

Barnard, Henry. German Teachers and Educators.

Francke, Kuno. Social Forces in German Literature.
*Good, Harry E. "The Position of Luther upon Education," in School

and Society, vol. 6, pp. 511-18 (Nov. 3, 1017)-
*Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in English Education.
*Montmorency, J. E. G. de. The Progress of Education in England.

Painter, F. V. N. Luther on Education.

Paulsen, Fr. German Education.

Richard, J. W. Philipp Melanchthon, the Protestant Preceptor of Germany.

Woodward, W. H. Education during the Renaissance.

CHAPTER XIV

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT

REVOLTS

II. AMONG CALVINISTS AND CATHOLICS

3. Educational work oj the Calvinists

The organizing work of Calvin. From the point of view of
American educational history the most important developments
in connection with the Reformation were those arising from
Calvinism. While the Calvinistic faith was rather grim and for-
bidding, viewed from the modern standpoint, the Calvinists
everywhere had a program for political, economic, and social
progress which has left a deep impress on the history of mankind.
This program demanded the education of aJl, and in the countries
where Calvinism became dominant the leaders included general
education in their scheme of rehgious, political, and social re-
form.^ In the governmental program which Calvin drew up
(1537) for the religious repubhc at Geneva (p. 298), he held that
learning was ''a public necessity to secure good political adminis-
tration, sustain the Church unharmed, and maintain humanity
among men."

In his plan for the schools of Geneva, published in 1538, he out-
lined a system of elementary education in the vernacular for all,
which involved instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, reli-
gion, careful grammatical drill, and training for civil as well as
for ecclesiastical leadership. In his plan of 1541 he upholds the
principle, as had Luther, that "the Uberal arts and good training
are aids to a full knowledge of the Word." This involved the
organization of secondary schools, or colleges as he called them,

^ "These Calvinists had a common program of broad scope — not merely doc-
trinal, but also political, economic, and social. Their common program and their
social ideals demanded education of all as instruments of Providence for church and
commonwealth. Their industrious habits and productive economic life provided
funds for education. Their representative institutions in both church and common-
wealth not only necessitated general diffusion of knowledge, but furnished the organ-
ization necessary for founding, supervising, and maintaining, in wholesome touch
with the common man, both elementary and higher institutions of learning. Their
disciplined and responsive conscience, their consequent intensity of moral conviction
and spirit of self-sacrifice for the common weal, compelled them to realize, in con-
crete and permanent form, their ideals of college and common school." (Foster,
H. D., In Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, vol. i, p. 499.)

RESULTS AMONG CALVIN ISTS 331

following the French nomenclature, to prepare leaders for the
ministry and the civil government through ''instruction in the
languages and humane science." In the colleges (secondary
schools) which he organized at Geneva and in neighboring places
to give such training, and which became models of their kind
which were widely copied, the usual humanistic curriculum was
combined with intensive religious instruction. These colleges
became famous as institutions from which learned men came
forth. The course of study in the seven classes of one of the
Geneva colleges, which has been preserved for us, reveals the na-
ture of the instruction (R. 175). The lowest class began with the
letters, reading was taught from a French-Latin Catechism, and
the usual Latin authors were read. Greek was begun in the
fourth class, and, in addition to the usual Greek authors, the New
Testament was read in Greek. In the higher classes, as was com-
mon also in German gymnasia, logic and rhetoric were taught to
prepare pupils to analyze, argue, and defend the faith. Elocu-
tion was also given much importance in the upper classes as
preparation for the ministry, two original orations being required
each month. Psalms were sung, prayers offered, sermons
preached and questioned on, and the Bible carefully studied.
The men who went forth from the colleges of Geneva to teach and
to preach the Calvinistic gospel were numbered by the hundreds.^
Calvin's great educational work at Geneva has been well sum-
marized by a recent writer,- as follows:

The strenuous moral training of the Genevese was an essential part
of Calvin's work as an educator. All were trained to respect and obey
laws, based upon Scripture, but enacted and enforced by representa-
tives of the people, and without respect of persons. How fully the
training of children, not merely in sound learning and doctrine, but
also in manners, "good morals," and common sense was carried out is
pictured in the delightful human Colloquies of Calvin's old teacher,
Corderius (once a teacher at the College of Guyenne, p. 269), whom he
twice established at Geneva. . . .

Calvin's memorials to the Genevan magistrates, his drafts for civil
law and municipal administration, his correspondence with reformers
and statesmen, his epoch-making defense of interest taking, his growing
tendency toward civil, religious, and economic liberty, his development
of primary and university education, his intimate knowledge of the
dialect and ways of thought of the common people of Geneva, and his

^ In 1625 a list of the famous men of the city of Louvain, in Belgium, was printed.
More than one fourth of those listed had studied in the colleges of Geneva.
2 Foster, H. D., Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, vol. i, p. 491.

332

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

broad understanding of European princes, diplomats, and politics mark
him out as a great political, economic, and educational as well as a
religious reformer, a constructive social genius capable of reorganizing
and moulding the whole life of a people.

The world owes much to the constructive, statesman-like gen-
ius of Calvin and those who followed him, and we in America
probably most of all. Geneva became a refuge for the persecuted
Protestants from other lands, and through such influences the
ideas of Calvin spread to the Huguenots in France, the Walloons

Fig. 98. A French School' of the Seventeenth Century
(From an old woodcut by Abraham Bosse, 161 1-78)

of the Dutch and Belgian Netherlands, the Germans in the Pa-
latinate, the Presbyterians of Scotland, the Puritans in England,
and later to the American colonies.

Calvinism in other lands. The great educational work done by
the Calvinists in France, in the face of heavy persecution, de-
serves to be ranked with that of the Lutherans in Germany in its
importance. Had the Calvinists had the same opportunity for
free development the Lutherans had, and especially their state
support, there can be Httle doubt that their work would have
greatly exceeded the Lutherans in importance and influence on
the future history of mankind. Beginning with one church in
1538, they had 2150 churches by 1561, when the severe persecu-
tions and religious wars began.

RESULTS AMONG CALVINTSTS 333

True to the Calvinistic teaching of putting principles into
practice, they organized an extensive system of schools, extending
from elementary education for all, through secondary schools or
colleges, up to eight Huguenot universities. As a people they
were thrifty and capable of making great sacrifices to carry out
their educational ideals. The education they provided was not
only religious but civil; not only intellectual but moral, social,
and economic. Education was for all, rich and poor alike. Their
synods made liberal appropriations for the universities, while
municipalities provided for colleges and elementary education.
They emphasized, in the lower schools, the study of the vernacu-
lar and arithmetic, and in the colleges Greek and the New Testa-
ment. The long list of famous teachers found in their universi-
ties reveals the character of their instruction. Foster has well
summarized the distinguishing characteristics of Huguenot edu-
cation in France, before they were driven from the land, as fol-
lows: ^

The significant characteristics of Huguenot education were: an
emphasis on the education of the laity; training for ''the republic" and
"society" as well as for the Church; insistence upon virtue as well as
knowledge; the wide-spread demand for education, and a view of it
as essential to liberty of conscience; a comprehensive working system
of elementary, collegiate, and university training for all, poor as well
as rich; an astonishing familiarity with Scripture, even among the
lowest classes; utilization of representative church organization for
founding, supporting, and unifying education; readiness to sacrifice
for education, a spirit of carrying a thing through at any cost; business-
like supervision of money, and systematic supervision of both profes-
sors and students; a notable emphasis on vernacular, arithmetic, Greek,
use of full texts, and libraries; and finally a progressive spirit of inquiry
and investigation.

In the Palatinate (see map, Figure 88) some progress in found-
ing churches and schools was made, especially about Strassburg,
and the universities of Heidelberg and Marburg became the cen-
ters of Huguenot teaching. In the Dutch Netherlands, and in
that part of the Belgian Netherlands inhabited by the Walloons,
Calvinist ideas as to education dominated. The universities of
Leyden (f. 1575), Groningen (f. 1614), Amsterdam (f. 1630), and
Utrecht (f. 1636) were Calvinistic, and closely in touch with the
Calvinists and Huguenots of German lands and France. Popu-
lar education was looked after among these people as it was in

^ In Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, vol. i, p. 498,

334

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Calvinistic France and Geneva. The Church Synod of The
Hague (1586) ordered the establishment of schools in the cities,
and in 161 8 the Great Synod held at Dort (R. 176) ordered that:

Schools in which the young shall be properly instructed in piety and
fundamentals of Christian doctrine shall be instituted not only in
cities, but also in towns and country places where heretofore none have
existed. The Christian magistracy shall be requested that honorable
stipends be provided for teachers, and that well-qualified persons may
be employed and enabled to devote themselves to that function; and
especially that the children of the poor may be gratuitously instructed
by them and not be excluded from the benefits of schools.

Further provisions were made as to the certificating of school-
masters, and the pastors were made superintendents of the

schools, to visit, exam-
ine, encourage, advise,
and report (R. 176).
Provision for the free
education of the poor
became common, and
elementary education
was made accessible to
all. The careful pro-
vision for education
made by the province
of Utrecht (1590, 161 2)
(R. 178) was typical of
Dutch activity. The
province of Drenthe
ordered (1630) a school
tax paid for all children
over seven, whether at-
tending school or not.
The province of Over-
yssel levied (1666) a
school tax for all chil-
dren from eight to
twelve years of age. The province of Groningen constituted the
pastors the attendance ofificers to see that the children got to
school. Amsterdam and many other Dutch cities demanded an
examination of all teachers before being licensed to teach. By
the middle of the seventeenth century a good system of schools

Fig. 99. A Dutch Village School

(After a painting by Adrian Ostade, dated 1662,
now in the Louvre, at Paris)

RESULTS AMONG CALVINISTS 335

seems to have been provided generally.^ by the Dutch and the
Belgian Walloons (R. 178). That the teaching of religion was
the main function of the Dutch elementary schools, as of all
other vernacular schools of the time, is seen from the official lists
of the textbooks used (R. 178).

John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation (1560), who
had spent some time at Geneva and who was deeply impressed by
the Calvinistic religious-state found there, introduced the Calvin-
is tic religious and educational ideas into Scotland. His Book 0]
Discipline for the Scottish Church (1560),
framed closely on the Genevan model, con-
tained a chapter devoted to education in
which he proposed:

That everie several! churche have a school-
maister appointed, such a one as is able at
least to teach Grammar and the Latin tung,
yf the Town be of any reputation. Yf it be
upaland . . . then must either the Reider or
the Minister take cayre over the children . . .
to instruct them in their first rudementie and K'%i:kiO^)'y^: ■ </
especially in the catechisme. ^ '''!'*;Vf'. ' /

The educational plan proposed by Knox ,,
ij , n 1 r 1 T. tiG. 100. John Knox

would have called for a large expenditure t^^^U-^2)

of money, and this the thrifty Scotch were

not ready for. Knox and his followers then proposed to endow the
new schools from the old church and monastic foundations, but
the Scottish nobles hoped to share in these, as had the English
nobility under Henry VIII, and Knox's plan was not approved.
This delayed the estabUshment of a real national system of educa-
tion for Scotland until the nineteenth century. The new Church,
however, took over the superintendence of education in Scotland,
and when parish schools were finally established by decree of the
Privy Council, in 1616, and by the legislation of 1633 and 1646
(R. 179), the Church was given an important share in their organi-
zation and management. These schools, while not always suffi-
cient in number to meet the educational needs, were well taught,
and have deeply influenced the national character.

^ "That pufclic schools abounded throughout the Netherlands is evident. Every
study of the archives of town or province discloses their presence. The minutes of
every religious body bear overwhelming testimony not only to the existence of
schools, but also a zealous interest in their maintenance." (Kilpatrick, W. H.,
Dutch Schools of New Netherlands, p. 37.)

336 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

4. The Counter-Reformation of the Catholics

The Jesuit Order. The Protestant Revolt made but Httle
headway in Italy, Spain, Portugal, much of France, or southern
Belgium (see map, p. 296). Italy was scarcely disturbed at all,
while in France, where of all these countries the reform ideas had
made greatest progress, nine tenths of the people remained loyal
to Rome. In a general way it may be stated that those parts of
western Europe which had once formed an integral part of the old
Roman Empire remained loyal to the Roman Church, while those
which had been the homes of the Germanic tribes revolted. Now
it naturally happened that the countries which remained loyal to
the old Church experienced none of the feelings of the necessity
for education as a means to personal salvation which the Luther-
ans and Calvinists felt. There, too, the church system of educa-
tion which had developed during the long Middle Ages remained
undisturbed and largely unchanged. The Church as an institu-
tion, though, learned from the Protestants the value of education
as a means to larger ends, and soon set about using it.^

After the Church Council of Trent (1545-63), where definite
church reform measures were carried through (p. 303), the Catho-
lics inaugurated what has since been called a counter-reforma-
tion, in an effort to hold lands which were still loyal and to win
back lands which had been lost. Besides reforming the practices
and outward lives of thje churchmen, and reforming some church
practices and methods, the Church inaugurated a campaign of
educational propaganda. In this last the chief reliance was upon
a new and a very useful organization officially known as the "So-
ciety of Jesus," but more commonly called the "Jesuit Order."
This had been founded, in 1534, by a Spanish knight, pilgrim,
man of large ideas, and scholar by the name of Ignatius Loyola,
and had been sanctioned as an Order of the Church by Pope Paul
III, in 1540. It was organized along strictly military lines, all
members being responsible to its General, and he in turn alone to
the Pope. The quiet life of the cloister was abandoned for a life

1 For long the Church had had the Inquisition, but, while it had rendered loyal
and iniquitous service, the results had been in no way commensurate with the bitter
hatred which its work awakened. Excommunication, persecution, imprisonment,
the stake, and the sword had been tried extensively, but with only partial success.
In education the reformers had shown the Church a new method, which was positive
and effective and did not awaken opposition, and from the reformer's zeal for Latin
grammar schools to provide an intelligent ministry the Church took its cue of estab-
lishing schools to train its future leaders. It was a long-headed and far-sighted
plan, and its success was proportionately large.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 337

of open warfare under a military discipline. The Jesuit was to
live in the world, and all peculiarities of dress or rule which might
prove an obstacle to worldly success were suppressed. The pur-
poses of the Order were to combat heresy, to advance the interests
of the Church, and to strengthen the au-
thority of the Papacy. Its motto was
Omnia ad Major em Dei Gloriam (that is,
All for the greater glory of God), and the
means to be employed by it to accomplish
these ends were the pulpit, the confessional,
the mission, and the school. Of these the
school was given the place of first impor-
tance. Realizing clearly that the real cause
of the Reformation had been the ignor-
ance, neglect, and vicious lives of so many
monks and priests and the extortion and
neglect practiced bv the Church, and that ^J^- '°^- Ignatius de
^x. I,- ( A'fa u ' • ^u u- I, 1 Loyola (1491-1556)

the chief diinculty was m the higher places

of authority, it became the prime principle of the Order to live
upright and industrious lives themselves, and to try to reach and
train those likely to be the future leaders in Church and State.
With the education of the masses of the people the Order was not
concerned.^ Our interest lies only with the educational work of
this Order, a work in which it was remarkably successful and
through which it exercised a very large influence.

Great success of the Order. The service of the Order to the
Church in combating Protestant heresies was very marked. Be-
ginning in a small way, the Order, by 1600, had established two
hundred colleges (Latin secondary schools), universities, and
training seminaries; by 1640, 372; by 1706 (150 years after the
death of its founder), 769; and by 1756, 728. In 1773, when the
Order was for a time abolished,^ after it had been driven out of a

^ This is not true of their missions in foreign lands, where the mission priests
usually gave elementary instruction. Elementary schools were maintained in the
Jesuit missions of North and South America. Thus a mission school was estab-
lished at Quebec as early as 1635 , and 'one at Newtown, in CathoHc Maryland, in 1640.
After 1 740 elementary parish schools were opened by the Jesuits among the German
Catholics in Pennsylvania. From these beginnings Catholic parish schools hav^e
been developed in the United States.

2 The Order was reestablished in 1814 and it has since been allowed to reestablish
itself in most countries, though not in France or Germany. There are 41 Jesuit
colleges in America, in 21 states. (For list see Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education,
vol. Ill, p. 540.) In the revision of its course of instruction, in 1832, modern studies
were added, but the Society has never played any such conspicuous part in education
since its reestablishment as it did during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

338 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

number of European countries because of the unscrupulous meth-
ods it adopted and the continual application of its doctrine that
the end justifies the means, the Order had 22,589 members, about
half of whom were teachers. Its colleges (secondary schools) and
universities were most numerous and its work most energetically
carried on in northern France, Belgium, Holland, the German
States, Austria, Poland, and Hungary. Here was the great battle
line, and here the Jesuits deeply entrenched themselves. In
these portions of Europe alone there were, in 1750, 217 colleges,
55 seminaries, 24 houses for novitiates, and 160 missions. In
France alone there were 92 colleges. They did much, single-
handed, to roll back the tide of Protestantism which had ad-
vanced over half of western Europe, and to hold other countries
true to the ancient faith.

The colleges were usually large and well-supported institutions,
with dormitories, classrooms, dining-halls and play-grounds.
The usual number of scholars in each was about 300, though
some had an attendance of 600 to 800, and a few as high as
2000. At their period of maximum influence the colleges and
universities of the Order probably enrolled a total of 200,000
students. Their graduates were prominent in every scholarly
and governmental activity of the time. As far as possible the
pupils were a selected class to whom the Order offered free in-
struction. The children of the nobihty and gentry, and the
brightest and most promising youths of the different lands were
drawn into their schools. The children of many Protestants,
also, were attracted by the high quality of the instruction offered.
There they were given the best secondary-school education of the
time, and received, at an impressionable age, the peculiar Jesuit
stamp. ^ Bacon gave his opinion as to the success of their in-
struction in the following sentence: "As for the pedagogical part,
the shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for
nothing better has been put in practice." {De Argumentis, vi, 4.)^

^ It is an interesting speculation as to whether the fact that the Jesuits made
such headway in German lands, and so deeply impressed their training on the chil-
dren of the nobility there, has had any connection with the attitude of German and
Austrian political leaders for two centuries that the end justifies the means, however
unworthy the means may be.

2 By the middle of the eighteenth century the Jesuits had lost much of their former
vigor, and their colleges their former large influence. They had become powerful
and arrogant, mixed deeply in political intrigues, quarreled with any one who crossed
their path, and refused to change their instruction to meet new intellectual needs.
They were finally driven from France, Spain, Portugal, and German lands, and were
ultimately abolished as an Order.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 339

Success of the Jesuit schools. Displaying a genius for organi-
zation worthy of Rome, Loyola and his followers absorbed the
best educational ideas of the time as to school organization and
management and curriculum, and incorporated these into their
educational plan. Too practical to make many changes, but
with a keen eye for what was best, they accepted the best and
used it much as others had worked it out. From the municipal
college of Guyenne (p. 269), the colleges of Calvin (p. 331), and
Sturm's organization at Strassburg (p. 273), they adopted the
plan of class organization, with a teacher for each class. From
the Calvinists they obtained the idea of the careful supervision of
instruction, which was worked out in the Prefect of Studies for
their colleges. In their course of study they incorporated the. Cic-
eronian ideal of the humanistic learning, and as careful religious
instruction as was provided by any of the reformers. From the
Italian court schools they took the idea of physical training. The
method of instruction and classroom management which they
worked out was detailed, practical, and for their purposes excel-
lent. The reasons for their educational work gave them a clearly
defined aim and purpose. The military brotherhood type of or-
ganization, the lifetime of celibate service, and the opportunity to
sort the carefully selected members according to their ability for
service in the different lines of the Order gave them the best-se-
lected teaching force in Europe, and these men they trained for
the teaching service with a thoroughness unknown before and
seldom equaled since. Knowing why they were at work and what
ends they should achieve, intolerant of opposition, intensely
practical in all their work, and possessed of an indefatigable zeal
in the accomplishment of their purpose, they gave Europe in gen-
eral and northern continental Europe in particular a system of
secondary schools and universities possessed of a high degree of
effectiveness, which, combined with religious warfare and perse-
cution, in time drove out or dwarfed all competing institutions in
the countries they were able to control.

That their educational system, viewed from a modern liberal-
education standpoint, equaled in effectiveness for liberal-educa-
tion ends such institutions as the court schools of Vittorino dia
Feltre, Batista da Guarona, or other Itahan humanistic educators
of the Renaissance (p. 267) ; the French and Swiss colleges of Cal-
vin (p. 33 1 ) ; Colet's school at Saint Paul's (p. 275), and the better
English grammar schools; or the schools of the Brethren of the

340 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Common Life in the Netherlands (p. 271); would hardly be con-
tended for to-day. Such, though, was not their purpose. To
proselyte for the Church rather than to liberalize - — from their
point of view there had been too much liberalizing already — was
their ultimate aim, and their educational work was organized to
suppress rather than to awaken more Protestant heresy. The
work of this Order was so successful, and for two centuries so
dominated secondary and higher education in Europe, that it will
pay us to examine a little more closely their educational organiza-
tion to see more fully the reasons for their large success. In so
doing we will examine three points — their school organization,
their methods of instruction, and the training of their teachers.

Jesuit school organization. Each college was presided over by
a Rector, who was in effect the president of the institution, and a
Prefect of Studies, who was the superintendent of instruction.
Below these were the Professors or teachers, the House Prefect,
the official disciplinarian of the institution, known as the Correc-
tor, the monitors, and the students. There were two classes of
students, interns and externs. Their schools were divided into
two courses. The studia inferiora, or lower school, which covered
the six years from ten to twelve years of age up to sixteen to eight-
een; and the studia superiora, which followed, and included the
higher college and university courses, with philosophy and theol-
ogy as the important subjects. For the whole, there was a very
carefully worked-out manual of instruction (R. 180) known as the
Ratio Studiorum}

The boy entering a Jesuit college was supposed to have previ-
ously learned how to read Latin. The first three years were
given to learning Latin grammar and a little Greek. In the
fourth year Latin and Greek authors were begun, and in the fifth
and sixth years a rhetorical study of the Latin authors was made.
Latin was the language of the classroom and the playground as
well, the mother tongue being used only by permission. Greek
was studied through the medium of the Latin. The retention of
Latin as the language of all scholarly and poHtical intercourse,
and the cultivation of the style and speech of Cicero as the stand-
ard of purity and elegance, were the ends aimed at. Careful at-

1 The care with which the Ratio Studwrum was worked out is typical of the thor-
oughness of the Order. A prehminary outline of work was followed for many years,
the whole being experimental. Reports on it were made, and finally a preliminary'
Ratio was issued, in 1586. This was again revised and cast into final form, in 1599.
In this form it remained until 1832, when some modern studies were added.

SORMAY <c CO., N.Y.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 341

tention was given to the health and sports of the pupils, and spe-
cial regard was paid to moral and religious training.

Following this lower school of six years came the so-called
philosophical course of three years (sometimes two). The study
of the Latin classics and rhetoric was continued, and dialectics
(logic) and some metaphysics were added. The nine years to-
gether covered about the same scope as Sturm's school (R. 137) at
Strassburg (p. 273), but was more formal in character and
partook more of the nature of the later formalized humanistic
schools. Slight variations were allowed in places, to meet par-
ticular local needs, but this course of study remained practically
unchanged until 1832, when some history, geography, and ele-
mentary mathematics and science were added to the lower schools,
and advanced mathematics and science to the philosophical
course. In 1906 each Province of the Order was permitted to
change the Ratio further, if necessary to adjust it better to local
needs. Above the philosophical course a course of four or six
years in philosophy and theology prepared for the higher work of
the Order, the four-year course for preaching and the six-year
course for teaching.

Jesuit school methods. The characteristic method of the
schools was oral, with a consequent closeness of contact of teacher
and pupils. This closeness of contact and sympathy was further
retained by the system whereby all punishment was given by the
official Corrector of the institution. Their method, like that of
the modern German Volkschule, was distinctly a teaching and
not a questioning method. The teacher planned and gave the
instruction; the pupils received it. In the upper classes the
teacher explained the general meaning of the entire passage ; then
the construction of each part; then gave the historical, geographi-
cal, and archaeological information needed further to explain the
passage; then called attention to the rhetorical and poetical
forms and rules; then compared the style with that of other writ-
ers; and finally drew the moral lesson. The memory was drilled;
but little training of the judgment or understanding was given.
Thoroughness, memory drills, and the disciplinary value of stud-
ies were foundation stones in the Jesuit's educational theory.
Repetition, they said, was the mother of memory. Each day the
work of the previous day was reviewed, and there were further
reviews at the end of each week, month, and year.

To retain the interest of the pupils amid such a load of memoriz-

342

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ing various school devices were resorted to, chief among which
were prizes, ranks, emulations, rivals, and pubUc disputations.
The system of rivals, whereby each boy had an opponent con-
stantly after him, as shown in Figure 102, was one of the peculiar
features of their schools. While the schools were said to have
been made pleasant and attractive, the idea of the absolute au-

X X X X

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X X X X

Fig. 102. Plan of a Jesuit Schoolroom

The pupils were arranged in equal numbers in opposite rows, known
as decurice, and designated by the numbers. Each boy in each row
had a "rival" in the similarly numbered opposite row (one pair is
designated by dots), who rose whenever he was called on to recite,
and who tried to correct him in some error. A monitor for each
group sat at C, and the regular teacher stt B. A, D, E, i, 0, and x
represent various student officials.

thority of the Church which they represented pervaded them and
repressed the development of that individuality which the court
schools of the ItaHan Renaissance, the schools of the northern
humanists, and the Calvinistic colleges had tried particularly to
foster. This, however, is a criticism made from a modern point
of view. That the school represented well the spirit of the times
is indicated by their marked success as teaching institutions.

Training of the Jesuit teacher. The newest and the most dis-
tinguishing feature of the Jesuit educational scheme, as well as
the most important, was the care with which they selected and
the thoroughness with which they trained their teachers. To be-
gin with, every Jesuit was a picked man, and of those who entered
the Order only the best were selected for teaching. Each entered

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 343

the Order for life, was vowed to celibacy, poverty, chastity, up-
rightness of life, and absolute obedience to the commands of the
Order. The six-year inferior course had to be completed, which
required that the boy be sixteen to eighteen years of age before he
could take the preliminary steps toward joining the Order. Then
a two-year novitiate, away from the world, followed. This was a
trial of his real character, his weak points were noted, and his will
and determination tested. Many were dismissed before the end
of the novitiate. If retained and accepted, he took the prelimi-
nary vows and entered the philosophical course of study. On
completing this he was from twenty-one to twenty-three years of
age. He was now assigned to teach boys in the inferior classes of
some college, and might remain there. If destined for higher
work he taught in the inferior classes for two or three years, and
then entered the theological course at some Jesuit university.
This required four years for those headed for the ministry, and six
for those who were being trained for professorships in the col-
leges. On completing this course the final vows were taken, at an
age of from twenty-nine to thirty- two. The training to-day is
still longer. To become a teacher in the inferior classes required
training until twenty-one at least, and for college (secondary)
classes training until at least twenty-nine. The training was in
scholarship, religion, theology, and an apprenticeship in teaching,
and was superior to that required for a teaching license in any
Protestant country of Europe, or in the Catholic Church itself
outside of the Jesuit Order.

With such carefully selected and well-educated teachers, them-
selves models of upright life in an age when priests and monks
had been careless, it is not surprising that they wielded an influ-
ence wholly out of proportion to their numbers, and supplied
Europe with its best secondary schools during the seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries. In the loyal Catholic countries
they were virtually the first secondary schools outside of the mon-
asteries and churches, and the real introduction of humanism into
Spain, Portugal, and parts of France came with the establish-
ment of the Jesuit humanistic colleges. For their schools they
wrote new school books — the Protestant books, the most cele-
brated of which were those of Erasmus, Melanchthon, Sturm, and
Lily, were not possible of use — and for a time they put new life
into the humanistic type of education. Before the eighteenth
century, however, their secondary schools had become as formal

344 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

as had those in Protestant lands (R. 146), and their universities
far more narrow and intolerant.

The elements of strength and weakness in the Jesuit system of
education has been well summarized by Dabney,^ in the following
words:

The order of the Jesuits was anti-democratic, and was founded to
uphold authority, and to antagonize the right of private judgment.
With masterly skill they ruled the Catholic world for about two centu-
ries; and, in the beginning of their activity, performed services of great
value to mankind. For, although they aimed, in their system of edu-
cation, to fit pupils merely for so-called practical avocations, and to
avoid all subjects likely to stimulate them to independent thought, it
was nevertheless the best system which had then appeared. In drop-
ping the old scholastic methods, and teaching new and fresher subjects,
although with the intention of perverting them to their own ends, they
sowed, in fact, the germs of their own decay. In spite of their wonder-
ful organization,' and their indefatigable industry as courtiers in royal
palaces, as professors in the universities, as teachers in the schools, as
preachers, as confessors, and as missionaries, they were utterly unable
to crush the spirit of doubt and inquiry. During the first half century
of their existence they were intellectually in advance of their age; but
after that they gradually dropped behind it, and, instead of diffusing
knowledge, saw that the only hope of retaining their dominion was to
oppose it with all their might.

The Church and elementary education. As was stated on a
preceding page, the countries which remained loyal to the Church
experienced none of the Protestant feeling as to the necessity for
universal education for individual salvation. In such lands the
church system of education which had grown up during the
Middle Ages remained undisturbed, and was expanded but slowly
with the passage of time. The Church, never having made gen-
eral provision for education, was not prepared for such work.
Teachers were scarce, there was no theory of education except
the religious theory, and few knew what to do or how to do it.
Many churchmen, too, did not see the need for doing anything.
Nevertheless the Church, spurred on by the new demands of a
world fast becoming modern, and by the exhortations of the
official representatives of the people,^ now began to make extra
efforts, in the large cathedral cities, to remedy the deficiency of

^ Dabney, R. H., The Causes of the French Revolution, p. 203.

2 For example, the "States-General" of France met four times during the seven-
teenth century, with weighty problems of religion and state for consideration, yet
in three of the four meetings resolutions were passed urging the clergy to establish
schoolmasters in all the towns and villages, and a general system of compulsory
education for all.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 345

more than a thousand years. In Paris, for example, which was
typical of other French cities, the Church organized a regular
system of elementary schools, with teachers licenced by the Pre-
centor of the cathedral of Notre Dame and nominally under his
supervision, in which instruction was offered to children of the
artisan and laboring classes, of both sexes, "in reading, writing,
reckoning, the rudiments of Latin Grammar, Catechism, and
singing." By 1675 these "Little Schools" in Paris came to con-
tain "upwards of 5000 pupils, taught by some 330 masters and
mistresses." All such schools, of course, remained under the
immediate control of the Church, and modern state systems of edu-
cation in the Catholic States are late nineteenth-century produc-
tions. In Spain, Portugal, Poland, and the Balkan States, general
state systems of education have not even as yet been evolved.

The general effect of the Reformation, though, was to stimu-
late the Church to greater activity in elementary, as well as in
secondary and higher education. In the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries we find a large number of decrees by church
councils and exhortations by bishops urging the extension of the
existing church system of education, so as to supply at least reli-
gious training to all the children of the faithful. As a result a
number of teaching orders were organized, the aim of which was to
assist the Church in providing elementary and religious education
for the children of the laboring and artisan classes in the cities.

Teaching orders established. The teaching orders for ele-
mentary education, founded before the eighteenth century, with
the dates of their foundation, were:

*i535 — The Order of Ursulines. (U.S., 1729.)

1592 — The Congregation of Christian Doctrine.
*i598 — The Sisters of Notre Dame. (U.S., 1847.)
*i6io — The Visitation Nuns. (U.S., 1799.)

162 1 — Patres piarum scholarum (Piarists). First school opened
in 1597; authorized by the Pope, 1662.

1627 — The Daughters of the Presentation.
*i633 — The Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. (U.S.,
1809.)

1637 — The Port Royalists (Jansenists). (Suppressed in 1661.)

1643 — The Sisters of Providence.
*i6so — The Sisters of Saint Joseph. Rule based on Jesuits.
(U.S., 19th C.)

1652 — The Sisters of Mary of Saint Charles Borromeo.

1684 — The Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin.
*i684 — The Brothers of the Christian Schools. (U.S., 1845.)

* Have communities in the United States, the date being that of the first one established. See
Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, vol. v, p. 528.

346

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

All of these, except the Ursulines and the Piarists, were founded
in France, many of them originating in Paris. The first has long
been prominent in Italy, and is now found in all lands. The
second was founded by Father Cesar de Bus,
at Cavaillon, Avignon, in southern France, and
its purpose was to teach the Catechism to the
young. The catechetical schools of this Order
were prominent in southern France up to the
time of the French Revolution. The third
was founded by the Blessed Peter Fourier
( 1 565-1 640), in 1598, and played an important
part in the education of girls in France, par-
ticularly in Lorraine, where Calvinism had
made much headway. This noted Order of-
fered free instruction to tradesmen's daughters,
not only in religion but in ''that which con-
cerns this present life and its maintenance''
as well. The girls were taught " reading, writ-
ing, arithmetic, sewing, and divers manual arts,
honorable and peculiarly suitable for girls" of
their station of life. At a time when handwork
had not been thought of for boys, the begin-
nings of such work were here introduced for
girls. In 1640 Fourier gave the sisterhood a
constitution and a rule, which were revised and perfected in 1694.
In this he laid down rules for the organization and management of
schools, methods of teaching the different branches, and provided
for a rudimentary form of class organization. The following
extract from the Rule illustrates the approach to class organiza-
tion which he devised:

The inspectress, or mistress of the class, shall endeavor, as far as it
possibly can be carried out, that all the pupils of the same mistress
have each the same book, in order to learn and read therein the same
lesson; so that, whilst one is reading |iers in an audible and intelligible
voice before the mistress, all the others, following her and following
this lesson, in their books at the same time, may learn it sooner, more
readily, and more perfectly.^

The Piarists were established in Italy, the first school being-
opened in Rome, in 1597, by a Spanish priest who had studied at

Fio*. 103.
An Ursuline

Order founded, 1535

^ Les vrais Constihitions des Religieuses de la Congregation de Nostra Dame, chap..
XI, sec. 6, 2d ed., Toul, 1694.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 347

Lerida, Valencia, and Alcala, Being struck by the lack of educa-
tional opportunities for the poor, he opened a free school for their
instruction. By 1606 he had 900 pupils in his schools, and by
1 6 13 he had 1200. In 162 1 Pope Gregory XV gave his work
definite recognition by establishing it a teaching Order for ele-
mentary (reading, writing, counting, religion) education, modeled
on that of the Jesuits. The Order did some work in Italy and
Spain, but its chief services were in border Catholic lands. In
1 63 1 it began work in Moravia, in 1640 in Bohemia, in 1642 in
Poland, and after 1648 in Austria and Hungary. The members
wore a habit much like that of the Jesuits, had a scheme of studies
similar to their Ratio, and were organized by provinces and were
under discipline as were the members of the older Order.

The Jansenists, founded by Saint Cyran, at Port Royal, con-
ducted a very interesting and progressive educational experi-
ment, and their schools have become known to history as the
'^ Little Schools of Port Royal." The congregation was a reac-
tion against the work and methods of the Jesuits. It included
both elementary and secondary education, but never extended
itself, and probably never had more than sixty pupils and teach-
ers. After seventeen years of work it was suppressed through
the opposition of the Jesuits, and its members fled to the Neth-
erlands. There they wrote those books which have explained
to succeeding generations what they attempted, ^ and which have
revealed what a modern type of educational experiment they
conducted. The progressive and modern nature of their teaching,
in an age of suspicion and intolerance, condemned them to
extinction. Yet despite the progressive nature of their instruction,
the intense religious atmosphere which they threw about all
their work (R. 181) reveals the dominant characteristic of most
education for church ends at the time.

The Brothers of the Christian Schools. The largest and most
influential of the teaching orders established for elementary edu-
cation was the ''Institute of the Brothers of the Christian
Schools," founded by Father La Salle at Rouen, in 1684, ^-nd sanc-
tioned by the King and Pope in 1724. As early as 1679 La Salle
had begun a school at Rheims, and in 1684 he organized his disci-
ples, prescribed a costume to be worn, and outHned the work of
the brotherhood (R. 182). The object was to provide free ele-

^ See especially Felix Cadet, Port-Royal Education (Scribners, New York, iJ , , ,
for translations of many of the brief pedagogical writings of members of the Order,

348 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

mentary and religious instruction in the vernacular for the chil-
dren of the working classes, and to do for elementary education
what the Jesuits had done for secondary education. La Salle's
Conduct of Schools^ first published in 1720, was the ratio studiorum
of his order. His work marks the real beginning of free primary
instruction in the vernacular in France. In addition to elemen-
tary schools, a few of what we should call part-time continuation
schools were organized for children engaged in commerce and
industry. Realizing better than the Jesuits the need for well-
trained rather than highly educated teachers for little children,
and unable to supply members to meet the outside calls for
schools, La Salle organized at Rheims, in 1685, what was prob-
ably the second normal school for training teachers in the world. ^
Another was organized later at Paris. In addition to a good edu-
cation of the type of the time and thorough grounding in religion,
the student teachers learned to teach in practice schools, under
the direction of experienced teachers.

The pupils in La Salle's schools were graded into classes, and
the class method of instruction was introduced.- The curriculum
was unusually rich for a time when teaching methods and text-
books were but poorly developed, the needs for literary education
small, and when children could not as yet be spared from work
longer than the age of nine or ten. Children learned first to read,
write, and spell French, and to do simple composition work in the
vernacular. Those who mastered this easily were taught the
Latin Psalter in addition. Much prominence was given to writ-
ing, the instruction being applied to the writing of bills, notes,
receipts, and the like. Much free questioning was allowed in
arithmetic and the Catechism, to insure perfect understanding of
what was taught. Religious training was made the most promi-
nent feature of the school, as was natural. A half-hour daily was
given to the Catechism, mass was said daily, the crucifix was al-
ways on the wall, and two or three pupils were always to be found
kneeling, telling their beads. The discipline, in contradistinction
to the customary practice of the time, was mild, though all pun-

1 Father Demia, at Lyons, had organized what was probably the first training-
school for masters, in 1672. La Salle's training-school dates from 1684. Francke's
German Seminar imn Pneccpiorum, at Halle, the first in German lands, dates from
1696.

2 The numerous pictures of schools and educational literature well into the nine-
teenth century show the general prevalence of the individual method of instruction.
It was the method in American schools until well toward the middle of the nine-
teenth century. To have graded the children and introduced class instruction in
1684 was an important advance which the world has been slow in learning.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 349

// CflAfl/li'

Fig. 104. A School of La Salle at Paris, 1688

A visit of James II and the Archbishop of Paris to the School

(From a bas-relief on the statue of La Salle, at Rouen)

ishments were carefully prescribed by rule.^ The rule of silence
in the school was rigidly enjoined, all speech was to be in a low
tone of voice, and a code of signals replaced speech for many
things.

Though the Order met with much opposition from both church
and civil authorities, it made slow but steady headway. At the
time of the death of La Salle, in 17 19, thirty-five years after its
foundation, the Order had one general normal school, four normal
schools for training teachers, three practice schools, thirty-three
primary schools, and one continuation school. The Order re-

^ Everything was according to rule, even the ferule, which must be made of two
strips of leather, ten to twelve inches long, sewed together. All offenses, and the
number and location of the blows for each, were specified. Later the corporal pun-
ishment was replaced by penances.

350

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

mained largely French, and at the time of its suppression, in 1792,
had schools in 121 communities in France and 6 elsewhere, about
1000 brothers, and approximately 3o,cxx> children in its schools.
This was approximately i child in every 175 of school age of the
population of France at that time.- While relatively small in
numbers, their schools represented the best attempt to provide

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had in France

121 communitieg—

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1 olB B«rlholoin«w 17i7-n«)
65 - Timolhj (Ti HiO-nsi
11 - Clauds (Ci nbl-1787

9 - Florence (F) n«71777

9 - Afl»lhon (A> 1777-1795
besides' the eommuniiies in /'
Borne <B A', Fermri (T>. Or- . p
vielo<A)in Il«lr; E«l«»«yertT) «
in Switzerland ; Forl'Ro>al (K)
in Martinique.

Total : 127 houses; shont
1 000 Brotliers and 36000 pa-
piU.

OlA/wv

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Fig. 105. The Brothers of the Christian Schools by 1792
Map, showing the locations of their communities

elementary education in any Catholic country before well into
the nineteenth century. The distribution of their schools through-
out France, by 1792, is shown on the map above. In 1803 the
Order was reestablished, by 1838 it had schools in 282 commu-
nities, and in 1887, when La Salle was declared a Saint of the
Church, it had 1898 communities on four continents, 109 of which

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 351

were in the United States, and \yas teaching a total of approxi-
mately 300,000 primary children.

5. General Results of the Reformation on Education

Destruction and creation of schools. Any such general over-
turning of the established institutions and traditions of a thou-
sand years as occurred at the time of the Protestant Revolts, with
the accompanying bitter hatreds and religious strife, could not
help but result in extensive destruction of established institutions.
Monasteries, churches, and schools alike suffered, and it required
time to replace them. Even though they had been neglectful of
their functions, inadequate in number, and unsuited to the needs
of a world fast becoming modern, they had nevertheless answered
partially the need of the times. In all the countries where revolts
took place these institutions suffered more or less, but in England
probably most of all. The old schools which were not destroyed
were transformed into Protestant schools, the grammar schools
to train scholars and leaders, and the parish schools into Protest-
ant elementary schools to teach reading and the Catechism, but
the number of the latter, in all Protestant lands, was very far
short of the number needed to carry out the Protestant religious
theory. This, as we have seen, proposed to extend the elements
of an education to large and entirely new classes of people who
never before in the history of the world had had such advantages.
Out of the Protestant religious conception that all should be edu-
cated the popular elementary school of modern times has been
evolved. The evolution, though, was slow, and long periods of
time have been required for its accompHshment.

In place of the schools destroyed, or the teachers driven out if
no destruction took place, the reformers made an earnest effort
to create new schools and supply teachers. This, though, re-
quired time, especially as there was as yet in the world no body
of vernacular teachers, no institutions in which such could be
trained, no theory as to education except the religious, no supply
of educated men or women from which to draw, no theory of
state support and control, and no source of taxation from which to
derive a steady flow of funds. Throughout the long Middle Ages
the Church had supplied gratuitous or nearly gratuitous instruc-
tion. This it could do, to the limited number whom it taught,
from the proceeds of its age-old endowments and educational
foundations. In the process of transformation from a Catholic

352 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

to a Protestant State, and especially during the more than a cen-
tury of turmoil and religious strife which followed the rupture of
the old relations, many of the old endowments were lost or were
diverted from their original purposes. As the Protestant reform-
ers were supported generally by the ruling princes, many of these
tried to remedy the deficiency by ordering schools established.
The landed nobility though, unused to providing education for
their villein tenants and serfs, ^ were averse to supplying the
de|^iciency by any form of general taxation. Nor were the rising
merchant classes in the cities any more anxious to pay taxes to
provide for artisans and servants what had for ages been a gra-
tuity or not furnished at all.

No real demand for elementary schools. The creation of a
largely new type of schools, and in sufficient numbers to meet the
needs of large classes of people who before had never shared in
the advantages of education, in consequence proved to be a work
of centuries. The century of warfare which followed the reforma-
tion movement more or less exhausted all Europe, while the
Thirty Years' War which formed its culmination left the German
States, where the largest early educational progress had been
made, a ruin. In consequence there was for long little money for
school support, and religious interest and church tithes had to be
depended on almost entirely for the establishment and support
of schools. Out of the parish sextons or clerks a supply of vernac-
ular teachers had to be evolved, a system of school organization
and supervision worked out and added to the duties of the min-
ister, and the feeling of need for education awakened sufficiently
to make people willing to support schools. In consequence what
Luther and Calvin declared at the beginning of the sixteenth
century to be a necessity for the State and the common right of
all, it took until well into the nineteenth century g^ctually to
create and make a reality.

The great demand of the time, too, was not so much for the
education of the masses, however desirable or even necessary this
might be from the standpoint of Protestant religious theory, but
for the training of leaders for the new rehgious and social order
which the Revival of Learning, the rise of modern nationalities,
and the Reformation movements had brought into being. For
this secondary schools for boys, largely Latin in type, were de-
manded rather than elementary vernacular schools for both sexes.

^ See footnote i, page 207.

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 353

We accordingly find the great creations of the period were second-
ary schools.

Lines of future development established. Still more, certain
lines of future development now became clearly established. The
drawing given here will help to make this evident. It will be
seen from this that not only was the secondary school still the
dominant type, though elementary schools began for the first

Schools as developed in the 16th and 17th Centuries

^<^:

.0;

^»M.

Fig. 106. Tendencies in Educational Development in Europe,

1500 to 1700

time to be considered as important also, but that the secondary
schools were wholly independent of the elementary schools which
now began to be created. The elementary schools were in the
vernacular and for the masses ; the secondary schools were in the
Latin tongue and for the training of the scholarly leaders. Be-
tween these two schools, so different in type and in clientele, there
was little in common. This difference was further emphasized
with time. The elementary schools later on added subjects of
use to the common people, while the secondary schools added
subjects of use for scholarly preparation or for university entrance.
The secondary schools also frequently provided preparatory
schools for their particular classes of children. As a result, all
through Europe two school systems — an elementary-school sys-
tem for the masses, and a secondary-school system for the classes
— exist to-day side by side. We in America did not develop
such a class school system, though we started that way. This
was because the conception of education we finally developed

354 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

was a product of a new democratic spirit, as will be explained
later on.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Compare the attention to careful religious instruction in the secondary
schools provided by the Lutherans, Calvinists, and English. What
analogous instruction do we provide in the American high schools? Is it
as thorough or as well done?

2. Compare the scope and ideals of the educational system provided by the
Calvinists with the same for the Lutherans and Anglicans.

3. Compare the characteristics of Calvinistic (Huguenot) education, as
summarized by Foster, with present-day state educational purposes.

4. Just what kind of a school system did Knox propose (1560) for Scotland?

5. Show how the educational program of the Jesuits reveals Ignatius Loyola
as a man of vision.

6. Viewed from the purposes the Order had in mind, was it warranted in
neglecting the education of the masses?

7. Does the success of the Order show the importance to society of finding
and educating the future leader? Can all men be trained for leadership?

8. What does the statement that the Jesuits were "too practical to make
many changes," but had "a keen eye for what was best" in the work of
others, indicate as to the nature of school administration and educa-
tional progress?

g. Indicate the advantages which the Jesuits had in their teachers and
teaching-aim over us of to-day. How could we develop an aim as clearly
defined and potent as theirs? Could we select teachers with such care?
How?

10. Compare the religious and educational propaganda of the Jesuits with
the recent political propaganda of the Germans.

11. What is meant by the statement that the Jesuit teaching method, like
that of the modern German Volksschule, was a teaching and not a ques-
tioning method?

12. Compare present American standards for teacher-training for elemen-
tary and secondary teaching with those required by the Jesuits: — (a) as
to length of preparation; {h) as to nature and scope of preparation.

13. How do you explain the introduction of sewing into the elementary ver-
nacular Catholic schools for girls, so long before handiwork for boys
was thought of?

14. In schools so formally organized as those of La Salle, how do you explain
the great freedom allowed in questioning on arithmetic and the Cate-
chism?

15. Why should La Salle's work have been so opposed by both Church and
civil authorities? Do you consider that his Order ever made what would
be called rapid progress?

16. Why must the education of leaders always precede the education of the
masses?

17. Explain how European countries came naturally to have two largely
independent school systems — a secondary school for leaders and an
elementary school for the masses — whereas we have only one con-
tinuous system.

18. Explain why modern state systems of education developed first in the
German States, and why England and the Cathohc nations of Europe
were so long in developing state school systems,

COUNTER-REFORMATION OF CATHOLICS 355

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

175. Woodward: Course of Study at the College of Geneva.

176. Synod of Dort: Scheme of Christian Education adopted.

177. Kilpatrick: Work of the Dutch in developing Schools.

178. Kilpatrick: Character of the Dutch Schools of 1650.

179. Statutes: The Scotch School Law of 1646.

180. Pachtler: The Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuits.

181. Gerard: The Dominant Religious Purpose in the Education of French
Girls.

182. La Salle: Rules for the "Brothers of the Christian Schools."

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Was the College at Geneva (175) a true humanistic-revival school?

2. Just what did the Synod of Dort provide for (176) in the matter of
schools, school supervision, and ministerial duties?

3. Compare the work of the Dutch (177) and the Lutherans (159-163) in
creating schools.

4. Just what type of school is indicated by selection 178?

5. Just what did the Scotch law of 1646 provide for (179)?

6. Characterize the schools provided for by La Salle (182),

7. Compare the religious care at Port Royal (181) with that suggested by
Saint Jerome (R. 45).

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Baird, C. W. History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France.

Baird, C. W. Huguenot Emigration to America.

Grant, Jas. History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland.

Hughes, Thos. Loyola, and the Educational System of the Jesuits.

Kilpatrick, Wm. H. The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial

New York.
Laurie, S. S. History of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance.
Ravelet, A. Blessed J. B. de la Salle.
Schwickerath, R. Jesuit Education; its History and Principles in the Light

of Modern Educational Problems.
Woodward, W. H. Education during the Renaissance.

CHAPTER XV

EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT

REVOLTS

III. THE REFORMATION AND AMERICAN EDUCATION

The Protestant settlement of America. Columbus had dis-
covered the new world just twenty-five years before Luther
nailed his theses to the church door at Wittenberg, and by the
time the northern continent had been roughly explored and was
ready for settlement, Europe was in the midst of a century of
warfare in a vain attempt to extirpate the Protestant heresy. By
the time that the futility of fire and sword as means for religious
conversion had finally dawned upon Christian Europe and found
expression in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed the
terrible Thirty Years' War (p. 30), the first permanent settle-
ments in a number of the American colonies had been made.
These settlements, and the beginnings of education in America,
are so closely tied up with the Protestant Revolts in Europe that
a chapter on the beginnings of American education belongs here
as still another phase of the educational results of the Protestant
Revolts.

Practically all the early settlers in America came from among
the peoples and from those lands which had embraced some form
of the Protestant faith, and many of them came to America to
found new homes and establish their churches in the wilderness,
because here they could enjoy a religious freedom impossible in
their old home-lands. This was especially true of the French
Huguenots, many of whom, after the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes ^ (1685), fled to America and settled along the coast of
the Carolinas; the Calvinistic Dutch and Walloons, who settled
in and about New Amsterdam; the Scotch and Scotch-Irish

^ Representing not over one tenth of the population, the Protestants in France
had from the first been subjected to much persecution. In the Massacre of Saint
Bartholomew (1572) over one thousand had been massacred in Paris and ten thou-
sand more in the provinces. After some warfare, a treaty was made, in 1598, under
which the so-called "Edict of Nantes" guaranteed religious toleration for the Prot-
estants. In 1685 this was revoked, and their ministers were given fifteen days to
leave France. The members were, however, forbidden to leave. Many, though,
got away, escaping to the Low Countries, England, and to America.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 357

Presbyterians, who settled in New Jersey, and later extended
along the Allegheny Mountain ridges into all the southern colo-
nies; the EngHsh Quakers about Philadelphia, who came under
the leadership of WiUiam Penn, and a few EngHsh Baptists and
Methodists in eastern Pennsylvania; the Swedish Lutherans,
along the Delaware; the German Lutherans, Moravians, Mennon-
ites, Dunkers, and Reformed -Church Germans, who settled in
large numbers in the mountain valleys of Pennsylvania: and the
Calvinistic dissenters from the EngHsh National Church, known
as Puritans, who settled the New England colonies, and who,
more than any others, gave direction to the future development
of education in the American States. Practically aU of these
early religious groups came to America in little congregations,
bringing their ministers with them. Each set up, in the colony
in which they settled, what were virtually Httle reHgious repubHcs,
that through them they might the better perpetuate the religious
principles for which they had left the land of their birth. Educa-
tion of the young for membership in the Church, and the perpet-
uation of a learned ministry for the congregations, from the first
elicited the serious attention of these pioneer settlers.

Englishmen who were adherents of the English national faith
(Anglicans) also settled in Virginia and the other southern colo-
nies, and later in New York and New Jersey, while Maryland was
founded as the only Catholic colony, in what is now the United
States, by a group of persecuted English Catholics who obtained
a charter from Charles II, in 1632. These settlements are shown
on the map on the following page. As a result of these settle-
ments there was laid, during the early colonial period of American
history, the foundation of those type attitudes toward education
which subsequently so materially shaped the educational develop-
ment of the different American States during the early part of our
national history.

The Puritans in New England. Of all those who came to
America during this early period, the Calvinistic Puritans who
settled the New England colonies contributed most that was val-
uable to the future educational development of America, and
because of this will be considered first.

The original reformation in England, as was stated in chapters
XII and XIII, had been much more nominal than real. The Eng-
lish Bible and the EngHsh Prayer-Book had been issued to the
churches (R. 170), and the King instead of the Pope had been

358

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

declared by the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) to be the head of the
Enghsh National Church. The same priests, though, had con-
tinued in the churches under the new regime, and the church serv-
ice had not greatly changed aside from its transformation from

Fig. 107. Map showing the Religious Settlements in America

Latin into English. Neither the Church as an organization nor
its members experienced any great religious reformation. Not all
Englishmen, though, took the change in allegiance so lightly
(R. 183), and in consequence there came to be a gradually in-
creasing number who desired a more fundamental reform of the
English Church. By 1600 the demand for Church reform had

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA

359

become very insistent, and the question of Church purification
(whence the name ''Puritans") had become a burning question
in England.

The EngHsh Puritans, moreover, were of two classes. One was
a moderate but influenzal ''low-church " group within the "high "
State Church, possessed of no desire to separate Church and
State, but earnestly insistent on a simplification of the Church
ceremonial, the elimination of a number of the vestiges of the old
Romish-Church ritual, and particularly the introduction of more
preaching into the service. The other class constituted a much
more radical group, and had become deeply imbued with Calvin-
istic thinking. This group gradually came into open opposi-
tion to any State Church,
stood for the local inde-
pendence of the different
churches or congrega-
tions, and desired the
complete elimination of
all vestiges of the Romish
faith from the church
services.^ They became
known as Independents,
or Separatists, and formed
the germs of the later
Congregational groups of
early New England. Both
Elizabeth (i 558-1 603) and
*James I (1603-25) savagely persecuted this more radical group,
and many of their congregations were forced to flee from Eng-
land to obtain personal safety and to enjoy religious liberty (R.
184). One of these fugitive congregations, from Scrooby, in north-
central England, after living for several years at Leyden, in
Holland, finally set sail for America, landed on Plymouth Rock,
in 1620, and began the settlement of that "bleak and stormy
coast." Other congregations soon followed, it having been
estimated that twenty thousand English Puritans migrated - to

r\^..

Fig. 108. Homes of the Pilgrims, and
THEIR Route to America

^ The culmination of this dissatisfaction came in 1649, when Charles I was be-
headed and "The Commonwealth" was estabhshed under Cromwell. During the
troubled times which followed (1649-60) much damage was done to the churches of
England by way of eliminating vestiges of "popery."

2 Some of these went back to England — many after the establishment of the
Protestant Commonwealth under Cromwell (164Q). It has been estimated, for

36o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the New England wilderness before 1640. These represented a
fairly well-to-do type of middle-class Englishmen, practically all
of whom had had gDod educational advantages at home.

Settling along the coast in Kttle groups or congregations, they
at once set up a combined civil and religious form of government,
modeled in a way after Calvin's City-State at Geneva, and which
became known as a New England town.^ In time the southern
portion of the coast of New England was dotted with little self-
governing settlements of those who had come to America to
obtain for themselves that religious freedom which had been
denied them at home. These settlements were loosely bound
together in a colony federation, in which each town was repre-
sented in a General Court, or legislature. The extent of these
settlements by 1660 is shown on the map on the opposite page.

Beginnings of schools in New England. Having come to
America to secure religious freedom, it was but natural that the
perpetuation of their particular faith by means of education
should have been one of the first matters to engage their attention,
after the building of their homes and the setting up of the civil
government (R. 185). Being deeply imbued with Calvinistic
ideas as to government and religion, they desired to found here a
religious commonwealth, somewhat after the model of Geneva
(p. 298), or Scotland (p. 335), or the Dutch provinces (p. 334),
the corner-stones of which should be religion and education.

At first, Enghsh precedents were followed. Home instruction,
which was quite common in England among the Puritans, was
naturally much employed to teach the children to read the Bible
and to train them to participate in both the family and the con- •
gregational worship. After 1647, town elementary schools under
a master, and later the Enghsh ''dame schools" (chapter xviii),
were established to provide this rudimentary instruction. The
English apprentice system was also estabhshed (R. 201), and the
masters of apprentices gave similar instruction to boys entrusted

three of the early colonies, that the population by decades was approximately as
follows:

1630 1640 i6jo 1660

New Netherlands 500 1000 3000 6000

Massachusetts 1300 14000 18000 25000

Virginia 3000 8000 17000 33000

1 The name and the form came alike from old P^ngland, where an irregular area
known as a "town" or a "township," constituted the unit of representation in the
shiremoats and the membership of the church parish. Almost every town and par-
ish officer known in England was created by the new towns in New England, with
practically the same functions as in the old home.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA

361

to their care. The town religious governments, under which all
the little congregations organized themselves, much as the little
religious parishes had been organized in old England, also began
the voluntary establishment of town grammar schools, as a few
towns in England had done (R. 143) before the Puritans migrated.
The ''Latin School" at Boston dates from 1635, and has had a
continuous existence since that time. The grammar school at

Fig. 109. New England Settlements, 1660

362

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Charlestown dates from 1636, that at Ipswich from the same year,
and the school at Salem from 1637. In 1635 Dorchester voted:

that there shall be a rent of 20 lb a year for ever imposed vpon
Tomsons Island . . . toward the mayntenance of a schoole in Dorches-
ter. This rent of 20 lb yearly to bee payd to such a schoole-masteE as
shall vndertake to teach english, latine, and other tongues, and also
writing. The said schoole-master to bee chosen from tyme to tyme
pr the freemen.

Newbury, in 1639, voted "foure akers of upland" and ''sixe akers
of salt marsh" to Anthony Somerby ''for his encouragement to

keepe schoole for one yeare,"
and later levied a town rate of
£24 for a "schoole to be kepte
at the meeting house." Cam-
bridge also early established a
Latin grammar school "for the
training up of Young Schollars,
and fitting them ^ for Academi-
call Learning'' (R. 185).

The support for the town
schools thus founded was de-
rived from various sources, such
as the levying of tuition fees,
the income from town lands or

Fig. 1 10. The Boston Latin
Grammar School

The original school, on School Street,
with King's Chapel on the left

fisheries set aside for the purpose,^ voluntary contributions from
the people of the town,^ a town tax, or a combination of two or
more of these methods. The founding of the "free (grammar)
school" at Roxburie, in 1645, is representative (R. 188) of the
early methods. There was no uniform plan as yet, in either old
or New England.

1 "The settlers were in the first freshness of their Utopian enthusiasm, and their
church establishment was the very heart of their enterprise. It became therefore
a matter of primary importance to educate preachers. For ages preparation for
the ministry had consisted mainly in acquiring a knowledge of Latin, the sacred
tongue of western Christendom. Though the Latin service was no longer used by
Protestants, and the Vulgate Bible had been dethroned by the original text, and
though the main stream of English theology was by this time flowing in the channel
of the mother tongue, the notion that all ministers should know Latin had still some
centuries of tough life in it." (Eggleston, E., The Transit of Civilization, p. 225.)

2 For example, the town of Boston, in 1641, devoted the income from Deere
Island to the support of schools, and Plymouth, in 1670, appropriated the income
from the Cape Cod fishing industry to the support of grammar schools (R. 194 c).

These are among the earliest of the permanent endowments for education in
America.

' See The Development of School Support in Colonial Massachusetts, by George L.
Jackson, for a careful study of the different early methods of school support.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 363

Founding of Harvard College. In addition to establishing Latin
grammar schools, a college was founded, in 1636, by the General
Court (legislature) of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to perpetu-
ate learning and insure an educated ministry (R. 185) to the
churches after ''our present ministers shall He in the dust." This
new college, located at Newtowne, was modeled after Emmanuel
College at Cambridge, an EngHsh Puritan college in which many
of the early New England colonists had studied,^ and in loving
memory of which they rechristened Newtowne as Cambridge.
In 1639 the college was christened Harvard College, after a grad-
uate of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, by the name of John
Harvard, who died in Charlestown, a year after his arrival in the
colony, and who left the college his library of two hundred and
sixty volumes and half his property, about £850.

The instruction in the new college was a combination of the arts
and theological instruction given in a mediaeval university,
though at Harvard the President, Master Dunster (R. 185), did
all the teaching. For the first fifty years at Harvard this con-
tinued to be true, the attendance during that time seldom exceed-
ing twenty. The entrance requirements for the college (R. 186 a)
call for the completion of a typical English Latin grammar-school
education; the rules and precepts -for the government of the col-
lege (R. 186 b) reveal the deep religious motive; and the schedule
of studies (R. 186 c) and the requirements for degrees (R. 186 d)
both show that the instruction was true to the European type.
In the charter for the college, granted by the colonial legislature in
1650 (R. 187 a), we find exemptions and conditions which remind
one strongly of the older European foundations. A century later
Brown College, in Rhode Island, was granted even more exten-
sive exemptions (R. 187 b).

The first colonial legislation: the Law of 1642. We thus see
manifested early in New England the deep Puritan- Calvinistic
zeal for learning as a bulwark of Church and State. We also see
the establishment in the wilderness of New England of a typical
English educational system — that is, private instruction in read-
ing and religion by the parents in the home and by the masters of
apprentices, and later by a town schoolmaster; the Latin grammar

^ The Puritan emigrants to New England represented a sturdy and well-educated
class of English country squires and yeomen. They came of thrifty and well-to-do
stock, the shiftless and incompetent not being represented. All had had good edu-
cational advantages, and many were graduates of Cambridge University. It has
been asserted that probably never since has the proportion of college men in the
community been so large.

364 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

school in the larger towns, to prepare boys for the college of the
colony; and an EngHsh-type college to prepare them for the min-
istry. As in England, too, all was clearly subordinate to the
Church. Still further, as in England also, the system was volun-
tary, the deep religious interest which had brought the congrega-
tions to America being depended upon to insure for all the neces-
sary education and religious training.

It early became evident, though, that these voluntary efforts
on the part of the people and the towns would not be sufficient to
insure that general education which was required by the Puritan
religious theory. Under the hard pioneer conditions, and the suf-
fering which ensued, many parents and masters of apprentices
evidently proved neglectful of their educational duties. Accord-
ingly the Church appealed to its servant, the State, as represented
in the colonial legislature (General Court) to assist it in compelling
parents and masters to observe their religious obligations. The
result was the famous Massachusetts Law of 1642 (R. 190), which
directed "the chosen men" (Selectmen; Councilmen) of each
town to ascertain, from time to time, if the parents and masters
were attending to their educational duties; if the children were
being trained ''in learning and labor and other employments . . .
profitable to the Commonweq,lth " ; and if children were being
taught " to read and understand the principles of rehgion and the
capital laws of the country," and empowered them to impose fines
on "those who refuse to render such accounts to them when re-
quired." In 1645 the General Court further ordered that all
youth between ten and sixteen years of age should also receive
instruction "in ye exercise of arms, as small guns, halfe pikes,
bowes & arrows, &c."

The Law of 1642 is remarkable in that, for the first time in the
English-speaking world, a legislative body representing the State
ordered that all children should be taught to read. The law shows
clearly not only the influence of the Reformation theory as to
personal salvation and the Calvinistic conception of the connec-
tion between learning and religion, but also the influence of the
English Poor-Law legislation which had developed rapidly during
the half-century immediately preceding the coming of. the Puri-
tans to America (R. 173). On the foundations of the EngHsh
Poor Law of 1601 (R. 174) our New England settlers moulded
the first American law relating to education, adding to the
principles there estabUshed (p. 326) a distinct Calvinistic contri-

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Plate 9. Two Tablets on the West Gateway at Harvard University
Reproducing colonial records relating to the founding of Harvard College

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 365

bution to our new-world life that, the authorities of the civil
town should see that all children were taught "to read and under-
stand the principles of religion and the capita] laws of the coun-
try." This law the Selectmen, or the courts if they failed to do so,
were ordered to enforce, and the courts usually looked after their
duties in the matter (R. 192).

The Law of 164^. The Law of 1642, while ordering " the chosen
men" of each town to see that the education and training of chil-
dren was not neglected, and providing for fines on parents and
masters who failed to render accounts when required, did not,
however, estabhsh schools, or direct the employment of school-
masters. The provision of education, after the English fashion,
was still left with the homes. After a trial of five years, the results
of which were not satisfactory, the General Court enacted another
law by means of which it has been asserted that ''the Puritan
government of Massachusetts rendered probably its greatest serv-
ice to the future."

After recounting in a preamble (R. 191) that it had in the past
been "one cheife piect of y^ ould deluder, Satan, to keepe men
from the knowledge of y*^ Scriptures, ... by keeping y"^ in an un-
knowne tongue," so now "by pswading from y^ use of tongues,"
and " obscuring y^ true sence & meaning of y^ originall " by " false
glosses of saint-seeming deceivers," learning was in danger of
being "buried in y*" grave of o'' fath*"^ in y*^ church and comon-
wealth"; the Court ordered:

1. That every town having fifty householders should at once appoint
a teacher of reading and writing, and provide for his wages in such
manner as the town might determine; and

2. That every town having one hundred householders must provide
a grammar school to fit youths for the university, under a pen-
alty of £5 (afterwards increased to £20) for failure to do so.

This law represents a distinct step in advance over the Law of
1642, and for this there are no English precedents. It was not
until the latter part of the nineteenth century that England took
such a step. The precedents for the compulsory estabhshment of
schools lie rather in the practices of the different German States
(p. 318), the actions of the Dutch synods (R. 176) and provinces
(p. 335), the Acts of the Scottish parliament of 1633 and 1646
(p. 334; R. 179), and the general Calvinistic principle that educa-
tion was an important function of a religious State.

Principles established. The State here, acting again as the

366 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

servant of the Church, enacted a law and fixed a tradition which
prevailed and grew in strength and effectiveness after State and
Church had parted company. Not only was a school system
ordered established — elementary for all towns and children, and
secondary for youths in the larger towns — but, for the first time
among English-speaking people, there was an assertion of the right
of the State to require communities to establish and maintain
schools, under penalty if they refused to do so. It can be safely
asserted, in the light of later developments, that the two laws of
1642 and 1647 represent the foundations upon which our American
state pubHc -school systems have been built. Mr. Martin, the
historian of the Massachusetts pubHc-school system, states the
fundamental principles which underlay this legislation, as follows: ^

1. The universal education of youth is essential to the well-being of
the State. *

2. The obligation to furnish this education rests primarily upon the
parent.

3. The State has a right to enforce this obligation.

4. The State may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of
education, and the minimum amount.

5. Public money, raised by general tax, may be used to provide such
education as the State requires. The tax may be general, though
the school attendance is not.

6. Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the
State. Opportunity must be provided, at public expense, for
youths who wish to be fitted for the university.

"It is important to note here," adds Mr. Martin, "that the
idea underlying all this legislation is neither paternalistic nor so-
cialistic. The child is to be educated, not to advance his personal
interests, but because the State will suffer if he is not educated.
The State does not provide schools to relieve the parent, nor be-
cause it can educate better than the parent can, but because it can
thereby better enforce the obligation which it imposes." To pre-
vent a return to the former state of religious ignorance it was im-
portant that education be provided. To assure this the colonial
legislature enacted a law requiring the maintenance and support
of schools by the towns. This law became the corner-stone of our
American state school systems.

Influence on other New England colonies. Connecticut Col-
ony, in its Law of 1650 establishing a school system, combined the

1 Martin, Geo. H., The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public-School System, pp.
14-16.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA

367

spirit of the Massachusetts Law of 1642, though stated in differ-
ent words (R. 193), and the Law of 1647, stated word for word.
New Haven Colony, in 1655, ordered that children and appren-
tices should be taught to read, as had been done in Massachusetts,
in 1642, but on the union of New Haven and Connecticut Colo-
nies, in 1665, the Con- .

necticut Code became i
the law for the united
colonies. In 1702 a
college was founded
(Yale) and finally lo-
cated at New Haven,
to offer preparation
for the ministry in the
Connecticut colony,
as had been done ear-
Uer in Massachusetts,
and Latin grammar
schools were founded
the Connecticut

Fig. III. Where Yale College was founded

The home of the Reverend Samuel Russell, at Bran-
ford, Conn. The first meeting to organize the college
was held there, in September, 1701

towns to prepare for

the new college, as also had been done earlier in Massachusetts.
The rules and regulations for the grammar school at New Haven
(R. 189) reveal the purpose and describe the instruction provided
in one of the earliest and best of these.

Plymouth Colony, in 1658 and again in 1663, proposed to the
towns that they "sett vp" a schoolmaster "to traine vp children
to reading and writing" (R. 194 a). In 1672 the towns were
asked to aid Harvard College by gifts (R. 194 b). In 1673-74 the
income from the Cape Cod fisheries was set aside for the support
of a (grammar) school (R. 194 c). Finally, in 1677, all towns
having over fifty families and maintaining a grammar school were
ordered aided from the fishery proceeds (R. 194 d).

The Massachusetts laws also applied to Maine, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont, as these were then a part of Massachusetts
Colony. When New Hampshire separated off, in 1680, the
Massachusetts Laws of 1642 and 1647 were continued in force.
In Maine and Vermont there were so few settlers, until near the
beginning of our national life, that the influence of the Massa-
chusetts legislation on these States was negligible until a later
period.

368 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Only in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, of all the
New England colonies, did the Massachusetts legislation fail to
exert a deep influence. Settled as these two had been by refugees
from New England, and organized on a basis of hospitality to all
who suffered from religious oppression elsewhere, the religious
stimulus to the founding of schools naturally was lacking. As
the religious basis for education was as yet the only basis, the
first development of schools in Rhode Island awaited the humani-
tarian and economic influences which did not become operative
until early in the nineteenth century.

Outside of the New England colonies, the appeal to the State
as the servant of the Church was seldom made during the early
colonial period, the churches handling the educational problem
in their own way. As a result the beginnings of State oversight
and control were left to New England. In the central colonies a
series of parochial-school systems came to prevail, while in Episco-
palian Virginia and the other colonies to the south the no-business-
of-the-State attitude assumed toward education by the mother
country was copied.

The church schools of New York. New Netherland, as New
York Colony was called before the English occupation, was settled
by the Dutch West India Company, and some dozen villages about
New York and up the Hudson had been founded by the time it
passed to the control of the English, in 1664. In these the Dutch
established typical home-land public parochial schools, under the
control of the Reformed Dutch Church. The schoolmaster was
usually the reader and precentor in the church as well (R. 195),
and often acted, as in Holland, as sexton besides. Girls attended
on equal terms with boys, but sat apart and recited in separate
classes. The instruction consisted of reading and writing Dutch,
sometimes a little arithmetic, the Dutch Catechism, the reading
of a few religious books, and certain prayers. The rules (1661)
for a schoolmaster in New Amsterdam (R. 196), and the contract
with a Dutch schoolmaster in Flatbush (R. 195), dating from
1682, reveal the type of schools and school conditions provided.
All except the children of the poor paid fees to the schoolmaster.^

^ The charging of a tuition fee to those who could afTord to pay was a common
European practice of the time, nevertheless the public authorities — at that time a
mixture of civil and church officials — provided the school, employed and licensed
the teacher, determined the textbooks to be used, and laid down the conditions
under which the school should be conducted. The schoolmaster assisted the church
by participating in the Sunday services. The elementary school of the Dutch,
which was copied in the New Netherland, was thus a combination of a public and
parochial, and a free and pay school.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 369

He was licensed by the Dutch church authorities. As the Dutch
had not come to America because of persecution, and were in no
way out of sympathy with reHgious conditions in the home-land,
the schools they developed here were typical of the Dutch Euro-
pean parochial schools of the time (R. 178). A trivial (Latin)
school was also established in New York, in 1652.

After the English occupation the EngHsh principle of private
and church control of education, with schooling on a tuition or a
charitable basis, came to prevail, and this continued up to the
beginning of our national period. ^ Of the English colonial schools
of New York Draper has written:^

All the English schools in the province from 1700 down to the time
of the Declaration of Independence were maintained by a great religious
society organized under the auspices of the Church of England — and,
of course, with the favor of the government — called "The Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts." The law govern-
ing this Society provided that no teacher should be employed until he
had proved "his affection for the present government" and his "con-
formity to the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England."
Schools maintained under such auspices were in no sense free schools.
Indeed, humiliating as it is, no student of history can fail to discern
the fact that the government of Great Britain, during its supremacy in
this territory, did nothing to facilitate the extension or promote the
efficiency of free elementary schools among the people.

The parochial schools of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania, was
settled by Quakers, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, German
Lutherans, Moravians, Mennonites, and members of the German
Reformed Church, all of whom came to America to secure greater
religious liberty and had been attracted to this colony by the free-
dom of religious worship which Penn had provided for there. All
these were Protestant sects, all believed in the necessity of learn-
ing to read the Bible as a means to personal salvation, and all
made efforts looking toward the establishment of schools as a part
of their church organization. Unlike New England, though, no
sect was in a majority ; church control for each denomination was
considered as most satisfactory; and no appeal was made to the
State to have it assist the churches in the enforcement of their
religious purposes. The clergymen were usually the teachers in
the parochial schools established,^ while private pay schools were

^ This was, of course, much more true of New York City and Island than of the
outlying Dutch villages. In these latter a public school was for long maintained.

2 Draper, A. S., Origin and Development of the New York Common School System.

^ Among the German Lutherans, who constituted nearly one fourth of the total
population of the colony, a school is claimed to have been established alongside the

370

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 112. An Old Quaker Meeting-
house AND School at Lampeter,
Pennsylvania

(From an old drcawing)

opened in the villages and towns. These were taught in English,
German, or the Moravian tongue (Czech), according to the orig-
inal language of the different immigrants. The Quakers seem to
have taken particular interest in schools (R. 199), a Quaker school

in Philadelphia (R. 198) hav-
ing been estabhshed the year
the city was founded. Girls
were educated as well as boys,
and the emphasis was placed
on reading, writing, counting,
and religion, rather than upon
any higher form of training.
The result was the devel-
opment in this colony of a
policy of depending on church
and private effort, and the
provision of education, aside
from certain rudimentary and
religious instruction, was left
largely for those who could afford to pay for the privilege.
Charitable education was extended to but a few, for a short
time, while, under the freedom allowed, many communities made
but indifferent provisions or suffered their schools to lapse.
Under the primitive conditions of the time the interest even
in religious education often declined almost to the vanishing
point. So lax in the matter of providing schooHng had many
communities become that the second Provincial Assembly, sitting
in Philadelphia, in 1683, passed an ordinance requiring (R. 197)
that all persons having children must cause them to be taught to
read and write, so that they might be able to read the Scriptures
by the time they were twelve years old, and also that all children
be taught some useful trade. A fine of £5 was to be assessed for
failure to comply with the law. So much in advance of EngHsh
ideas as to what was fitting and proper was this compulsory law
that it was vetoed by William and Mary, when submitted to their

church by each of the congregations "at the earliest possible period after its forma-
tion." The close connection between these Lutheran congregations and their schools
may be seen from the following contract, dated at Lancaster, in 1774:

"I, the undersigned, John Hoffman, parochial teacher of the church at Lancaster,
have promised in the presence of the congregation, to serve as choirister, and, as
long as we have no pastor, to read sermons on Sunday. In summer I promise to
hold cathechetical instruction with the young, as becomes a faithful teacher, and
also to lead them in the singing and attend to the clock."

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 371

majesj:ies for approval. Ten years later it was reenacted by the
Governor and Assembly of the colony, but proved so difficult of
enforcement that it was soon dropped, and the chance of starting
education in Pennsylvania somewhat after the New England
model was lost. The colony now settled down to a policy of non-
state action, and this in time became so firmly established that
the do-as-you-please idea persisted in this State up to the estab-
Hshment of the first free state school system, in 1834.

Mixed conditions in New Jersey. In New Jersey, situated as
it was near the center of the different colonies, the early develop-
ment of education there was the product of a number of different
influences. The Dutch crossed from New Amsterdam, the Eng-
lish came from Connecticut and later from New York, Scotch and
Scotch-Irish Presbyterians came from the mother country, Swed-
ish Lutherans settled along the Delaware, and Quakers and Ger-
man Lutherans came over from Pennsylvania. The educational
practice of the colony or land from which each group of settlers
came was reproduced in the colony. After the EngHsh succeeded
the Dutch in New Amsterdam (1664), EngHsh methods and prac-
tice in education gradually came into control throughout most of
New Jersey, and as a result here, as in New York, but little was
accomplished in providing schools for other than a select few until
well after the beginning of the nineteenth century. Neither New
Jersey, New York, nor Pennsylvania may be said to have devel-
oped any colonial educational policy aside from that of allowing
private and parochial effort to provide such schools as seemed
desirable.

Virginia and the southern type. Almost all the conditions
attending the settlement of Virginia were in contrast to those of
the New England colonies. The early settlers were from the same
class of English yeomen and country squires, but with the impor-
tant difference that whereas the New England settlers were Dis-
senters from the Church of England and had come to America to
obtain freedom in rehgious worship, the settlers in Virginia were
adherents of the National Church and had come to America for
gain. The marked differences in climate and possible crops led
to the large plantation type of settlement, instead of the compact
Httle New England town; the introduction of large numbers of
"indentured white servants," and later negro slaves, led to the
development of clashes in society instead of to the New England
type of democracy; and the lack of a strong religious motive for

372 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

education naturally led to the adoption of the customary Ejiglish
practices instead of to the development of colonial schools. The
tutor in the home, education in small private pay schools, or edu-
cation in the mother country were the prevailing methods adopted
among the well-to-do planters, while the poorer classes were left
with only such advantages as apprenticeship training or charity
schools might provide. Throughout the entire colonial period
Virginia remained most like the mother country in spirit and
practice, and stands among the colonies as the clearest example
of the English attitude toward school support and control. As
in the mother country, education was considered to be no business
of the State. Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware,
and the Carolinas followed the English attitude, much after the
fashion of Virginia.

Practically all the Virginia colonial legislation relating to edu-
cation refers either to WiUiam and Mary College (founded in
1693), or to the education of orphans and the children of the poor.
Both these interests, as we have previously seen, were typically
English. All the seventeenth-century legislation relating to
education is based on the English Poor-Law legislation,^ previ-
ously described (p. 325), and included the compulsory appren-
ticeship of the children of the poor, training in a trade, the require-
ment that the public authorities must provide opportunities for
this type of education, and the use of both local and colony funds
for the purpose (R. 200 a), all, as the Statutes state, "according
to the aforesaid laudable custom in the Kingdom of England."
It was not until 1 705 that Virginia reached the point, reached by
Massachusetts in 1642, of requiring that "the master of the [ap-
prenticed] orphan shall be obliged to teach him to read and write."
In all the Anghcan colonies the apprenticing of the children of the
poor (see R. 200 b for some interesting North Carolina records)
was a characteristic feature. During the entire colonial period
the indifference of the mother country to general education was
steadily reflected in Virginia and in the colonies which were essen-
tially AngHcan in religion, and followed the English example.

^ The seventeenth-century Virginia legislation relating to education is as follows:
1643. Orphans to be educated "according to the competence of their estate."
1646. "If the estate be so meane and inconsiderate that it will not reach to a free
education, then that orphan [shall] be bound to some manuall trade . . ,
except some friends or relatives be willing to keep them."
1660-61. "To avoid sloth and idleness ... as also for the relief of parents whose
poverty extends not to giving [their children] breeding, the justices of the
peace should . . . bind out children to tradesmen or husbandmen to be
brought up in some good and lawful calling."

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 373

Type plans represented by 1750. The seventeenth century
thus mtnessed the transplanting of European ideas as to govern-
ment, religion, and education to the new American colonies, and
by the eighteenth century we find three clearly marked types of
educational practice or conception as to educational responsibility
established on American soil.

The first was the strong Calvinistic conception of a religious
State, supporting a system of common vernacular schools, higher
Latin schools, and a college, for both religious and civic ends.
This type dominated New England, and is best represented by
Massachusetts. From New England this attitude was carried
westward by the migrations of New England people, and deeply
influenced the educational development of all States to which the
New Englander went in any large numbers. This was the edu-
cational contribution of Calvinism to America.^ Out of it our
state school systems of to-day, by the separation of Church and
State, have been evolved.

The second was the parochial-school conception of the Dutch,
Moravians, Mennonites, German Lutherans, German Reformed
Church, Quakers, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Catholics. This
type is best represented by Protestant Pennsylvania and Catholic
Maryland. It stood for church control of all educational efforts,
resented state interference, was dominated only by church pur-
poses, and in time came to be a serious obstacle in the way of
rational state school organization and control.

The third type, into which the second type tended to fuse, con-
ceived of public education, aside from collegiate education, as
intended chiefly for orphans and the children of the poor, and as
a charity which the State was under little or no obligation to
assist in supporting. All children of the upper and middle classes
in society attended private or church schools, or were taught by
tutors in their homes, and for such instruction paid a proper tui-
tion fee. Paupers and orphans, in limited numbers and for a
limited time, might be provided with spme form of useful educa-
tion at the expense of either Church or State. This type is best
represented by Anglican Virginia, which typified well the laissez-

^ " Perhaps the most remarkable, because the most widespread and complex illus-
tration of the educational genius of Calvinism is to be found in the American colo-
nies, where the various European streams of Calvinism so converged that the seven-
teenth-century colonists were predominantly Calvinists — not merely the Puritans
of New England, but the Dutch, Walloons, Huguenots, Scotch, and Scotch-Irish,
with a considerable Puritan admixture in Anglican Virginia and CathoUc Maryland."
(Foster, H. D., in Monroe's Cyclopedia o J Education, vol. i, p. 498.)

374 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

faire policy which dominated England from the time of the
Protestant Reformation until the latter half of the nineteenth
century.

These three types of attitude toward the provision of education
became fixed American types, and each deeply influenced subse-
quent American educational development, as we shall point out
in a later chapter.

Dominance of the religious motive. The seventeenth century
was essentially a period of the transplanting, almost unchanged in
form, of the characteristic European institutions, manners, reli-
gious attitudes, and forms of government to American shores.
Each sect or nationality on arriving set up in the new land the
characteristic forms of church and school and social observances
known in the old home-land. Dutch, Germans, English, Scotch,
Calvinists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterians — reproduced in
the American colonies the main type of schools existing at the
time of their migration in the mother land from which they came.
They were also dominated by the same deep religious purpose.

The dominance of this religious purpose in all instruction is
well illustrated by the great beginning-school book of the time,
The New England Primer. A digest of the contents of this, with
a few pages reproduced, is given in R. 202. This book, from which
all children learned to read, was used by Dissenters and Lutherans
alike in the American colonies. This book Ford well characterizes
in the following words:

As one glances over what may truly be called "The Little Bible of
New England," and reads Its stern lessons, the Puritan mood is caught
with absolute faithfulness. Here was no easy road to knowledge and
salvation: but with prose as bare of beauty as the whitewash of their
churches, with poetry as rough and stern as their storm-torn coast,
with pictures as crude and unfinished as their own glacial-smoothed
boulders, between stiff oak covers which symbolized the contents, the
children were tutored, until, from being unregenerate, and as Jonathan
Edwards said, ''young vipers, and infinitely more hateful than vipers"
to God, they attained that happy state when, as expressed by Judge
Sewell's child, they were afraid that they " should goe to hell," and were
''stirred up dreadfully to seek God." God was made sterner and
more cruel than any living judge, that all might be brought to realize
how slight a chance even the least erring had of escaping eternal
damnation.

One learned to read chiefly that one might be able to read the
Catechism and the Bible, and to know the will of the Heavenly
Father. There was scarcely any other purpose in the mainte-

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 375

nance of elementary schools. In the grammar schools and the
colleges students were "instructed to consider well the main end
of life and studies." These institutions existed mainly to insure
a supply of learned ministers for service in Church and State.
Such studies as history, geography, science, music, drawing, secu-
lar literature, and organized play were unknown. Children were
constantly surrounded, week days and Sundays, by the somber
Calvinistic religious atmosphere in New England/ and by the
careful religious oversight of the pastors and elders in the colonies
where the parochial-school system was the ruling plan for educa-
tion. Schoolmasters were required to ''catechise their scholars
in the principles of the Christian religion," and it was made "a
chief part of the schoolmaster's religious care to commend his
scholars and his labors amongst them unto God by prayer morn-
ing and evening, taking care that his scholars do reverently attend
during the same." Religious matter constituted the only reading
matter, outside the instruction in Latin in the grammar schools.
The Catechism was taught, and the Bible was read and ex-
pounded. Church attendance was required, and grammar-school
pupils were obliged to report each week on the Sunday sermon.
This insistence on the religious element was more prominent in
Calvinistic New England than in the colonies to the south, but
everywhere the religious purpose was dominant. The church
parochial and charity schools were essentially schools for instilling
the church practices and beliefs of the church maintaining them.
This state of affairs continued until well toward the beginning of
the nineteenth century.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1 . Compare the conservative and radical groups in the English purification
movement with the conservative and radical groups, as typified by Eras-
mus and Luther, at the time of the Reformation.

2. Show how, for each group, the schools estabhshed were merely home-
land foreign- type religious schools, with nothing distinctively American
about them.

^ "To illustrate how omnipresent this religious atmosphere was, I cannot do
better than to cite the occasion when Judge Sewell found that the spout which con-
ducted the rain water from his roof did not perform its office. After patient search-
ing, a ball belonging to the small children was found lodged in the spout. There-
upon the father sent for the minister and had a season of prayer with his boys
that their mischief or carelessness might be set in its- proper aspect and that the
event might be sanctified to their spiritual good. Powers of darkness and of light
were struggling for the possession of every soul, and it was the duty of parents,
ministers, and teachers to lose no opportunity to pluck the children as brands from
the burning." (Johnson Clifton, Old-Time Schools and Schoolbooks, p. 12.)

376 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

3. Show why such copying of home-land types, even to the Latm grammar
school, was perfectly natural.

4. The provision of the Law of 1642 requiring instruction in "the capital
laws of the country" was new. How do you explain this addition to
mother-land practices?

5. Show why the Law of 1642 was Calvinistic rather than Anglican in its
origin.

6. Explain the meaning of the preamble to the Law of 1647.

7. Show how the Law of 1647 must go back for precedents to German,
Dutch, and Scotch sources.

8. Apply the six principles stated by Mr. Martin, as embodied in the legis-
lation of 1647, to modern state school practice, and show how we have
adopted each in our laws.

g. Show also that the Law of 1647, as well as modern state school laws, is
neither paternalistic nor socialistic in essential purpose.

10. Show that, though the mixture of religious sects in Pennsylvania made
colonial legislation difficult, still it would have been possible to have
enforced the Massachusetts Law of 1642, or the Pennsylvania laws of
1683 or 1693, in the colony. How do you explain the opposition and
failure to do so?

1 1 . Show how the charity schools for the poor, and church missionary -society
schools, were the natural outcome of the English attitude toward ele-
mentary education.

12. Which of the three type plans in the American colonies by 1750 most
influenced educational development in your State?

13. State the important contribution of Calvinism to our new-world life.

14. Explain the indifference of the Anglican Church to general education
during the whole of our colonial period.

15. Explain what is meant by "The Puritan Church applied to its servant,
the State," etc.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

183. Nichols: The Puritan Attitude.

184. Gov. Bradford: The Puritans leave P^ngland.

185. First Fruits: The Founding of Harvard College.

186. First Fruits: The First Rules for Harvard College.

{a) Entrance Requirements.
{h) Rules and Precepts.
(c) Time and Order of Studies.
{d) Requirements for Degrees.

187. College Charters: Extracts from, showing Privileges.

{a) Harvard College, 1650.
{h) Brown College, 1764.

188. Dillaway: Founding of the Free School at Roxburie.

189. Baird: Rules and Regulations for Hopkins Grammar School.

190. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1642.

191. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1647.

192. Court Records: Presentment of Topsfield for Violating the Law of
1642.

193. Statutes: The Connecticut Law of 1650.

194. Statutes: Plymouth Colony Legislation.

195. Flatbush: Contract with a Dutch Schoolmaster.

BEGINNINGS IN AMERICA 377

196. New Amsterdam: Rules for a Schoolmaster in.

197. Statutes: The Pennsylvania Law of 1683.

198. Minutes of Council: The First School in Philadelphia.

199. Murray: Early Quaker Injunctions regarding Schools. _

200. Statutes: Apprenticeship Laws in the Southern Colonies.

(a) Virginia Statutes.

(b) North Carolina Court Records.

201. Stiles: A New England Indenture of Apprenticeship.

202. The New England Primer: Description and Digest.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. What does the selection on The Puritan Attitude (183) reveal as to the
extent and depth of the Reformation in England?

2. Characterize the feelings and emotions and desires of the Puritans, as
expressed in the extract (184) from Governor Bradford's narrative.

3. Characterize the spirit behind the founding of Harvard College, as
expressed in the extract from New England's First Fruits (185).

4. What was the nature and purpose of the Harvard College instruction as
shown by the selection 186 a-d?

5. Point out the similarity between the exemptions granted to Harvard
College by the Legislature of the colony (187 a) and those granted to
mediaeval universities (103-105). Compare the privileges granted
Brown (187 b) and those contained in 104.

6. Compare the founding of the Free School at Roxbury (188) with the
founding of an English Grammar School (141-43).

7. What does the distribution of scholars at Roxbury (188) show as to the
character of the school?

8. State the essentials of the Massachusetts Law of 1642 (190),

9. Compare the Massachusetts Law of 1642 and the English Poor-Law of
1 601 (190 with 174) as to fundamental principles involved in each.

ID. What does the court citation of Topsfield (192) show?

11. What new principle is added (191) by the Law of 1647, ^-I'^d what does
this new law indicate as to needs in the colony for classical learning?

12. Show how the Connecticut Law of 1650 (193) was based on the Massa-
chusetts Law (190) of 1642.

13. What does the Plymouth Colony appeal for Harvard College (194 b)
indicate as to community of ideas in early New England?

14. What type of school was it intended to endow from the Cape Cod
fisheries (194 c)?

15. What is the difference between the Plymouth requirement as to gram-
mar schools (194 d) and the Massachusetts requirement (191)?

16. Compare the rules for the New Haven Grammar School (189) with those
for Colet's London School (138 a-c).

17. Characterize the early Dutch schools as shown by the rules for the
schoolmaster (196) and the Flatbush contract (195).

18. Just what type of education did the Quakers mean to provide for, as
shown in the extract from their Rules of Discipline (199)?

19. What kind of a school was the first one established in Philadelphia (198) ?

20. Compare the proposed Pennsylvania Law of 1683 (197) and the Massa-
chusetts Law of 1642 (190).

21. What conception of education is revealed by the Virginia apprenticeship
laws (200 a, 1-3) and the North Carohna court records (200 b, 1-3)?

22. Characterize the New England Indenture of Apprenticeship given in 201.

37B

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Boone, R. G. Education in the United States.
Brown, S. W. The Secularization of American Education.
Cheyney, Edw. P. European Background of American Education.
Dexter, E. G. A History of Education in the United States.
*Eggleston, Edw. The Transit of Civilization.
Fisk, C. R. "The English Parish and Education at the Beginning of
American Civilization"; in School Review, vol. 23, pp. 433-49. (Sep-
tember, 1915.)
*Ford, P. L. 77/c New England Primer.
*Heatwole, C. J. A History of Education in Virginia.
Jackson, G. L. The Development of School Support in Colonial Massa-
chusetts.
*Kilpatrick, Wm. H. The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial

New York.
*Knight, E. W. Public School Education in North Carolina.
*Martin, Geo. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System.
Seybolt, R. F. Apprenticeship and Apprentice Education in Colonial
New York and New England.
♦Small, W. H. "The New England Grammar School" ; in School Review,
vol. 10, pp. 513-31. (September, 1902.)
Small, W. H. Early New England Schools.

CHAPTER XVI
THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

New attitudes after the eleventh century. From the begin-
ning of the twelfth century onward, as we have already noted,
there had been a slow but gradual change in the character of hu-
man thinking, and a slow but certain disintegration of the Medi-
aeval System, with its repressive attitude toward all independent
thinking. Many different influences and movements had con-
tributed to this change — the Moslem learning and civilization in
Spain, the recovery of the old legal and medical knowledge, the
revival of city life, the beginnings anew of commerce and indus-
try, the evolution of the universities, the rise of a small scholarly
class, the new consciousness of nationality, the evolution of the
modern languages, the beginnings of a small but important ver-
nacular literature, and the beginnings of travel and exploration
following the Crusades — all of which had tended to transform
the mediaeval man and change his ways of thinking. New ob-
jects of interest slowly came to the front, and new standards of
judgment gradually were applied. In consequence the mediaeval
man, with his feeling of personal insignificance and lack of self-
confidence, came to be replaced by a small but increasing number
of men who were conscious of their powers, possessed a new self-
confidence, and realized new possibilities of intellectual accom-
plishment.

The Revival of Learning, first in Italy and then elsewhere in
western Europe, was the natural consequence of this awakening
of the modern spirit, and in the careful work done by the human-
istic scholars of the Italian Renaissance in collecting, comparing,
questioning, inferring, criticizing, and editing the texts, and in
reconstructing the ancient life and history, we see the beginnings
of the modern scientific spirit. It was this same critical, question-
ing spirit which, when applied later to geographical knowledge,
led to the discovery of America and the circumnavigation of the
globe; which, when appHed to matters of Christian faith, brought
on the Protestant Revolts; which, when apphed to the problems
of the universe, revealed the many wonderful fields of modern
science; and which, when apphed to government, led to a ques-

38o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tioning of the divine right of kings and the rise of constitutional
government. The awakening of scientific inquiry and the scien-
tific spirit, and the attempt of a few thinkers to apply the new
method to education, to which we now turn, may be regarded as
only another phase of the awakening of the modern inquisitive
spirit which found expression earlier in the rise of the universities,
the recovery and reconstruction of the ancient learning, the
awakening of geographical discovery and exploration, and the
questioning of the doctrines and practices of the Mediaeval
Church.

Insufficiency of ancient science. From the point of view of
scientific inquiry, all ancient learning possessed certain marked
fundamental defects. The Greeks had — their time and age in
world-civilization considered — made many notable scientific
observations and speculations, and had prepared the way for
future advances. Thales (636P-546? B.C.), Xenophanes (628?-
520? B.C.), Anaximanes (557-504 B.C.), Pythagoras (570-500
B.C.), Herachtes (c. 500 B.C.), Empedocles (46o?-36i? B.C.), and
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had all made interesting speculations as
to the nature of matter,^ Aristotle finally settling the question
by naming the world-elements as earth, water, air, fire, and ether.
Hippocrates (460-367? B.C.), as we have seen (p. 197), had ob-
served the sick and had recorded and organized his observations
in such a manner - as to form the foundations upon which the
science of medicine could be established. The Roman physician;
Galen (130-200 a.d.) added to these observations, and their com-
bined work formed the basis upon which modern medical science
has slowly been built up.

On the other hand, some of what each wrote was mere specula-
tion and error, ^ and modern physicians were compelled to begin
all over and along new lines before any real progress in medicine

^ Thales had guessed that water was the primal element from which all had been
derived; Anaximanes guessed air; Heraclites fire; Pythagoras held that number was
the essence of all things; Empedocles thought that fire and heat, accompanied by
"indestructible forces," formed the basis; Xenophanes had guessed air, fire,
water, and earth, and had worked out a complete scheme of creation. For an in-
teresting discussion of these early attempts to explain creation, see J. W. Draper,
History of the InkUedual Development of Europe, vol. i, chap. iv.

2 Among the treatises by him accepted as genuine are On Airs, Waters, and Places ;
On Epidemics; On Regimen in Acute Diseases; On Fractures; and On Injuries of the
Head.

^ For example, Hippocrates had held that the human body contains four "hu-
mors" — blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile — and that disease was caused
by the undue accumulation of some one of these humors in some organ, which it was
the business of the physician to get rid of by blood-letting, blistering, purging, or
other means.

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 381

could be made. Aristotle had done a notable work in organiz-
ing and codifying Greek scientific knowledge, as the list of his
many scientific treatises in use in Europe by 1300 (R. 87) will
show, but his writings were the result of a mixture of keen ob-
servation and brilliant speculation, contained many inaccuracies,
and in time, due to the reverence accorded him as an authority
by the mediaeval scholars and the church authorities, proved
serious obstacles to real scientific progress.

At Alexandria the most notable Greek scientific work had been
done. Euclid (323-283 B.C.) in geometry; Aristarchus (third
century B.C.), who explained the motion of the earth; Eratos-
thenes (270-196 B.C.), who measured the size of the earth; Archi-
medes (27o?-2i2 B.C.), a pupil of Euclid's, who applied science in
many ways and laid the foundations of dynamics; Hipparchus
(160-125 B.C.), the father of astronomy, who studied the heavens
and catalogued the stars, were among the more famous Greeks
who studied and taught there in the days when Alexandria had
succeeded Athens as the intellectual capital of the Greek world.
Some remarkable advances also were made in the study of human
anatomy and medicine by two Greeks, Herophilus (335-280 B.C.)
and Erasistratus (d. 280 B.C.) , who apparently did much dissecting.

But even at Alexandria the promise of Greek science was unful-
filled. Despite many notable speculations and scientific ad-
vances, the hopeful beginnings did not come to any large fruitage,
and the great contribution made by the Greeks to world civiliza-
tion was less along scientific lines than along the lines of literature
and philosophy. Their great strength lay in the direction of
philosophic speculation, and this tendency to speculate, rather
than to observe and test and measure and record, was the funda-
mental weakness of all Greek science. The Greeks never ad-
vanced in scientific work to the invention and perfection of instru-
ments for the standardization of their observations. As a result
they passed on to the mediaeval world an extensive "book sci-
ence" and not a little keen observation, of which the works of
Aristotle and the Alexandrian mathematicians and astronomers
form the most conspicuous examples, but little scientific knowl-
edge of which the modern world has been able to make much use.
The "book science" of the Greeks, and especially that of Aris-
totle, was highly prized for centuries, but in time, due to the
many inaccuracies, had to be discarded and done anew by modern
scholars.

382 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The Romans, as we have seen (chapter iii) , were essentially a
practical people, good at getting the work of the world done, but
not much given to theoretical discussion or scientific speculation.
They were organizers, governors, engineers, executives, and liter-
ary workers rather than scientists. They executed many im-
portant undertakings of a practical character, such as the build-
ing of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and public buildings; organized
government and commerce on a large scale; and have left us a
literature and a legal system of importance, but they contributed
little to the realm of pure science. The three great names in sci-
ence in all their history are Strabo the geographer (63 B.C.-24
A.D.); Pliny the Elder (23-79 a.d.), who did notable work as an
observer in natural history; and Galen (second century a.d.) in
medicine. They, like the Greeks, were pervaded by the same
fear that their science might prove useful, whereas they cultivated
it largely as a mental exercise (R. 203).

The Christian reaction against inquiry. The Christian attitude
toward inquiry was from the first inhospitable, and in time be-
came exceedingly intolerant. The tendency of the Western
Church, it will be remembered (p. 94), was from the first to re-
ject all Hellenic learning, and to depend upon emotional faith and
the enforcement of a moral life. By the close of the third century
the hostihty to pagan schools and Hellenic learning had become
so pronounced that the Apostolic Constitutions (R. 41) ordered
Christians to abstain from all heathen books, which could contain
nothing of value and only served ''to subvert the faith of the un-
stable." In 401 A.D. the Council of Carthage forbade the clergy
to read any heathen author, and Greek learning now rapidly died
out in the West. For a time it was almost entirely lost. In con-
sequence Greek science, then best represented by Alexandrian
learning, and which contained much that was of great importance,
was rejected along with other pagan learning. The very meager
scientific knowledge that persisted into the Middle Ages in the
great mediaeval textbooks (p. 162), as we have seen in the study
of the Seven Liberal Arts (chapter vii), came to be regarded as
useful only in explaining passages of Scripture or in illustrating
the ways of God toward man. The one and only science worthy
of study was Theology, to which all other learning tended (see
Figure 44, p. 154).

The history of Christianity throughout all the Dark Ages is a
history of the distrust of inquiry and reason, and the emphasis of

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 383

blind emotional faith. Mysticism, good and evil spirits, and the
interpretation of natural phenomena as manifestations of the Di-
vine will from the first received large emphasis. The worship of
saints and relics, and the great development of the sensuous and
symbolic, changed the earher religion into a crude polytheism.
During the long period of the Middle Ages the miraculous flour-
ished. The most extreme superstition pervaded all ranks of soci-
ety. Magic and prayers were employed to heal the sick, restore
the crippled, foretell the future, and punish the wicked. Sacred
pools, the royal touch, wonder-working images, and miracles
through prayer stood in the way of the development of medicine
(R. 204). Disease was attributed to satanic influence, and a regu-
lar schedule of prayers for cures was in use. Sanitation was un-
known. Plagues and pestilences were manifestations of Divine
wrath, and hysteria and insanity were possession by the devil to
be cast out by whipping and torture. One's future was deter-
mined by the position of the heavenly bodies at the time of
birth. Eclipses, meteors, and comets were fearful portents of
Divine displeasure:

Eight things there be a Comet brings,

When it on high doth horrid rage;
Wind, Famine, Plague, and Death to Kings,

War, Earthquakes, Floods, and Direful Change.^

The literature on magic was extensive. The most miraculous
happenings were recorded and believed. Trial by ordeal, follow-
ing careful religious formulae, was common before 1200, though
prohibited shortly afterward by papal decrees (1215, 1222). The
insistence of the Church on "the willful, devilish character of
heresy," and the extension of heresy to cover almost any form of
honest doubt or independent inquiry, caused an intellectual stag-
nation along lines of scientific investigation which was not re-
lieved for more than a thousand years. The many notable ad-
vances in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine made by
Moslem scholars (chapter viii) were lost on Christian Europe,
and had to be worked out again centuries later by the scholars of
the western world. Out of the astronomy of the Arabs the Chris-
tians got only astrology; out of their chemistry they got only al-
chemy. Both in time stood seriously in the way of real scientific
thinking and discovery.

^ From a collection of doggerel rhymes put out by two pastors and doctors of
theology at Basle, in 1618, by the names of Grassner and Gross, to interpret the
orthodox theory of comets to peasants and school children.

384 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Growing tolerance changed by the Protestant Revolts. After
the rise of the universities, the expansion of the minds of men
which followed the Crusades and the revival of trade and indus-
try, the awakening which came with the revival of the old learn-
ing and the rise of geographical discovery, the church authorities
assumed a broader and a more tolerant attitude toward inquiry
and reason than had been the case for hundreds of years. It
would have been surprising, with the large number of university-
trained men entering the service of the Church, had this not been
the case. By the middle of the fifteenth century it looked as
though the Renaissance spirit might extend into many new direc-
tions, and by 1 500 the world seemed on the eve of important prog-
ress in almost every line of endeavor. As was pointed out earlier
(p. 259), the Church was more tolerant than it had been for cen-
turies, and about the year 1500 was the most stimulating time in
the history of our civilization since the days of Alexandria and
ancient Rome.

In 1 5 1 7 Luther nailed his theses to the church door in Witten-
berg. The Church took alarm and attempted to crush him, and
soon the greatest contest since the conflict between paganism and
Christianity was on. Within half a century ah northern lands
had been lost to the ancient Church (see map, p. 296); the first
successful challenge of its authority during its long history.

The effect of these religious revolts on the attitude of the
Church toward intellectual liberty was natural and marked. The
tolerance of inquiry recently extended was withdrawn, and an era
of steadily increasing intolerance set in which was not broken for
more than a century. In an effort to stop the further spread of
the heresy, the Church Council of Trent (1545-63) adopted
stringent regulations against heretical teachings (p. 303), while
the sword and torch and imprisonment were resorted to to stamp
out opposition and win back the revolting lands. A century of
merciless warfare ensued, and the hatreds engendered by the long
and bitter struggle over religious differences put both Catholic
and Protestant Europe in no tolerant frame of mind toward in-
quiry or new ideas. The Inquisition, a sort of universal mediae-
val grand jury for the detection and punishment of heretics, was
revived, and the Jesuits, founded in 1534-40, were vigorous in de-
fense of the Church and bitter in their opposition to all forms of
independent inquiry and Protestant heresy.

It was into this post-Reformation atmosphere of suspicion and

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 385

distrust and hatred that the new critical, inquiring, questioning
spirit of science, as applied to the forces of the universe, was born.
A century earlier the first scientists might have obtained a respect-
ful hearing, and might have been permitted to press their claims;
after the Protestant Revolts had torn Christian Europe asunder
this could hardly be. As a result the early scientists found them-
selves in no enviable position. Their theories were bitterly as-
sailed as savoring of heresy; their methods and purposes were
ahke suspected; and any challenge of an old long-accepted idea
was likely to bring a. punishment that was swift and sure. From
the middle of the sLxteenth to the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury was not a time when new ideas were at a premium anywhere
in western Europe. It was essentially a period of reaction, and
periods of reaction are not favorable to intellectual progress. It
was into this century of reaction that modern scientific inquiry
and reasoning, itsfelf another form of expression of the intellectual
attitudes awakened by the work of the humanistic scholars of the
Italian Renaissance, made its first claim for a hearing.

The beginnings of modern scientific method. One of the great
problems which has always deeply interested thinking men in all
lands is the nature and constitution of the material universe, and
to this problem people in all stages of civilization have worked
out for themselves some kind of an answer. It was one of the
great speculations of the Greeks, and it was at Alexandria, in the
period of its decadence, that the Egyptian geographer Ptolemy
(138 A.D.) had offered an explanation which was accepted by
Christian Europe and which dominated all thinking on the sub-
ject during the Middle Ages. He had concluded that the earth
was located at the center of the visible universe, immovable, and
that the heavenly bodies moved around the earth, in circular
motion, fixed in crystalline spheres.^ This explanation accorded
perfectly with Christian ideas as to creation, as well as with
Christian conceptions as to the position and place of man and his
relation to the heavens above and to a hell beneath. This theory

^ "The earth is a sphere, situated in the center of the heavens; if it were not,
one side of the heavens would appear nearer to us than the other, and the stars
would be larger there. The earth is but a point in comparison to the heavens,
because the stars appear of the same magnitude and at the same distance inter se,
no matter where the observer goes on the earth. It has no motion of translation.
... If there were a motion, it would be proportionate to the great mass of the earth
and would leave behind animals and objects thrown into the air. This also dis-
proves the suggestion made by some, that the earth, while immovable in space,
turns round on its own axis." (Ptolemy, Digest of argument of Book i of the
Almagest.)

386

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

was obviously simple and satisfactory, and became sanctified
with time. As we see it now the wonder is that such an explana-
tion could have been accepted for so long. Only among an unin-
quisitive people could so imperfect a theory have endured for
over fourteen centuries.

In 1543 a Bohemian church canon and physician by the name
of Nicholas Copernicus published his De Revolutionibus Orhium

Celestium, in which he set forth the explan-
ation of the universe which we now know.
He piously dedicated, the work to Pope
Paul III, and wisely refrained from pub-
Ushing it until the year of his death. ^ Any-
thing so completely upsetting the Christian
conception as to the place and position of
man in the universe could hardly be ex-
pected to be accepted, particularly at the
time of its pubhcation, without long and
bitter opposition.

In the dedicatory letter (R. 205), Coper-
nicus explains how, after feeling that the
Ptolemaic explanation was wrong, he came
to arrive at the conclusions he did. The
steps he set forth form an excellent example of a method of think-
ing now common, but then almost unknown. They were:

Dissatisfaction with the old Ptolemaic explanation.
A study of all known literature, to see if any better explanation
had been offered.

Careful thought on the subject, until his thinking took form in a
definite theory.

Long observation and testing out, to see if the observed facts
would support his theory.
5. The theory held to be correct,^because it reduced all known facts
to a systematic order and harmony.

This is as clear a case of inductive reasoning as was Petrarch's
exposure of the forgery of the so-called "Donation of Constan-
tine," an example of deductive reasoning. Both used a new
method — the method of modern scholarship. In both cases
the results were revolutionary. As Petrarch stands forth in
history as the first modern classical scholar, so Copernicus stands

1 In the dedicatory letter Copernicus states that he had had the completed manu-
script in his study for thirty-six years, and published it now only on the urging of
friends.

Fig. 113.

Nicholas Kopernik

(Copernicus),

(1473-1543)

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 387

forth as the first modern scientific thinker. The beginnings of
all modern scientific investigation date from 1543. Of his work a
recent writer (E. C. J. Morton) has said:

Copernicus cannot be said to have flooded with light the dark places
of nature — in the way that one stupendous mind subsequently did —
but still, as we look back through the long vista of the history of science,
the dim Titanic figure of the old monk seems to rear itself out of the
dull flats around it, pierces with its head the mists that overshadow
them, and catches the first gleam of the rising sun, . . .
Like some iron peak, by the Creator
Fired with the red glow of the rushing morn.

The new method of inquiry applied by others. At first Coper-
nicus' work attracted but Httle attention. An Italian Dominican
by the name of Giordano Bruno (i 548-1600), deeply impressed
by the new theory, set forth in Latin and Italian the far-reaching
and majestic implications of such a theory
of creation, and was burned at the stake
at Rome for his pains. A Dane, Tycho
Brahe, after twenty-one years of careful
observation of the heavens, during which
time he collected ''a magnificent series
of observations, far transcending in ac-
curacy ^ and extent anything that had
been accomplished by his predecessors,"
showed Aristotle to be wrong in many
particulars. His observations of the
comet of 1577 led him to conclude that
the theory of crystalline spheres was im-
possible, and that the common view of
the time as to their nature ^ was absurd.
In 1609 a German by the name of Johann Kepler (15 71-1630),
using the records of observations which Tycho Brahe had accu-
mulated and applying them to the planet Mars, proved the
truth of the Copernican theory and framed his famous three
laws for planetary motion.

^ To secure the greatest possible accuracy he constructed a wooden outdoor
quadrant some ten feet in radius, with a brass scale, thus permitting readings to a
fraction of an inch.

_ 2 ''The current view was that comets were formed by the ascending of human
sins from the earth,^ that they were changed into a kind of gas, and ignited by the
^nger of God. This poisoned stuff then fell down on people's heads, causing all
kinds of mischief, such as pestilence, sudden death, storms, etc." (Dryer, J. L. E,,
Tycho Brahe.)

Fig. 114. Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601)

388

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 115. Galileo
Galilei (i 564-1642)

Finally an Italian, Galileo Galilei, a professor at the University
of Pisa, developing a telescope that would magnify to eight diam-
eters, discovered Jupiter's satelhtes and Saturn's rings. The

story of his discovery of the satellites of
Jupiter is another interesting illustration
of the careful scientific reasoning of these
early workers (R. 206) . GaHleo also made
a number of discoveries in physics, through
the use of new scientific methods, which
completely upset the teachings of the
Aristotelians, and made the most notable
advances in mechanics since the days of
Archimedes. For his pronounced advo-
cacy of the Copernican theory he was
called to Rome (161 5) by the Cardinals
of the Inquisition, the Copernican theory
was condemned as '' absurd in philosophy ' '
and as ''expressly contrary to Holy Scripture," and Galileo was
compelled to recant (16 16) his error. ^ For daring later (1632) to
assume that he might, under a new Pope, defend the Copernican
theory, even in an indirect manner, he was again called before the
inquisitorial body, compelled to recant
and abjure his errors (R. 207) to escape
the stake, and was then virtually made
a prisoner of the Inquisition for the
remainder of his life. So strongly had
the forces of mediae valism reasserted
themselves after the Protestant Re-
volts!

Finally the English scholar Newton
(i 642-1 728), in his Principia (1687),
settled permanently all discussions as
to the Copernican theory by his won-
derful mathematical studies. He dem-
onstrated mathematically the motions
of the planets and comets, proved Kepler's laws to be true, ex-
plained gravitation and the tides, made clear the nature of light,

1 "For over fifty years he was the knight militant of science, and almost alone
did successful battle with the hosts of Churchmen and AristoteUans who attacked
him on all sides — one man against a world of bigotry and ignorance. If then . . .
when face to face with the terrors of the Inquisition he, like Peter, denied his Master,
no honest man, knowing all the circumstances, will be in a hurry to blame him."
(Fahie, J. J., Galileo, His Life and Work.)

Fig.

116. Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727)

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 389

and reduced dynamics to a science. Of his work a recent writer,
Karl Pearson, has said:

The Newtonian laws of motion form the starting point of most
modern treatises on dynamics, and it seems to me that physical science,
thus started, resembles the mighty genius of an Arabian tale emerging
amid metaphysical exhalations from the bottle in which for long centu-
ries it had been corked down.

So far-reaching in its importance was the scientific work of New-
ton that Pope's couplet seems exceedingly applicable:

Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said, "Let Newton be," and there was light.

The new method applied in other fields. The new method of
study was soon applied to other fields by scholars of the new type,
here and there, and always with fruitful results. The English-
man, William Gilbert (i 540-1 603) published, in 1600, his De
Arte Magfietica, and laid the foundations of the modern study of
electricity and magnetism. A German-Swiss by the name of Ho-
henheim, but who Latinized his name to Paracelsus (1493-1541),
and who became a professor in the medical faculty at the Univer-
sity of Basle, in 1526 broke with mediaeval traditions by being one
of the first university scholars to refuse to lecture in Latin. He
ridiculed the medical theories of Hippocrates (p. 197) and Galen
(p. 198), and, regarding the human body as a chemical compound,
began to treat diseases by the administra-
tion of chemicals. A Saxon by the name
of Landmann, who also Latinized his
name to Agricola (1494-1555), applied
chemistry to mining and metallurgy, and
a French potter named Bernard Palissy
(c. 1500-88) applied chemistry to pottery
and the arts. To Paracelsus, Agricola,
and Palissy we are indebted for having
laid, in the sixteenth century, the founda- ^
tions of the study of modern chemistry. ^-^

A Belgian by the name of Vesalius ^ -, . -.-^ „„r=^Y /
(1514-64) was the first modern to dissect ' ^1 '-■ v /

the human body, and for so doing was Fig. 117. William
sentenced by the Inquisition to perform a Harvey (1578-1657)
penitential journey to Jerusalem. One of his disciples discovered
the valves in the veins and was the teacher of the Englishman,
William Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood and

390 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

later (1628) dared to publish the fact to the world. These men
established the modern studies of anatomy and physiology.
Another early worker was a Swiss by the name of Conrad Gess-
ner (1516-65), who observed and wrote extensively on plants and
animals, and who stands as the first naturalist of modern times.

The sixteenth century thus marks the rise of modern scientific
inquiry, and the beginnings of the study of modern science. The
number of scholars engaged in the study was still painfully small,
and the religious prejudice against which they worked was strong
and powerful, but in the work of these few men we have not only
the beginnings of the study of modern astronomy, physics, chem-
istry, metallurgy, medicine, anatomy, physiology, and natural
history, but also the beginnings of a group of men, destined in
time to increase greatly in number, who could see straight, and
who sought facts regardless of where they might lead and what
preconceived ideas they might upset. How deeply the future of
civilization is indebted to such men, men who braved social ostra-
cism and often the wrath of the Church as well, for the, to them,
precious privilege of seeing things as they are, we are not likely to
over-estimate. In time their work was destined to reach the
schools, and to materially modify the character of all education.
Human reason in the investigation of nature. To the English
statesman and philosopher, Francis Bacon, more than to any one

else, are we indebted for the proper
formulation and statement of this new
scientific method. Though not a sci-
entist himself, he has often been
termed "the father of modern sci-
ence." Seeing clearly the importance
of the new knowledge, he broke en-
tirely with the old scholastic deduc-
tive logic as expressed*in the Organon,
of Aristotle, and formulated and ex-
pressed the methods of inductive rea-
soning in his Novum Organum, pub-

^^^' 'fi ^6'i-''i626^) ^^^^"^ ^^^^"^ ^^ ^^^°- ^^ ^^^ ^^ showed the

insufficiency of the method of argu-
mentation; analyzed and formulated the inductive method of
reasoning, of which his study as to the nature of heat ^ is a good

^ See Routledge, R., A Popular History of Science, pp. 135-36, for a good digest of
Bacon's inductive investigation, as a result of which he arrived at the conclusion that
"Heat is an expansive bridled motion, struggling in the small particles of bodies."

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 391

example ; and pointed out that knowledge is a process, and not
an end in itself; and indicated the immense and fruitful field of
science to which the method might be appHed. By showing how
to learn from nature herself he turned the Renaissance energy
into a new direction, and made a revolutionary break with the
disputations and deductive logic of the Aristotelian scholastics
which had for so long dominated university instruction.

In formulating the new method he first pointed out the defects
of the learning of his time, which he classified under the head of
''distempers," three in number, and as follows:

1. Fantastic learning: Alchemy, magic, miracles, old- wives, tales,
credulities, superstitions, pseudo-science, and impostures of all sorts
inherited from an ignorant past, and now conserved as treasures of
knowledge.

2. Contentious learning: The endless disputations of the Scholastics
about questions which had lost their significance, deductive in char-
acter, not based on any observation, not aimed primarily to arrive at
truth, "fruitful of controversy, and barren of effect."

3. Delicate learning: The new learning of the humanistic Renais-
sance, verbal and not real, stylish and polished but not socially impor-
tant, and leading to nothing except a mastery of itself.

As an escape from these three types of distempers, which well
characterized the three great stages in human progress from the
sixth to the fifteenth centuries. Bacon offered the inductive
method, by means of which men would be able to distinguish true
from false, learn to see straight, create useful knowledge, and fill
in the great gaps in the learning of the time by actually working
out new knowledge from the unknown. The collecting, organiz-
ing, comparing, questioning, and inferring spirit of the humanistic
revival he now turned in a new direction by organizing and formu-
lating for the work a new Organum to take the place of the old
Organon of Aristotle. In Book I he sets forth some of the difficul-
ties (R. 208) with which those who try new experiments or work
out new methods of ^tudy have to contend from partisans of old
ideas.

The Novum Organum showed the means of escape from the er-
rors of two thousand years by means of a new method of thinking
and work. Bacon did not invent the new method — it had been
used since man first began to reason about phenomena, and was
the method by means of which Wychffe, Luther, Magellan, Co-
pernicus, Brahe, and Gilbert had worked — but he was the first to
formulate it clearly and to point out the vast field of new and use-

392 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ful knowledge that might be opened up by applying human rea-
son, along inductive lines, to the investigation of the phenomena
of nature. His true service to science lay in the completeness of
his analysis of the inductive process, and his declaration that
those who wish to arrive at useful discoveries must travel by that
road. As Macaulay well says, in his essay on Bacon:

He was not the maker of that road ; he was not the discoverer of that
road; he was not the person who first surveyed and mapped that road.
But he was the person who first called the pubHc attention to an inex-
haustible mine of wealth which had been utterly neglected, and which
was accessible by that road alone.

To stimulate men to the discovery of useful truth, to turn the
energies of mankind — even slowly — from assumption and dis-
putation to patient experimentation,^ and to give an impress to
human thinking which it has retained for centuries, is, as Macau-
lay well says, "the rare prerogative of a few imperial spirits."
Macaulay 's excellent summary of the importance of Bacon's
work (R. 209) is well worth reading at this poiht.

The new method in the hands of subsequent workers. By the
middle of the seventeenth century many important advances had
been made in many different lines of scientific work. In the two
centuries between 1450 and 1650, the foundations of modern
mathematics and mechanics had been laid. At the beginning of
the period Arabic notation and the early books of Euclid were
about all that were taught; at its end the western w^orld had
worked out decimals, symbolic algebra, much of plane and spher-
ical trigonometry, mechanics, logarithms (1614) and conic sec-
tions (1637), and was soon to add the calculus (1667-87). Mer-
cator had pubHshed the map of the world (1569) which has ever
since born hi^ name, and the Gregorian calendar had been intro-
duced (1572). The barometer, thermometer, air-pump, pendu-
lum clock, and the telescope had come into use in the period. Al-
chemy had passed over into modern chemistry; and the astrologer
was finding less and less to do as the astronomer took his place.
The English Hippocrates, Thomas Sydenham (1624-89), during
this period laid the foundations of modern medical study, and the
microscope was appHed to the study of organic forms. Modern
ideas as to light and optics and gases, and the theory of gravita-

^ Bacon himself died a victim of one of his inductive experiments. Wishing to
try out his theory that cold would prevent or retard putrefaction, he killed a
chicken, cleaned it, and packed it in snow. In so doing he contracted a cold which
caused his death.

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 393

Fig. 119. The Loss and Recovery of the Sciences

Each short horizontal line indicates the Hfe-span of a very distinguished scholar in
the science. Mohammedan scientists have not been included. The relative neg-
lect or ignorance of a science has been indicated by the depth of the shading. The
great loss to civilization caused by the barbarian inroads and the hostile attitude of
the early Church is evident.

tion, were about to be set forth. All these advances had been
made during the century following the epoch-making labors of
Copernicus, the first modern scientific man to make an impression
on the thinking of mankind.

Accompanying this new scientific work there arose, among a
few men in each of the western European countries, an interest in
scientific studies such as the world had not witnessed since the
days of the Alexandrian Greek. This interest found expression in
the organization of scientific societies, wholly outside the univer-
sities of the time, for the reporting of methods and results, and
for the mingling together in sympathetic companionship of these
seekers after new truth. The most important dates connected
with the rise of these societies are:

1603. The Lyncean Society at Rome.

1619. Jungius founded the Natural Science Association at Rostock.

1645. The Royal Society of London began to meet; constituted in

1660; chartered in 1662.
1657. The Academia del Cimento at Florence.
1662. The Imperial Academy of Germany.
1666. The Academy of Sciences in France.
1675. The National Observatory at Greenwich established.

After 1650 the advance of science was rapid. The spirit of
modern inquiry, which in the sixteenth century had animated but
a few minds, by the middle of the seventeenth had extended to all

394

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the principal countries of Europe. The striking results obtained
during the seventeenth century revealed the vast field waiting to
be explored, and filled many independent modern- type scholars
with an enthusiasm for research in the new domain of science.
By the close of the eighteenth century the main outHnes of most
of the modern sciences had been established.

Leading thinkers outside the universities. During the seven-
teenth century, and largely during the eighteenth as well, the ex-
treme conservatism of the universities, their continued control by
their theological faculties, and their continued devotion to theo-
logical controversy and the teachings of state orthodoxy rather
than the advancement of knowledge, served to make of them such
inhospitable places for the new scientific method that practically
all the leading workers with it were found outside the universities.
This was less true of England than other lands, but -was in part
true of English universities as well. As civil servants, court at-
taches, pensioners of royalty, or as private citizens of means they
found, as independent scholars reporting to the recently formed
scientific societies, a freedom for investigation and a tolerance of
ideas then scarcely possible anywhere in the university world.

Tycho Brahe and Kepler were pensioners of the Emperor at
Prague. Lord Bacon was a lawyer and pohtical leader, and be-
came a peer of England. Descartes, the
mathematician and founder of modern
philosophy, to whom we are indebted for
conic sections; Napier, inventor of loga-
rithms; and Ray and Willoughby, who
did the first important work in botany
and zoology in England, were all inde-
pendent scholars. The air-pump was in-
vented by the Burgomaster of Madgeburg.
Huygens, the astronomer and inventor of
the clock was a pensioner of the King of
France. Cassini, who explained the mo-
tion of Jupiter's satellites, was Astron-
omer Royal at Paris. Halley who demon-
strated the motions of the moon and who first predicted the return
of a comet, held a similar position at Greenwich. Van Helmont and
Boyle, who together laid the foundations of our chemical knowl-
edge, were both men of noble Hneage who preferred the study of
the new sciences to a life of ease at court. Harvey was a physi-

Fig. 1 20. Rene
Descartes (1596-1650)

THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY 395

dan and demonstrator of anatomy in London. Sydenham, the
EngHsh Hippocrates, was a pensioner of Cromwell and a physi-
cian in Westminster. The German mathematical scholar, Leib-
nitz, who jointly with Newton discovered the calculus, scorned a
university professorship and remained an attache of a Gennan
court. Newton, though for a time a professor at Cambridge, dur-
ing most of his mature life held the royal office of Warden of the
Mint. These are a few notable illustrations of scientific scholars
of the first rank who remained outside the universities to obtain
advantages and freedom not then to be found within their walls.
Much these same conditions continued throughout most of the
eighteenth century, during which many remarkable advances in
all lines of pure science were made. By the close of this century
the universities had been sufficiently modernized that scientific
workers began to find in them an atmosphere conducive to scien-
tific teaching and research; during the nineteenth century they
became the homes of scientific progress and instruction; to-day
they are deeply interested in the promotion of scientific research.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that the rise of scientific inquiry was but another manifestation
of the same inquiring spirit which had led to the recovery of the ancient
literatures and history.

2. What do you understand to be meant by the failure of the Greeks to
standardize their observations by instruments?

3. Show that it would be possible largely to deterrriine the character of a
civilization, if one knew only the prevailing ideas and conceptions as to
scientific and religious matters.

4. Show the two different types of reasoning involved in the deduction of
Petrarch (p. 386 ) and the induction of Copernicus.

5. Of which type was the reasoning of Galileo as to Jupiter's satellites?

6. Show that the three "distempers" described by Bacon characterize the
three great stages in human progress from the sixth to the fifteenth
centuries.

7. How do you explain the long rejection of the new sciences by the univer-
sities?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

203. Macaulay: Attitude of the Ancients toward Scientific Inquiry.

204. Franck: The Credulity of Mediaeval People.

205. Copernicus: How he arrived at the theory he set forth.

206. Brewster: Galileo's Discovery of the Satellites of Jupiter.

207. Inquisition: The Abjuration of Galileo.

208. Bacon: On Scientific Progress.

209. Macaulay: The Importance of Bacon's Work.

396 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. How do you explain the attitude of the ancients toward scientific inquiry
(203, 208)?

2. State the ancient purpose in pursuing scientific studies (203).

3. Contrast Bacon and Plato as to aims (203).

4. Show that the thinking of Copernicus as to the motions of the heavenly
bodies (205) was an excellent example of deductive thinking.

5. Show that the discovery and reasoning of Galileo (206) was an example
of the common method of reasoning of to-day.

6. Were the difficulties that surrounded scientific inquiry and progress, as
described by Bacon (208), easily removed?

7. Explain the readiness with which the clergy have so commonly opposed
scientific inquiry for fear that the results might upset preconceived theo-
logical ideas.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Ball, W. R. R. History of Mathematics at Cambridge.
*Libby, Walter. An Introduction to the History of Science.
Ornstein, Martha. Role of the Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth
Century.
*Routledge, Robert. A Popular History of Science.
*Sedgwick, W. T. and Tyler, H. W. A Short History of Science.
* White, A. D. History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, 2 vols.
Wordsworth Christopher. Scholce Academicce; Studies at the English
Universities in the Eighteenth Century.

CHAPTER XVII
THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS

The rise of realism in education. As will be remembered from
our study of the educational results of the Revival of Learning
(chapter xi), the new schools established, in the reaction against
media^valism, to teach pure Latin and Greek, in time became
formal and lifeless (p. 283), and their aim came to be almost en-
tirely that of imparting a mastery of the Ciceronian style, both in
writing and in speech. This idea, first clearly inaugurated by
Sturm at Strassburg (R. 137), had now become fixed, and in its
extreme is illustrated by the teachings of the Jesuit Campion at
Prague (R. 146). As a reaction against this extreme position of
the humanistic scholars there arose, during the .sixteenth century,
and as. a further expression of the new critical spirit awakened by
the Revival of Learning, a demand for a type of education which
would make truth rather than beauty, and the reahties of the life
of the time rather than the beauties of a life of Roman days, the
aim and purpose of education. This new spirit became known as
Realism, was contemporaneous with the rise of scientific inquiry,
and was an expression of a similar dissatisfaction with the learning
of the time. As applied to education this new spirit may be said
to have manifested itself in three different stages, as follows:

1. Humanistic realism.

2. Social reaHsm.

3. Sense realism.

We will explain each of these, briefly, in order.

I. HUMANISTIC REALISM

A new aim in instruction. Humanistic realism represents the
beginning of the reaction against form and style and in favor of
ideas and content. The humanistic realists were in agreement
with the classical humanists that the old classical literatures and
the Bible contained all that was important in the education of
youth. The ancient literatures, they held, presented ''not only
the widest product of human intelligence, but practically all that
was worthy of man's attention." The two groups differed, how-
ever, in that the classical humanists conceived the aim of educa-

i^gH HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion to be the mastery of the vocabulary and style of Cicero, and
the production of a new race of Roman youths for a revived Latin
scholarly world, while the new humanistic reahsts wanted to use
the old literatures as a means to a new end — that of teaching
knowledge that would be useful in the* world in which they lived.
Monroe has so well expressed the humanistic-realist attitude that
a passage from his History is worth quoting here. He says:

Not only did ancient philosophy contain the true philosophy of this
life, but languages were the key to the real understanding of the Chris-
tian religion. Not only did mastery of these languages give power of
speech, and hence influence over one's fellows; but, if military science
was to be studied, it could in no place be better searched for than in
Caesar and in Xenophon; was agriculture to be practiced, no better
guide was to be found than Virgil or Columella; was architecture to be
mastered, no better way existed than through Vitruvius; was geog-
raphy to be considered, it must be through Mela or Solinus; was medi-
cine to be understood, no better means than Celsus existed; was natural
history to be appreciated, there was no more adequate source of infor-
mation than Pliny and Seneca. Aristotle furnished the basis of all
the sciences, Plato of all philosophy, Cicero of all institutional life,
and the Church Fathers and the Scriptures of all religion.

Exponents of humanistic realism.^ The Dutch international
scholar Erasmus (1466?-! 536) (p. 274), the Frenchman Rabelais
(1483-1553), and the EngHsh poet Milton (1608-74) stand as the
clearest representatives of this new humanistic realism.

Erasmus had clearly distinguished between the education of
words and the education of things, had pointed out the ease with
which real truth is learned and retained, and had urged the study
of the content rather than the form of the ancient authors. In
his System of Studies he said :

From these very authors (Latin and Greek), whom we read for thi
sake of improving our language, incidentally, in no small degree is a
knowledge of things gathered.

In his Ciceronian he had ridiculed those who mistook the form for
the spirit of the ancients.

The French non-conforming monk, cure, physician, and uni-
versity scholar, Francois Rabelais, in his satirical Life of Gargan-
tua (1535) and The Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel (1533) had set
forth, even more clearly, the idea of obtaining from a study of the
ancient authors (R. 210) knowledge that would be useful. Writ-
ing largely in the character of a clown and a fool, because such was
a safer method, he protested against the formal, shallow, and in-

SCIExNTlFlC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 399

sincere life of his age. He made as vigorous a protest against
mediaevalism and formalism as he dared, for he lived in a time
when new ideas were dangerous commodities for one to carry
about or to try to express. He ridiculed the
old scholastic learning, set forth the idea of
using the old classics for realistic as well
as humanistic ends, and also advocated
physical, moral, social, and religious edu-
cation in the spirit of the best writers and
teachers of the Italian Renaissance. His
book was extensively read and had some
influence in shaping thinking, though Rabe-
lais's importance in the history of education
lies rather in his influence on later educa-
tional thinkers than on the life of his time.

Perhaps the clearest example of human- r^ ^^' 121. Francois
,. . - 1 . -1 V- f 4-T, Rabelais (1483-1553)

istic realism is found in the writings ol the

English poet and humanitarian, John Milton. His Tractate on
Education (1644) was extensively read, and was influential in
shaping educational practice in the non-conformist secondary
academies which arose a little later in England. Still later his
ideas indirectly somewhat influenced American development.

Milton first gives us an excellent statement of the new religious-
civic aim of post-Reformation education (R. 211), and then
points out the defects of the existing education, whereby boys
''spend seven or eight years merely in scraping together so much
miserable Latine and Greek, as might be learnt otherwise easily
and delightfully in one year." He then presents his plan for ''a
compleat and generous Education" for "noble and gentle
youths," and tells ''how all this may be done between twelve and
one and twenty, less time than is now bestowed in pure trifling
at Grammar and Sophistry." The course of study he outlines
(R. 212) is enormous. The first year, that is beginning at twelve,
the boy is to learn Latin grammar, arithmetic, and geometry, and
to read simple Latin and Greek. During the next three or four
years the pupil is to master Greek, and to study agriculture, geog-
raphy, natural philosophy, physiology, mathematics, fortifica-
tion, engineering, architecture, and natural history, all by reading
the chief writings of the ancients, in prose and poetry, on these
subjects. During the remaining years to twenty-one the pupil,
similarly, is to obtain ethical instruction from the Greeks and the

400

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Bible; learn Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and Saxon law; learn Italian
and Hebrew; and study economics, politics, history, logic, rhet-
oric, and poetry by reading selected ancient authors. What
Rabelais suggested in jest for his giant, Milton adopted as a pro-
gram for the school. In addition, in thoroughly characteristic
modern Enghsh fashion, he makes careful provision for daily exer^
cise and play. Aside, though, from its impossibihty of accom-
phshment except by a superior few, Milton's plan is thoroughly

representative of the new humanistic-
realistic point of view^ — that is, that edu-
cation should impart useful information,
though the information as Milton con-
ceived it was to be drawn almost entirely
from the books of the ancients.

Educational results of humanistic real-
ism. The importance of humanistic real-
ism in the history of education Hes largely
in that it was the first of a series of reac-
tions that led later to sense-realism —
that is, to the study of science and the
application of scientific method in the
schools.

In England it possesses still larger im-
portance. Milton had called his insti-
tution an ''Academy." ^ After the restoration of the Stuarts
(Charles II, 1660), some two thousand non-conforming clergy-
men were ''dispossessed" by the Act of Conformity (1662;
R. 166), and soon after this the children of Non-Conformists
were excluded from the grammar schools and universities.
Many of these clergymen now turned to teaching as a means of
earning a livelihood and serving their people, and the ideas of the
non-conformist Milton were influential in turning the schools
thus established even further toward the study of useful subjects.
Many of the new schools offered instruction in the modern
languages, logic, rhetoric, ethics, geography, astronomy, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, surveying, navigation, history, oratory,

^ See footnote i, p. 273, on the origin of the term. Six years before the publica-
tion of the Tractate, Milton had visited Italy, and had been much entertained in
Florence by members of the Academy and tJniversity there. In the Tractate he
outlined a plan for a series of classical Academies for England, many of which were
established. From England the term was carried to America, and became the name
for a great development of semi-private secondary schools which flourished during
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Fig.

122. John Milton
(1608-74)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 401

economics, and natural and moral philosophy, as well as the old
classical subjects. All teaching, too, was done in EngHsh, and the
study of English language and hterature was emphasized. This
made these non-conformist academies in many respects superior
to the older Latin grammar schools. After the enactment of the
Toleration Act, in 1689, these schools were allowed to incorporate
and were gradually absorbed into the existing Latin grammar-
school system of England, but unfortunately without producing
much change in the character of these older institutions.

The idea of offering instruction in these new studies was in
time carried to America, where better results were obtained. At
first a few of the subjects, such as the mathematical studies, sur-
veying, navigation, and Enghsh, were introduced into the existing
Latin grammar or other schools of secondary grade. Especially
was this true in the colonies south of New England. After 1751,
and especially after about 1780, distinct Academies arose in the
United States (chapter xviii), whose purpose was to offer instruc-
tion in all these new subjects of study. From these our modern
high schools have been derived.

II. SOCIAL REALISM

Montaigne and Locke. Social realism represents a still further
reaction away from the humanistic schools. It was the natural
reaction of practical men of the new world
against a type of education that tended
to perpetuate the pedantry of an earlier
age, by devoting its energies to the pro-
duction of the scholar and professional
man to the neglect of the man of affairs.
The social realists were small in number,
but powerful because of their important
social connections and wealth, and they
were very determined to have an educa-
tion suited to their needs, even if they had
to create it themselves (R. 213). The

French nobleman, scholar, author, and ^

^,\.;^ «: TJT^T^- / \ Fig. 123. Michel de

CIVIC officer, Lord Montaigne (1533-92), Montaigne (1533-92)

and the EngHsh philosopher, John Locke

(1632-1704), were the clearest exponents of this new point of
view, though it found expression in the writings of many others.
Each declared for a practical, useful type of education for the

402 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

young boy who was to live the life of a gentleman in the world
of affairs.

Neither had any sympathy with the colleges and grammar
schools of the time (R. 214), and both rejected the school for the
private tutor. This tutor must be selected with great care, and
first of all must be a well-bred gentleman — a man, as Montaigne
says, "who has rather a well-made than a well-filled head" (R.
215). Locke cautions that "one fit to educate and form the
Mind of a young Gentleman is not every where to be found," and
of the common type of teacher he asks, ''When such an one has
erripty'd out into his Pupil all the Latin and Logick he has brought
from the University, will that Furniture make him a fine Gentle-
man?" (R.216).

Both condemn the school training of their time, and both
urge that the tutor train the judgment and the understand-
ing rather than the memory. To impart good manners rather
than mere information, and to train for life in the world rather
than for the life of a scholar, seem to both of fundamental im-
portance in the education of a boy. ''The great world," says
Montaigne, "is the mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves.
In short, I would have this to be the book my young gentleman
should study with the most attention." "Latin and Learning,"
says Locke, "make all the Noise; and the main Stress is laid upon
Proficiency in Things a great Part whereof belong not to a Gentle-
man's Calling; which is to have the Knowledge of a Man of
Business, a Carriage suitable to his Rank, and to be eminent and
useful to his Country, according to his Station" (R. 216). Both
emphasized the importance of travel abroad as an important
factor in the education of a gentleman.

Their place in the history of education. Both Montaigne and
Locke were concerned alone with the education of the sons of
gentlemen, individuals now coming rapidly into prominence to
dispute place in the world of affairs with the higher nobility on
the one hand and the clergy on the other. With the education of
any other class Montaigne never concerned himself. As for
Locke, he was later appointed a King's Commissioner, with cer-
tain oversight of the poor, and for the education of the children of
such he drew up a careful report which, in true EngHsh fashion,
provided for their training in workhouses and their apprentice-
ship to a trade (R. 217). He wrote nothing with regard tc the
education of the children of middle- class workers and tradesmen.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 403

Fig. 124. John Locke
( 1 63 2-1 704)

Both authors also deal entirely with the work of a tutor, and not
with the work of a teacher in a school. Neither deals specifically
with elementary education, but rather with what, in Europe, would
be called the secondary- school period in
-the education of a boy. Locke was exten-
sively read by the gentry of England, as
expressive of the best current practice of
their class, and his ideas as to education
were also of some influence in shaping the
instruction of the non-conformist teachers
in the academies there. His place in the
history of education is also of some impor-
tance, as we shall point out later, for the
disciplinary theory of education which he
set forth. Still more, Locke later exerted a
deep influence on the writings of Rousseau
(chapter xxi), and hence helped materi-
ally to shape modern educational theory.

The new schools for the sons of the gentry. Both Montaigne
and Locke, in their emphasis on the importance of a practical edu-
cation for the social and political demands of a gentleman con-
cerned with the affairs of the modern world, represent a still fur-
ther reaction against the humanistic schools of the time than did
the humanistic realists whom we have just considered. Still
more, both are expressive of the attitude of the nobility and gen-
try of the time, who had almost deserted the schools as pedantic
institutions of little value. France was then the great country of
Europe, and French language, French political ideas, French
manners, and French tutors found their way into all neighboring
lands. A new social and political ideal was erected — that of the
poHshed man of the world, who could speak French, had traveled,
knew history and pohtics, law and geography, heraldry and gene-
alogy, some mathematics and physics with their applications,
could use the sword and ride, was adept in games and dancing,
and was skilled in the practical affairs of life.

To give such training the French created numerous Academies
in their cities. A writer of 1649 states that there were twelve such
institutions at that time in Paris alone. Not infrequently some
nobleman w^as at the head. Boys were first educated at home by
tutors, and then sent to the Academy to be trained in riding, the
military arts, fortification, mathematics, the modern languages,

404

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 125. An Academie des Armes
From an early eighteenth-century Parisian poster, advertising an Academy

and the many graces of a gentleman. The Englishman, John
Evelyn, who was in France in 1644, thus describes the French
Academies:

At the Palais Cardinal in Paris I frequently went to see them ride
and exercise the Create Horse, especially at t ' e Academy of Monsieur
du Plessis, and de Veau, whose scholes of that art are frequented by
the Nobility; and here also young gentlemen are taught to fence,
daunce, play on musiq, and something in fortifications and mathe-
matics.

At Richelieu, near Tours, belongs an Academy where besides the
exercise of the horse, armes, dauncing, etc., all the sciences are taught
in the vulgar French by Professors stipendiated by the great Cardinal.

The Academy of Juilly included some study of physical science,
mathematics, geography, heraldry, French history, Italian, and Span-
ish, besides the riding and gentlemanly arts.

In England the tutor in the home became the type form for the
education of the sons of a gentleman, the boys frequently being
sent abroad to complete their education. In German lands,
which in the seventeenth century were in close sympathy with

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 405

French life and thought, Heidelberg being a center for the dis-
semination of French ideas, the French academy idea was cop-
ied, and what were called RiUerakademieen (knightly academies)
were founded in the numerous court cities ^ for the education,
along such lines, of the sons of the many grades of the German
nobihty. Between 1620 and 1780, before the rise of the German
nationalistic movement which sought to replace French ideas by
native German culture, was the great period of these German
court schools, and during this period they bestowed on the sons of
the German nobility the courtly and military education of the
French academies. The education of the nobility was in conse-
quence segregated from the intellectual life of other classes.
"Gallants" and ''pedants" were the respective outputs of the
two types of schools.

III. SENSE REALISM

The new educational aims of this group. This represented a
still further and more important step in advance than either of
the preceding. In a very direct way sense realism in education
was an outgrowth of the organizing work of Francis Bacon. Its
aim was:

(i) To apply the same inductive method formulated by Bacon for
the sciences to the work of education, with a view to organizing
a general method which would greatly simplify the instructional
process, reduce educational work to an organized system, and in
consequence effect a great saving of time; and

(2) To replace the instruction in Latin by instruction in the vernacu-
lar,^ and to substitute new scientific and social studies, deemed
of greater value for a modern world, for the excessive devotion
to linguistic studies.

The sixteenth century had been essentially a period of criticism in
education, and the leading thinkers on education, as in other lines
of intellectual activity, were not in the schools. In the seven-

^ Unlike England and France, the German lands long remained feudal and not
united. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany was made up
of more than three hundred little principalities, of which sixty were free cities. Each
little principality was self-governing and maintained its little court.

- Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for forty-eight years a famous London Latin
grammar-school master, often classed as a precursor of the sense realists, in two
books, published in 158 1 and 1582, had urged the great importance of a study of the
English tongue, and of using it as a medium for instruction. In his Elementarie
(1582) he had said: "Our own language bears the joyful title of our liberty and free-
dom, the Latin remembers us of our thralldom and bondage. I love Rome, but
London better; I favor Italy, but England more. I honor the Latin, but I worship
the English." (R. 226.)

4o6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

teenth century we come to a new group of men who attempted to
think out and work out in practice the ideas advanced by the
critics of the preceding period. In the seventeenth century we
have, in consequence, the first serious attempt to formulate an
educational method since the days of the Athenian Greeks and
the treatise of QuintiHan.

The possibiHty of formulating an educational method that
would simpHfy the educational process and save time in in
struction, appealed to a number of thinkers, in different lands.
This group of thinkers, due to their new methods of attack and
thought, the German historian of education, Karl von Raumer,
has called Innovators. The chief pedagogical ideas of the Innova-
tors were:

i. That education should proceed from the simple to the complex,
and the concrete to the abstract.

2. That things should come before rules.

3. That students should be taught to analyze, rather than to con-
struct.

4. That each student should be taught to investigate for himself,
rather than to accept or depend upon authority.

5. That only that should be memorized which is clearly understood
and of real value.

6. That restraint and coercion should be replaced by interest in the
studies taught.

7. That the vernacular should be used as the medium for all instruc-
tion.

8. That the study of real things should precede the study of words
about things.

9. That the order and course of Nature be discovered, and that a
method of teaching based on this then be worked out.

10. That physical education should be introduced for the sake of
health, and not merely to teach gentlemanly sports.

11. That all should be provided with the opportunity for an education
in the elements of knowledge. This to be in the vernacular.

12. That Latin and Greek be taught only to those likely to complete
an education, and then through the medium of the mother tongue.

13. That a uniform and scientific method of instruction could be

worked out, which would reduce education to a science and serve
as a guide for teachers everywhere.

The Englishman, Francis Bacon, whom we have previously con-
sidered; the German, Wolfgang Ratichius (or Ratke); and the
Moravian bishop and teacher, Johann Amos Comenius, stand as
perhaps the clearest examples of this organizing tendency in edu-
cation. Ratke and Comenius will be considered here as types.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 407

Wolfgang Ratke. Bacon had believed that the new scientific
knowledge should be incorporated into the instruction of the
schools, and had suggested, in his Advancement of Learning (1603-
05), a broader course of study for them, and better facihties for
scientific investigation and teaching. While Bacon was not a
teacher and did not write specifically on school instruction, his
writings nevertheless deeply influenced many of those who fol-
lowed his thinking.

The first writer to apply Bacon's ideas to education and to
attempt to evolve a new method and a new course of instruction
was a German, by the name of Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635).
While studying in England he had read Bacon's Advancement of
Learning, and from Bacon's suggestions Ratke tried to work out
a new method of instruction. This he offered, and with much
secrecy, unsuccessfully for sale at various German courts. Fi-
nally he issued an ^'Address " to the princes of Germany, assem-
bled at an Electoral Diet at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 161 2. In
this he told them of his new method, which followed Nature, and
declared that it was ''fraught with momentous consequences"
for mankind. He claimed that he could:

1. By using the German language in the earlier years:

{a) Bring about the use of one common language among the
German people, and thus lay the basis for unity in govern-
ment and religion;

{b) Impart to children a knowledge of the useful arts and
sciences.

2. Teach Latin, Greek, and Hebrew better, and in far less time, than
had previously been required for one language only.

This method he offered to sell to the princes, and he would impart
it only on the promise that it be not revealed to others. Two
professors were appointed to examine Ratke, and they reported
very favorably on his plan.

In 161 7 Ratke pubHshed, in Leipzig, his Methodus Nova, which
was the pioneer work on school method, and is Ratke's chief
claim to mention here. In this he laid down the fundamental
rules for teaching, as he had thought them out. They were as
follows :

1. The order of Nature was to be sought and followed.

2. One thing at a time, and that mastered thoroughly.

3. Much repetition to insure retention.

4. Use of the mother tongue for all instruction, and the languages
to be taught through it.

408 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

5. Everything to be taught without constraint. The teacher to
teach, and the scholars to keep order and discipHne.

6. No learning by heart. Much questioning and understanding.

7. Uniformity in books and methods a necessity.

8. Knowledge of things to precede words about things.

9. Individual experience and contact and inquiry to replace atithor-
ity.

We see here the essentials of the Baconian ideas, as well as the
foreshadowings of many other subsequent reforms in teaching
method.

During the next half-dozen years Ratke was a much inter-
viewed person, as the idea of a more general education of the peo-
ple, advanced by the Protestant reformers, had appealed strongly
to the imagination of many of the German princes. Finally the
necessary money was raised to establish an experimental school/
printing-presses were set up to print the necessary books, the peo-
ple of the village of Kothen, in Anhalt, were ordered to send their
children for instruction, and the school opened with Ratke in
charge and amid great expectations and enthusiasm. A year and
a half later the school had failed, through the bad management of
Ratke and his inability to realize the extravagant hopes he had
aroused, and he himself had been thrown into prison as an im-
postor by the princes. This ended Ratke's work. He is impor-
tant chiefly for his pioneer work as the forerunner of the greatest
educator of the seventeenth century.

Johann Amos Comenius. We now reach not only the greatest
representative of sense realism, both in theory and practice, be-
fore the latter part of the eighteenth century, but also one of the
commanding figures in the history of education. Comenius was
born at Nivnitz, in Moravia, in 1592. As a member, pastor, and
later bishop of the Moravian church, and as a follower of John
Huss, he suffered greatly in the CathoHc-Protestant warfare
which raged over his native land during the period of the Thirty
Years' War. His home twice plundered, his books and manu-
scripts twice burned, his wife and children murdered, and himself
at times a fugitive and later an exile, Comenius gave his long life

1 The school was opened with 433 boys and girls enrolled. It was divided into
six classes. In the first three German only was used. In the first two classes the
children were taught to read and write German, Genesis being the reading book of
the second class. In the third class German grammar was studied. Music, religion,
and the elements of arithmetic were also taught in these classes. In the fourth
class Latin was begun, studying Terence, and Latin grammar was worked out from
the constructions. In the sixth and highest class Greek was taught. A good edu-
cation was to be given in six years, through the saving of time.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 409

to the advancement of the interests of mankind through rehgion
and learning. Driven from his home and country, he became a
scholar of the world.

While a student at the University of Nassau, at the age of
twenty, he read and was deeply impressed by the "Address" of
Ratke. Bacon's Novum Organum, which appeared when he was
twenty-eight, made a still deeper impression upon him. He seems
to have been familiar also with the writings of the educational re-
formers of his time in all European lands. He traveled exten-
sively, and maintained a large correspondence with the scholars of
his time. He was master of a Latin school in Moravia from the
age of twenty-two to twenty-four, when he was ordained as a pas-
tor of the Moravian Church. Eight years later, in 1632, he was
banished, with all Protestant ministers, from his native land, and
while an exile for a time took charge of a school at Lissa, in Poland.
Here he worked out, in practice, the great w^ork on method which
he later published. In 1638 he was invited to reform the schools
of Sweden; in 1641 he visited England, in connection with a plan
for the organization of all knowledge ; he spent the next eight years
working at school reform in Sweden; from 1650 to 1654 he was in
charge of a school at Saros-Patak, in Hungary, where he worked
out his famous textbooks for teaching language; he was consulted
with reference to the presidency of Harvard College, in 1654; the
same year he returned to Lissa, and once more lost his books and
manuscripts and was made a homeless exile; and finally he found
a patron and asylum in Amsterdam, where he died in 167 1, at the
age of seventy-nine. The verse beneath his portrait seems an
especially appropriate commentary on his life.

Comenius and educational method.' While teaching at Lissa,
in Poland, Comenius had formulated for himself the principles
underlying school instruction, as he saw it, in a lengthy book
which he called The Great Didactic.'^ The title page (R. 218) and
the table of contents (R. 219) will give an idea as to its scope. In
this work Comenius formulated and explained his two funda-
mental ideas, namely, that all instruction must be carefully
graded and arranged to follow the order of nature, and that, in
imparting knowledge to children, the teacher must make constant

1 This was written out in his native Czech tongue, but was not pubHshed at the
time. A quarter of a century later it appeared in Latin, with his collected works,
as pubHshed by his patron at Amsterdam (1657). It was then forgotten for two
centuries. In 1841 the manuscript was found at Lissa, and published in the original
at Prague, in 1848. The first English edition appeared in i8q6.

4IO HISTORY OF EDUCATION

appeal through sense-perception to the understanding of the
child. We have here the fundamental ideas of Bacon applied to
the school, and Comenius stands as the clearest exponent of sense
realism in teaching up to his time, and for more than a century
afterward.

Deeply reHgious by nature and training, Comenius held the
Holy Scriptures to contain the beginning and end of all learning;
to know God aright he held to be the highest aim ; and with true
Protestant fervor he contended that the education of every hu-
man being was a necessity if mankind was to enter into its re-
ligious inheritance, and piety, virtue, and learning were to be
brought to their fruition. Unlike those who were enthusiasts
for rehgious education only, Comenius saw further, and held an
ideal of service to the State and Church here below for which
proper training was needed. Still more, he beheved in the educa-
tion of human beings simply because they were human beings,
and not merely for salvation, as Luther had held.

Comenius was the first to formulate a practicable school
method, working along the new lines marked out by Bacon. He
had no psychology to guide him, and worked largely by analogies
from nature. A great idea with him was that we should study
and follow nature, and this led him to the conclusions that educa-
tion should proceed from the easy to the difhcult, the near to the
remote, the general to the special, and the known to the un-
known, and that the great business of the teacher was imparting
and guiding, and not storing the memory. These conclusions
seem commonplaces to us of to-day, but what is commonplace to-
day was genius three hundred years ago. To select the subject-
matter of instruction carefully and on the basis of utility, to elimi-
nate needless materials, not to attempt too much at a time, to use
concrete examples, to have frequent repetitions to fix ideas, to ad-
vance by carefully graded steps, to tie new knowledge to old, to
learn by observing and doing, and to learn by use rather than
by precept — were still other of the present-day commonplaces
which Comenius worked out and formulated in his Didactica
Magna} His plea for a mild and gentle discipline in place of the
brutality of his time, his emphasis of the vernacular and the reali-
ties of life, his conception as to the importance of early education,
his careful gradation of the school, and his ability to see the use-

^ See the English edition edited by M. W. Keatinge, A. and C. Black, London,
1896.

B^JumfM.'S:

f^hucrfc

I^c^ncre an C:Ktlc . wkf tpjcruc kt/ QoU ^
'0 all the worid, make4- all tJu rvprUi nlf cm/rtc .

Plate io. John Amos Comenius (i 592-1670)

The Moravian Bishop at the age of fifty. (After an engraving by Glover,
printed as a frontispiece to Hartlib's A Reformation oj Schooles. London, 1642.)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 411

fulness of Latin without over-emphasizing its importance — all
stamp him as a capable and practical schoolmaster who saw
deeply into the nature of the educational process.

Comenius* ideas as to the organization of schools. In his Di-
dactica Magna Comenius divided the school life of a child into
four great divisions. The first concerned the period from infancy
to the age of six, which he called The Mother School. For this
period he wrote The School of Infancy (1628), a book intended
primarily for parents, and one of such deep insight and funda-
mental importance that parents and teachers may still read it
with interest and profit. In it he anticipated many of the ideas
of the kindergarten of to-day. The next division was The Vernac-
ular School, which covered the period from the ages of six to
twelve. For this period six classes were to be provided, and the
emphasis was to be on the mother tongue. This school was to be
for all, of both sexes, and in it the basis of an education for life
was to be given. It was to teach its pupils to read and write the
mother tongue; enough arithmetic for the ordinary business of
life, and the commonly used measures; to sing, and to know cer-
tain songs by rote; to know about the real things of Hfe; the Cate-
chism and the Bible; a general knowledge of history, and espe-
cially the creation, fall, and redemption of man; the elements of
geography and astronomy; and a knowledge of the trades and
occupations of life; all of which, says Comenius, can be taught
better through the mother tongue than through the medium of
the Latin and Greek. In scope this school corresponds with the
vernacular school of modern Europe.

The next school was The Latin School, covering the years from
twelve to eighteen, and in this German, Latin, Greek, and He-
brew were to be taught, by improved methods, and with physics
and mathematics added. This school he divided into six classes,
named from the principal study in each, as follows: (i) Grammar,
(2) Physics, (3) Mathematics, (4) Ethics, (5) Dialectics, (6) Rhet-
oric. He also later outHned a plan for a six-class Gymnasium for
Saros-Patak (R. 220), culminating in a seventh year for prepara-
tion for the ministry, which was an improvement on the Latin
School and very modern in character. Had such a school be-
come common, secondary education in Europe might have been a
century in advance of where the nineteenth century found it.
The Latin school was to be attended only by those of abihty
who were likely to enter the service of Church or State, or whq

412 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

intended to pass on to the University. This last was to cover
the period from eighteen to twenty-four. UnUke all educational
practice of his time and later, Comenius here provides for an edu-
cational ladder of the present-day American type, wholly unlike
the European two- class school system which (p. 353) later evolved.

Comenius^ work in reforming language teaching. At the time
Comenius lived and wrote, the languages constituted almost the
only subject of study, and Latin grammar was the great introduc-
tory subject. The mediaeval grammars (Donatus; Alexander de
Villa Dei; pp. 156, 155) had been so poor that the instruction was
difficult and, in consequence, long drawn out. Lily's Latin Gram-
mar (p. 276), published in 1513, and Melanchthon's Latin Gram-
mar, pubhshed in 1525, had represented marked advances. Still
the subject remained difficult, even when taught from these new
types of grammars. Comenius early became convinced, as a result
of his teaching and studies in educational method, that the ancient
classical authors were not only too difficult for boys beginning the
study of Latin, but that they also, did not contain the type of real
knowledge he felt should be taught in the schools. He accord-
ingly set to work to construct a series of introductory Latin read-
ers which would form a graded introduction to the study of Latin,
and which would also introduce the pupil to the type of world
knowledge and scientific information he felt should be taught.

His plan eventually embraced a graded series of five books, as
follows:

1. The Orbis Sensualium Pictus, or the World of Sense Objects
Pictured. This was an illustrated primer and first reader, which ap-
peared in 1658, and was the first illustrated book ever written for chil-
dren (R. 221).

2. The Vestibulum (Vestibule, or gate). An easy first reader, con-
sisting of but a few hundred of the most commonly used Latin words
and sentences, with a translation into the vernacular in parallel col-
umns. This book required about a half-year for its completion.

3. The Janua Linguarum Reserta, or Gate of Languages Unlocked.
This was the first of the series printed (163 1), the Vestibulum being an
easy introduction to it, and the Orbis Pictus being the Janua simplified
and illustrated. The Janua contained some eight thousand Latin
words, arranged in simple sentences, with the vernacular equivalent in
parallel columns; included information on a variety of subjects; ^ and

^ The following is illustrative: B D

"Sec. 518 (Geometria) . Ex concursu lihearuni iit angulus qui
est vel rectus, quern linea incidens perpendicularis eflicit, ut est

(in subjecto schemate) angulus A C B; vel acutus, minor recto, *

ut B C P; vel obtusus, major recto, ut A C P,"

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 413

was a regular Noah's Ark for vocabulary purposes. It embraced
sufficient reading material and grammar for a year.

4. The Atrium. This was an expansion of the Janua, and treated
the same topics more in detail. It was intended to be an advanced
reader, based, as was the Janua, on studies about the real things of life.
The vocabulary now was Latin-Latin, instead of Latin-vernacular.

5. The Thesaurus, which was never completed, but was planned to
be a collection of graded extracts from easy Latin authors — Corne-
lius Nepos, Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, Pliny — to furnish
the needed reading material for the three upper years of the Latin
School.

The textbooks illustrated. Beginning in the Janua, and after-
wards in the Vestibulum and Orbis Pictus as well, Comenius not
only simplified the teaching of Latin by producing the best text-
books for instruction in the subject the world had ever known,
but he also shifted the whole emphasis in instruction from words
to things, and made the teaching of scientific knowledge and use-
ful world information the keynote of his work. The hundred
different chapters of the Janua, and the hundred and fifty-one
chapters of the Orhis Pictus, were devoted to imparting informa-
tion as to all kinds of useful subjects. The following selections
from the chapter titles of the Orhis Pictus illustrate how large a
place the new scientific studies occupied in his conception of the
school :

The World

Birds

The Heavens

Cattle

Fire

Fish

Wind

Parts of Man

Water

Flesh and Bowels

Clouds

Chanels and Bones

Earth

Senses

Fruits

Deformities

Metals
Trees
Herbs
Flowers

Husbandry
Bees and Honey
Butchery
Cookery

Weaving

Philosophy

Tailor

Prudence

Barber

Diligence

Schoolmaster

Temperance

Shoemaker

Fortitude

Carpenter

Humanity

Potter

Justice

Printing

Consanguinity

Geometry

A City

The Planets

Merchandizing

Eclipses

A Burial

Europe

Religious Forms

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 126, 127) reveal the nature
of the text-books he prepared. (See also R. 221 for four ad-
ditional pages of illustrations from the Orhis Pictus)

The success of these textbooks was immediate and very great.
Within a short time after the pubhcation of the Janua it had been
translated into Belgian, Bohemian, English, French, German.
Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Latin, PoHsh, Spanish, and Swedish,
as well as into Arabic, Mongolian, Russian, and Turkish. The

The Barbers Shop, LXXV.

7^e Barber, i*
fn f^ff Barbers-fllop, 2.
cutteth off the Hair
and the Beard
with a pah qfSizzars, 3.
cr flmveth with a Razor,
rphkh he taketh out of hU
Cafe, 4.

And he waJJ:€th one
ever a Bafon, 5.
mth Suds running
out of a Laver, ^.
andalfo with Sppe, 7*
andwipeth him
with a Towel, B,
combeth him with a Comb, 9.
(ind curleth him
•with a Crifping Iron, lo.

Sometimes he cutteth a Vein
w/V/; 4 Pen-knife, 11.
Tphere thcBhod^irteph 0Hf^i2,

Tonfor^ i.
inTonfirina^ 2$
tondec Crines
& Barbam
ForcipCy g.
vel radit Novacul^^
quam e 27;eM, 4. depromit.

Ec lavac
fuper Ff /a//w, 5.
Lixivio defluente
e Outturnio^ 6*
uc & i'/j;^(?/te, 7,
& tergit
LititeOy 8»
peOic Pe^hie^ g,
crifpac
CalamiflrOy 10.

Interdum Venam fecac
ScalpeUo^ ir,

ubi Sanguis propullulat, 12.

77?e

Fig. 126. A Sample Page from the ''Orbis Pictus"

The illustration and Latin text is from the first edition of 1658; the
English translation from the English edition of 1727

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 415

Orlis Pictus was an even greater success.^ It went through many
editions, in many languages; stood without a competitor in
Europe for a hundred and fifteen years; and was used as an intro-
ductory textbook for nearly two hundred years. An Ameri-
can edition was brought out in New York City, as late as 1810.

The Portal to the Gafte oF.Ti^iguasf.

Qoatnor Evangeliftae,quiirqac

renruStfcK profefti dies-
Septem pedcionesin Oracione

Dominica*
0^0 dies /unc feptiinaiia*
Tcr tria fun: novcm-
Decern prccepta Dei*
Undecim Apoftoli, dempio

Judl.
Diiodecim fidei articuli-
Triginci dies funr noenfis.
Ccncum anni Tunc fcculum.
Saranas eft mille fraodtun ir-

cifex.

Fow Evingelifis, fiyefmfes^fi*

"Se%tn pititim in tbtlora*i]^^^j^
^''^f' Biflioi^ofT

Thrict th' fcare nine. bu Trcarf^

TtnCommandttnmiofOtd, ^fj^J*;^
ilevm ApofiltsJudM biiiigt^ thcLordt

Cfpud. Supper

rmlvt Articles of the faith, divide*
Thirty dayes are a mmth.
A hundred je»i are m igfi
Satan it, the forger of a tboufettH

deceits.

theo).

Fig. 127. Part of a Page from a Latin-English Edition of

THE "VeSTIBULUM"

Thousands of parents, who knew nothing of Comenius and cared
nothing for his educational ideas, bought the book for their chil-
dren because they found that they liked the pictures and learned
the language easily from it.-

Place and influence of Comenius. Comenius stands in the
history of education in a position of commanding importance.
He introduces the whole modern conception of the educational
process, and outlines many of the modern movements for the im-
provement of educational procedure. What Petrarch was to the
revival of learning, what Wycliffe was to religious thought, what
Copernicus was to modern science, and what Bacon and Des-
cartes were to modern philosophy. Comenius was to educational
practice and thinking (R. 222). The germ of almost all eight-
eenth- and nineteenth-century educational theory is to be found
in his work, and he, more than any one before him and for at least
two centuries after him, made an earnest effort to introduce the

^ A very good reprint of the 1727 English edition, with pictures from the first
edition of 1658, was brought out by C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, New York, in 1887.
This ought to be in all libraries where the history of education is taught.

- Basedow's Elementarwerk mit Kupfern (Elementary Reading Book, with copper-
plate pictures), published in 1773 (see p. 535), was the first attempt, and not a
particularly successful one either, to improve on the Orbis Pictus.

4i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

new science studies into the school. Far more liberal than his
Lutheran or Calvinistic or Anghcan or CathoHc contemporaries,
he planned his school for the education of youth in religion and
learning and to fit them for the needs of a modern world. Unlike
the textbooks of his time, and for more than a century afterward,
his were free from either sectarian bigotry or the intense and
gloomy atmosphere of the age.

Yet Comenius lived at an unfortunate period in the history of
human progress. The early part of the seventeenth century was
not a time when an enthusiastic and aggressive and liberal-
minded reformer could expect much of a hearing anywhere in
western Europe. The shock of the contest into which western
Christendom had been plunged by the challenge of Luther had
been felt in every corner of Europe, and the culmination of a cen-
tury of warfare was then raging, with all the bitterness and brutal-
ity that a religious motive develops. Christian Europe was too
filled with an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and hatred to
be in any mood to consider reforms for the improvement of the
education of mankind. As a result the far-reaching changes in
method formulated by Comenius made but slight impression on
his contemporaries; his attempt to introduce scientific studies
awakened suspicion, rather than interest; and the new method
which he formulated in his Great Didactic was ignored and the
book itself was forgotten for centuries. His great influence
on educational progress was through the reform his textbooks
worked in the teaching of Latin, and the slow infiltration into the
schools of the scientific ideas they contained. As a result, many
of the fundamentally sound reforms for which he stood had to be
worked out anew in the nineteenth century. It is sad to con-
template how far our western world might have been advanced in
its educational organization and scientific progress, by the close of
the eighteenth century, had it been in a mood to receive and util-
ize the reforms in aims and methods, and to accept the new scien-
tific subject-matter, proposed and worked out by this far sighted
Moravian teacher. Religious bigotry has, in all lands and ages,
proved itself one of the most serious of all obstacles in the path of
human progress.

IV. REALISM AND THE SCHOOLS

The vernacular schools. The ideas for which the realists just
described had stood were adopted in the people's schools but

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 417

slowly, and came only after long waiting. The final incorpora-
tion of science instruction into elementary education did not come
until the nineteenth century, and then was an outgrowth of the
reform work of Pestalozzi on the one hand, and the new social,
political, economic, and industrial forces of a modern world on the
other.

The Peace of Westphaha (1648), which closed a century of bit-
ter and vindictive religious warfare, was followed by another cen-
tury of hatred, suspicion, and narrow religious intolerance and
reaction. All parties now adopted an extremely conservative at-
titude in matters of religion and education, and the protection of
orthodoxy became the chief purpose of the school. Reading, re-
ligion, a Httle counting and writing, and, in Teutonic lands, music,
came to constitute the curriculum of such elementary vernacular
schools as had come to exist, and the religious Primer and the
Bible became the great school textbooks. The people were poor,
much of Europe was impoverished and depopulated as a result of
long-continued religious strife, the common people still occupied a
very low social position, there were as yet no qualified teachers,
and no need for general education aside from religion. Still more,
during more than a thousand years the Church had established
the tradition of providing free education, and when the governing
authorities of the States which turned to Protestantism had taken
from the Church both the opportunit}^ to continue the schools
and the wealth with which to maintain them, they were seldom
willing to tax themselves to set up institutions to continue the
work formerly done gratis by the Church. In consequence, re-
gardless of Protestant educational theory as to the need for gen-
eral education, but little progress in providing vernacular schools
was made during the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

Here and there in Teutonic lands, however, the new studies
found an occasional patron. In 1619 schools were organized for
the Httle Duchy of Weimar (p. 317) by a pupil of Ratke, and
sense realism was given a place in them. The schoolmaster, An-
dreas Rayher, who in 1642 drew up the Schule Methodus for Duke
Ernest of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg, was familiar with the
work of both Ratke and Comenius, and made provision for in-
struction in "the natural and useful sciences" (R. 163) for Duke
Ernest's children. Here and there a few oth^r attempts to pro-
vide schools and add instruction in the new Realien were made.

41 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The number of such attempts was not large, but their work was
influential, and as a result vernacular schools and science instruc-
tion finally became established am.ong German-speaking peoples
before they did in any other land.

The secondary schools. The influence of Milton's Tractate on
the non- conformist Academies of England has been traced, and
the transfer of the idea of instruction in the new mathematical,
scientific, literary, historical, and political subjects to the new
American Academies has been mentioned. That these new stud-
ies also entered into the education of a gentleman in England and
France, under the private- tutor and the courtly-academy system,
and were copied from the French and constituted a large part of
the instruction organized for the Ritterakademieen of the numer-
ous court cities in German lands, has also been mentioned. In
both England and France such private instruction exerted but
little influence on the existing Latin grammar schools, and in
consequence the schools of both countries remained largely un-
changed in direction and purpose until the second half of the nine-
teenth century. In German lands the Ritterakademieen idea
experienced a further development, which proved to be of large
importance for the future of German education.

Francke^s "Institutions." With the introduction of French
ideas and training into the German courts, French skepticism
in matters of religion developed in the court circles. Under the
influence of a pious Lutheran clergyman, Philip Spener (1635-
1705), who tried to emphasize religion as an affair of the heart
rather than the head; and especially as a result of the work of his
spiritual successor, Augustus Hermann Francke, a movement
arose in German lands, during the closing years of the seven-
teenth century, which became known as Pietism} Disgusted
with the lifeless and insincere religion of the time, these two
strove to substitute a rehgion of both head and heart. In
1695, moved by pity for the poor, Francke estabhshed at Halle
the first of his famous "•Institutions," — a school for poor chil-
dren. A pay school for the well-to-do was soon added, and soon
another school for the children of nobility. An orphan school also
was in time provided. The school for the poor developed into a
vernacular or Burgher (volks; peoples) school; the school for the
pay pupils into a Latin School, or Gymnasium; and the school for

^ This term was at first applied in derision, just as Methodism was applied to the
English religious reformers in the eighteenth centur}-, but the term was soon made
reputable by the earnestness and ability of those who accepted it.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 419

nobles into a higher scientific school, or Padagogium as it was
called. At first Fran eke encountered some theological opposition,
but the ''Institutions" prospered, and at the time of his death
contained over 2200 pupils, and over 300 teachers, workers, and
attendants.

The interesting thing about Francke's work was the courses of
instruction he provided for his schools.^ In the Burgher School
he gave the children instruction in
history, geography, and animal life,
in addition to the reading, writing,
counting, music, and religion of the
usual German vernacular school. Into
the Gymnasium he introduced instruc-
tion in history, geography, music, sci-
ence, and mathematics, in addition to
the usual Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
He also changed the purpose of the
language instruction. Greek was stud-
ied to be able to read the New Tes-
tament in the original, and Hebrew
better to understand the Old. The
Padagogium was provided with a bo-
tanical garden, a cabinet of natural
history, physical apparatus, a laboratory for the study of chem-
istry and anatomy, and a workshop for turning and glass cutting.
Independent of the work of Comenius, but as an outgrowth of
the new movement for the study of science now beginning to
influence educational thought, we have here the most important
attempt at the introduction into the school of sense realism, or
Realien, as the Germans say, that the modern world had so far
witnessed. In 1697 Francke added a, Seminariwn PrcBceptorium,
to train teachers in his new ideas. This was the first teachers'
training-school in German lands, and the teachers he trained
served to scatter his educational ideas over the German States.^

^ Francke's father had been counselor to Duke Ernest of Gotha, who had created
for his little duchy the most modern-type school system of the seventeenth century.
How much Francke's progressive ideas in educational matters go back to the work
of Duke Ernest forms an interesting speculation.

2 "Francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed doing, and then to do
it regardless of obstacles or consequences. The magnitude of his work in Halle is
simply marvelous, and yet what he actually accomplished is insignificant in com-
parison with what he inspired others to do. He showed how practical Christianity
could be incorporated in the work of the common schools; his plan was immediately
adopted by Frederick William I and made well-nigh universal in Prussia. He

Fig. 128. Augustus
Hermann Francke

(1663-1727)

420 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The first Realschule. Associated with Francke as a teacher
was one Christopher Semler (i 669-1 740), who became deeply in-
terested in the new studies of the secondary school. In 1706
Semler had submitted a plan to the government of Magdeburg
for the teaching of the practical studies. This was referred to the
Berlin Society of Sciences, which approved the plan, and later
elected Semler to membership in the Society. For years Semler
continued as a teacher at Halle, but without carrying the idea far
enough to create a new type of school. In 1 739 Semler published
a paper ''Upon the Mathematical, Mechanical, and Agricultural
Real School in the City of Halle," in which he described the in-
struction given there. This was probably the first use of the term
"real school" {Realschule). The important subjects described ae.
taught, aside from religion, were "the useful and in daily life
wholly indispensable sciences," such as mathematics, drawing,
geography, history, natural history, agriculture, and economics,
with much emphasis on observation by the pupils.

The work at Halle soon stimulated complaints as to the existing

Latin schools, where children, destined for business or the service

of the State, Vv^ere kept trying to learn Latin, "to the neglect of

more practical and more useful studies." The usefulness of the

new real studies now began to be more correctly estimated, and

the conviction gradually grew that those boys who were destined

for trade — now a rapidly increasing number — should not be

obhged to follow the same course as those destined to be scholars.

In 1720 Rector Gesner, of the gymnasium at Rotenburg, wrote,

rather sarcastically:

The one class, who will not study, but will become tradesmen, mer-
chants, or soldiers, must be instructed in writing, arithmetic, writing
letters, geography, description of the world, and history. The other
class may be trained for studying.

In 1742 the Rector at Dresden, Schottgau, issued a "Humble
proposal for the special class in public city schools" to provide for
those children "who are to remain without (that is, cannot learn)
Latin." Instead of forcing them to attempt to learn Donatus,
which he said was useless for them, he urged that a special class
(school) be organized to train them to become useful merchants,

showed how the Realien coUld be profitably employed in a Latin school, and even
made a constituent part of a university preparatory course; as a result of his methods,
and especially of his suggestion that schools should be founded for the exclusive
purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen class for practical life, there has since
grown up in Germany a class of i?ea/-schools." (Russell, J. E., German Higher
Schools, p. 64.)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 421

artists, and mechanics. In 1751 Rector Henzky, of Prenzlau,
issued a treatise to show "That Real schools can and must be-
come common." In 1756 Gesner, professor at the new Univer-
sity of Gottingen, in a pamphlet "On the organization of a gym-
nasium" (R. 223), urged that there were three classes of youths
for whom schools should be provided, one of which needed the
Realschule.

In 1747 a clergyman by the name of Julius Hecker (i 707-1 768),
who had been a pupil in, and later had taught in Francke's "In-
stitutions," went to Berlin and opened there the first distinct
German Realschule. In this school Hecker provided instruction
in religion, ethics, German, French, Latin, mathematics, drawing,
history, geography, mechanics, architecture, and a knowledge of
nature and of the human body. Classes were organized in archi-
tecture, agriculture, bookkeeping, manufacturing, and mining.
The school prospered from the first, and in time became the
"Royal Realschule'' of Berlin. In answer to a growing demand
for advanced education for that constantly increasing number of
youths destined for the trades or a mercantile career, the real-
schule idea was copied in a number of the important cities of Ger-
many. Thus early — a century in advance of other nations, and
a century and a quarter ahead of the United States — did Prussia
lay the foundations of that scientific and technical education
which, Jater on, did so much toward creating modern industrial
Germany.

The universities and the new scientific learning. Though the
theological persecution of scientific workers largely died out after
about the middle of the seventeenth century, and was never
much of a factor in lands which had embraced some form of
Protestantism, the new sciences nevertheless made but little head-
way in the universities until after the beginning of the eighteenth
century. Up to the close of the seventeenth century the universi-
ties in all lands continued to be dominated by their theological
faculties, and instruction still remained largely encompassed by
mediasvahsm. England represents perhaps the most notable ex-
ception to this statement, scientific studies having been received
with greater tolerance by the universities there than in other
lands. In both CathoHc and Protestant lands the need was felt
for orthodox training, through fear of further heresy, and many
petty restrictions were thrown about study and teaching which
were stifling to free thinking and investigation. Each httle King-

422 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

dom or State now took over the supervision of some old university
within its borders, or established a new one, that it might more
completely control orthodoxy and prepare its own civil servants.
Of the seventeenth century, Paulsen ^ well says:

It was essentially the period of the territorial-confessional university,
and is characterized by a preponderance of theological-confessional
interest. . . . Many new foundations, both Catholic and Protestant,
now appeared. The chief impetus leading to these numerous founda-
tions was the accentuation of the principle of territorial sovereignty,
from the ecclesiastical as well as the political point of view. The con-
sequence was that the universities began to be instrumentia denom-
inationis of the government as professional schools for its ecclesiasti-
cal and secular officials. Each individual government endeavored to
secure its own university in order — (i) to make sure of wholesome
instruction, which meant, of course, instruction in harmony with the
confessional standards of its established church; (2) to retain training
of its secular officials in its own hands; and finally (3) render attend-
ance at foreign universities unnecessary on the part of its subjects, and
thus keep the money in the country.

Large amounts of money were not needed to establish a new univer-
sity. A few thousand guilders or thalers sufficed for the salaries of
ten or fifteen professors, a couple of preachers and physicians would
undertake the theological and medical lectures, and some old monas-
tery would supply the needed buildings.

After the Reformation the law faculty increased to the place of
first importance in all Protestant lands, because the Reformation
had created a new demand for judges and higher court officials to
replace the rule of the clergy. The medical faculty continued to
be, as in the mediaeval universities, the smallest of all the faculties
and amounted to little before the nineteenth century.^ The arts
faculty, or philosophical as it came to be termed in German lands,
offered lectures in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and a general course
in philosophy, but the Aristotelian texts and to some extent medi-
aeval methods in instruction continued to be used until the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century.

Here and there some professor "read" on mathematics, and in
Protestant lands on the new astronomy, and the study of botany
began as the study of herbs in the medical faculty,^ but during

^ Paulsen, Fr., The German Universities, p. 36.

2 As late as 1805, according to Paulsen, of the whole number of students in the
universities of Prussia, there were but 144 in the combined medical faculties, as
against 555 in theology, and 1036 in law.

^ Francke relates that, as a student at Erfurt (c. 1675), he was able to study
physics and botany, along with his theological studies. Oxford records show the
pubHcation of a list of plants in the " Physick Garden " there as early as 1648. The
garden was endowed about that time by the Earl of Danby, and in 1 764 lectures on

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 423

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries few professors or students
were interested in the scientific subjects. By 1675 Bacon's No-
vum Organum had begun to be taught at both Oxford and Cam-
bridge, and by 1700 the Newtonian physics had begun to displace
Aristotle at Oxford. By 1740 it was well estabUshed there. At
first instruction in the new subjects was offered as an extra and
for a fee by men not having professional rank (R. 224), and later
the instruction was given full recognition by the university. By
T700 Cambridge had become a center for mathematical study (R.
225), and with the growth in popularity of the Newtonian philoso-
phy, mathematical studies there took the place held by logic in
the mediaeval university. Cambridge has ever since remained a
center for mathematical and, since the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, for scientific studies as well. Between 1680
and 1700 the University of Paris was reformed, and the mathe-
matical and philosophical studies of Descartes (p. 394) began
to be taught there. The universities of the Netherlands began
to teach the new mathematical and scientific studies even
earlier.

Aside from the above described Realschule development, the
new scientific movement for a time largely passed over German
lands, and in consequence the German universities remained unre-
formed until the eighteenth century. During the seventeenth
century they sank to their lowest intellectual level. In 1694,
largely in protest against the narrowness of the old universities,
the new University of Halle was founded. It received into its
faculty certain forward-looking men who had been driven from
the old universities,^ and is generally considered as the first mod-
ern university. The new scientific and mathematical subjects
and a reformed philosophy were introduced; the instruction in
Greek and Latin was reformed; German was made the medium of
classroom instruction; and a scientific magazine in German was
begun. In 1737 the University of Gottingen became a second
center of modern influence, and from these two institutions the
new scientific spirit gradually spread to all the Protestant univer-

botany were begun there. Lord Bacon, in his Advancement of Learning (1605), had
written: "We see likewise that some places instituted for physic (medicinae) have
annexed the commodity of gardens for simples of all sorts, and do likewise command
the use of dead bodies for anatomies."

1 Thomasius was made professor of theology, and Francke professor of Greek
and Oriental languages. Both had been expelled from the University of Leipzig.
Christian Wolff, who had been banished by Frederick William I, was recalled and
made professor of philosophy. It was he who "made philosophy talk German."

424 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

sities of German lands. A century later they were the leading
universities of the world.

The transition now practically complete. From the time Pe-
trarch made his first "find" at Liege (1333), in the form of two
previously unknown orations of Cicero (p. 244), to the pubHca-
tion of the Principia (p. 388) of Newton (1687), is a period of ap-
proximately three and a half centuries. During these three and a
half centuries a complete transformation of world-life had been
effected, and the mediaeval man, with his eyes on the past, had
given place to the modern man with his eyes on the future. Dur-
ing these three and a half centuries revolutionary forces had been
at work in the world of ideas, and the transition from, mediaeval
to modern attitudes had been accomplished. From 1333 to 1433
was the century of "literary finds," and during this period the
monastic treasures were brought to light and edited and the
classical literature of Rome restored. Greek also was restored to
the western world, and a reformed Latin, Greek, and Hebrew
were given the place of first importance in the new humanistic
school. The invention of printing took place in 1423; 1456 wit-
nessed the appearance of the first printed book, and the perfection
of the new means for the multiplication of books and the dissemi-
nation of ideas. Before 1500 the great era of geographical dis-
covery had been inaugurated; a sea-route to India was found in
1487; and a new continent in 1492. In 1515-18 Magellan's ships
rounded the world.

In 151 7 Luther issued the challenge, the shock of which was
felt in every corner of Christian Europe, and within a half-century
much of northern and western Europe had been lost to the origi-
nal Roman Church. Soon independence in thinking had been
extended to the problem of the organization of the universe, and
in 1543 Copernicus issued the book that clearly marks the begin-
ning of modern scientific thinking and inquiry. Bacon had done
his organizing work by 1620, and Newton's Principia (1687) fi-
nally estabhshed modern scientific thought and work. Comenius
died in 1671, his great organizing work done, and his textbooks,
with their many new educational ideas, in use all over Europe.
The mediaeval attitude still continued in religion and govern-
ment, but the world as a whole had left mediaeval attitudes be-
hind it, and was facing the future of modern world organization
and life. To the educational organization of this modern world
we now turn, though before doing so we shall try to present a

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 425

cross-section, as it were, of the development in educational theory
and practice which had been attained by about the middle of the
eighteenth century.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain why the scholars of the time were so intent on producing a new
race of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarly world.

2. Show that a reaction against humanism was certain to arise, and why.

3. How do you explain the very small influence exerted on the Latin gram-
mar schools of England by the non-conformist Academies, after they had
been absorbed into the existing English non-state system of higher
schools?

4. Compare Milton and Montaigne.

5. What would be the most probable effect on education of the erection of
the pohshed-man-of-the-world ideal?

6. Enumerate the forces favoring and opposing the change of the language
of instruction from Latin to the vernacular.

7. How many of the thirteen principles of the Innovators do we still hold
to be valid?

8. Just what was new in the nine fundamental rules laid down by Ratke,
in his Methodus Nova?

9. What is your estimate of the vernacular schools as outlined by Comenius?
Of the plans for a gymnasium at Saros-Patak?

10. Compare Comenius' Latin school with the College of Calvin (p. 330).

11. State the hew ideas in instruction embodied in the textbooks of
Comenius.

12. Show that Comenius dominates modern educational ideas, even though
his work was largely lost, in the same way that Petrarch or WycHffe or
Copernicus do modern work in their fields.

13. Explain the very slow development of vernacular schools after the
Protestant Revolts.

14. Why would the introduction of real studies into them be especially slow?

15. What explanation can you offer for the much earlier beginnings in scien-
tific instruction in German lands than in England or America, when
much more of the important early scientific work was done by English-
men than by Germans? and the failure of science for a time to find a
home in the German universities?

16. Explain the continued dominance of the theological faculty in the uni-
versities of the seventeenth century.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selections
are reproduced:

210. Rabelais: On the Nature of Education.

211. Milton: The Aim and Purpose of Education.

212. Milton: His Program for Study.

213. Adamson: Discontent of the Nobility with the Schools.

214. Montaigne: Ridicule of the Humanistic Pedants.

215. Montaigne: His Conception of Education.

216. Locke: Extracts from his Thoughts on Education.

217. Locke: Plan for Working Schools for Poor Children.

218. Comenius: Title-Page of the Great Didactic.

426 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

219. Comenius: Contents of the Great Didactic.

220. Comenius: Plan for the Gymnasium at Saros-Patak.

221. Comenius: Sample pages from the Orhis P ictus.

{a) A page from a Latin-German edition of 1 740.
{h) Two pages from a Latin-English edition of 1727.
(c) A page from the New York edition of 1810.

222. Butler: Place of Comenius in the History of Education.

223. Gesner: Need for Realschukn for the New Classes to be Educated.

224. Handbill: How the Scientific Studies began at Cambridge.

225. Green: Cambridge Scheme of Study of 1707.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show that Rabelais (210) was in close sympathy with the best of the new
humanists of his age.

2. Would Milton's definition of the purpose of education (211) be true,
still?

3. Show from Milton's program of studies (212) that he represents a transi-
tion type, and also that his program contains the nucleus of the more
modern studies of the secondary school.

4. Explain the discontent of the nobility (213) with the existing Church
schools.

5. Assuming Montaigne's description of the education of his time (214) to
be true, explain why this might naturally be the case.

6. Just what kind of an education does Montaigne outline (215), and how
great a reaction was this from existing conditions?

7. In how far would Locke's ideas (216) still apply to the education of a
boy of the leisure class?

8. Show that Locke's plan for work-house schools (217) was in thorough
accord with English post-Reformation ideas as to the duty of the State
in matters of education, and also that it contained the beginnings of the
pauper-school idea of education which we later had to combat.

9. From the title-page (218) and the table of contents (219) of Comenius'
Great Didactic^ point out the originality and novelty of his ideas.

10. Compare Comenius' plan for the Saros-Patak Gymnasium (220) with
such schools as Sturm's (137), the college of Guyenne (136), the college
of Calvin (175), and the Jesuits (p. 340).

11. Compare Comenius' plan (220) with the instruction in an American
high school of seventy-five years ago.

12. Compare the Alphabet page of Comenius' Orhis Pictus (221) with the
same page in the New England Primer (202).

13. When so many educational reforms were inaugurated so early by Co-
menius (222), explain their neglect, and our having to work them out
anew in the nineteenth century.

14. What does the need for Rcalschulen (223) indicate as to the evolution
of German society and the recuperation from the ravages of war?

15. Compare the beginnings of scientific study at Cambridge (224) with
beginnings of new subjects to-day in our schools.

16. Just what does the Cambridge Scheme of Study (225) indicate as being
taught there?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Adamson, J. W. Pioneers of Modern Education, 1600-1700.
Barnard, Henry. German Teachers and Educators.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS 427

*Butler, N. M. ''The Place of Comenius in the History of Education";
in Proc. N. E. A., 1892, pp. 723-28.
Browning, Oscar, Editor. MUlon's Tractate on Education.
*Comenius, J. A. Orhis Pictus (Bardeen; Syracuse).
Hanus, Paul H. "The Permanent Influence of Comenius"; in Educa

tional Review, vol. 3, pp. 226-36 (March, 1892).
Laurie, S. S. History of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance.
*Laurie, S. S. John Amos Comenius.

Quick, R. H., Editor. Locke'' s Thoughts on Education. .
*Quick, R. H. Essays on Educational Reformers.

*Vostrovsky, Clara. "A European School of the Time of Comenius
(Prague, 1609)"; in Education, vol. 17, pp. 356-60 (February, 1897.)
Wordsworth, Christopher. S choice Academicce; Studies at the English
Universities in the Eighteenth Century.

CHAPTER XVIII

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

We have now reached, in our history of the transition age which
began with the Revival of Learning — the great events of which
were the recovery of the ancient learning, the rediscovery of the
historic past, the reawakening of scholarship, and the rise of re-
ligious and scientific inquiry — the end of the transition period,
and we are now ready to pass to a study of the development and
progress of education in modern times. Before doing so, however,
we desire to gather up and state the progress in both educational
theory and practice which had been attained by the end of this
transition period, and to present, as it were, a cross-section of
education at about the middle of the eighteenth century. To do
this, then, before passing to a consideration of educational develop-
ment in modern times, will be the purpose of this chapter. We
shall first review the progress made in evolving a theory as to the
educational purpose, and then present a cross-section view of the
schools of the time under consideration.

I. PRE-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

The state purpose of the Greeks and Romans. As we saw,
early in our study of the rise and progress of the education of peo-
ples, the City-States of Greece were the first consciously to evolve
a systematic plan of schooling and a prolonged course of. training
for those who were to guide and direct the State. In Sparta
the training was almost wholly for military efficiency and tribal
safety, but in Athens we found a people using a well-worked-out
system of training to develop individual initiative, advance civi-
lization, and promote the welfare of the State. The education
provided was for but a class, to be sure, and a small ruling class at
that, but it was the first evidence of the new western, individualis-
tic, and democratic spirit expressing itself in the education of the
young. There also we found, for the first time, the thinkers of
the State deeply concerned with the education of the youth of the
State, and viewing education as a necessity to make Hfe worth
living and to secure the State from dangers, both without and

THEORY AND PRACTICE RY 1750 429

within. The training there given produced wonderful results,
and for two centuries the men educated by it ably guided the des-
tinies of Athens.

The essentials of this Greek training were later embodied in the
private-adventure school system that arose in Rome, which was
adapted to conditions and needs there, and which was used for the
training of a few Roman youths of the wealthier families for a po-
litical career. Schooling at Rome, though, never attained the im-
portance or rendered the service that characterized education at
Athens, and never became an instrument of the State used con-
sciously for State ends. One Roman writer, Quintilian, as we
have seen (R. 25), worked out a careful statement of the whole
process of educating a youth for a public career, and this, the first
practical treatise on education, was for long highly prized as the
best-written statement of the educational art.

The future-life conception of the Christians. With the decline
of Roman power and influence, and the victory of Christianity
throughout the Roman world, the State conception of education
was entirely lost to western Europe, and more than a thousand
years elapsed before it again arose in the western world. The
Church now became the State, and the need for any education for
secular life almost entirely passed away. For centuries the aim
was almost entirely a preparation for life in the world to come.
Throughout all the early Middle Ages this attitude continued,
supplemented only by the meager education of a few to carry on
the work of the Church here below.

After the tenth century we noted the rise of some more or
less independent study in some of the monastery and cathedral
schools, and after the twelfth century the rise of studia generalia
marked the congregation into groups of the few interested in a
studious life. These in turn gave rise to the university founda-
tions, and to the beginning of independent and secular study once
more in the western world. The Revival of Learning, the recov-
ery of the ancient manuscripts, the revival of the study of Greek
in the West, the founding of libraries, the invention of paper and
printing, and the revival of trade and commerce — all were new
forces tending to give a new direction to scholarly study, and as a
result a new race of scholars, more or less independent of the
Church, now arose in western Europe. They were, however, a
class, and a very small class at that, and though the result of
their work was the creation of a new humanistic secondary school,

430 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

this still ministered to the needs of but a few This few was in-
tended either for the service of the Church, for the governmental
service of the towns which had by this time attained their inde-
pendence, or for the governments of the rising principalities or
states.

For the great mass of the people, whose purpose in life was to
work and believe and obey, agriculture, warfare, the rising trades
with their guilds (p. 209), and the services of the Church (p. 121)
constituted almost all in the way of education which they ever re-
ceived. To be useful to his overlord and master here and to be
saved hereafter were the chief life-purposes of the common man.
The former he must himself undertake in order to be able to live
at all; the latter the Church undertook to supply to those who
followed her teachings.

The rise of the vernacular religious school. For the first time
in history, if we except the schools of the early Christian period,
the Protestant Revolts created a demand for some form of an ele-
mentary religious school for all. The Protestant theory as to per-
sonal versus collective salvation involved as a consequence the
idea of the education of all in the essentials of the Christian faith
and doctrine. The aim was the same as before — personal salva-
tion — but the method was now changed from that of the Church
as intermediary to personal knowledge and faith and effort. To
be saved, one must know something of the Word of God, and this
necessitated instruction. To this end, in theory at least, schools
had to be established to educate the young for membership in the
new type of Church relationship. Reading the vernacular, a little
counting and writing, in Teutonic countries a little music, and
careful instruction in a religious Primer (R. 202), the Catechism,
and the Bible, now came to constitute the subject matter of a new
vernacular school for the children of Protestants, and to a certain
extent in time for the children of Catholics as well. As we
pointed out earlier (p. 353), between this new type of school for
religious ends and the older Latin grammar school for scholarly
purposes there was almost no relationship, and the two developed
wholly independently of one another. In the Latin grammar
schools one studied to become a scholar and a leader in the politi-
cal or ecclesiastical world; in the vernacular religious school one
learned to read that he might be able to read the Catechism and
the Bible, and to know the will of the Heavenly Father. There
was scarcely any other purpose to the maintenance of the ele-

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 431

mentary vernacular schools. This condition continued until well
into the eighteenth century.

Early unsuccessful educational reformers. Back in the seven-
teenth century, as we have pointed out in the preceding chapter,
a very earnest effort was made by Ratke and Comenius to intro-
duce a larger conception of the educational process into the ele-

FiG. 129. A French School before the Revolution
(After an etching by Boisseau, 1 730-1809)

mentary vernacular school, to eliminate the gloomy religious ma-
terial from the textbooks, to substitute a human- welfare purpose
for the exclusively life-beyond view, and to transform the school
into an institution for imparting both learning and religion. Co-
menius in particular hoped to make of the new elementary reli-
gious school a potent instrument for human progress by introduc-
ing new subject-matter, and by formulating laws and developing
methods for its work which would be in harmony with the new
scientific procedure so well stated by Francis Bacon. Comenius
stands as the commanding figure in seventeenth-century peda-
gogical thought. He reasoned out and introduced us to the whole
modern conception of the educational process and purpose (p.
415), and gave to the school of the people a solid theoretical and
practical basis. Living, though, at an unfortunate period in hu-
man history, he was able to awaken little interest either in ra-

432 HISTORY OF EDUCATIOxN

tional teaching-method or in reforms looking to the advancement
of the welfare of mankind. Instead he roused suspicion and dis
trust by the innovations and progressive reforms he proposed ; his
now-celebrated book on teaching method (Rs. 218, 219) was not
at the time understood and was for long forgotten, while the
fundamentally sound ideas and pedagogical reforms which hj
proposed and introduced were lost amid the hatreds of his time,
and had to be worked out again and reestablished in a later and a
more tolerant age.

Another unsuccessful reformer of some importance, and one
whose work antedated that of both Ratke and Comenius, was
the London schoolmaster, Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for
twenty-five years headmaster of the famous Merchant Taylors'
School (p. 278), and later Master of Saint Paul's School (p. 275).
In 1 581 he issued his Positions, a pedagogical work so far in ad-
vance of his time, and written in such a heavy and affected style,
that it passed almost unnoticed in England, and did not become
known at all in other lands. Yet the things he stood for became
the fundamental ideas of nineteenth-century educational thought.
These were:

1 . That the end and aim of education is to develop the body and the
faculties of the mind, and to help nature to perfection.

2. That all teaching processes should be adapted to the pupil taught.

3. That the first stage in learning is of large importance, and re-
quires high skill on the part of the teacher.

4. That the thing to be learned is of less importance than the pupil
learning.

5. That proper brain development demands that pressure and one-
sided education alike be avoided.

6. That the mother tongue should be taught first and well, and
should be the language of the school from six to twelve.

7. That music and drawing should be taught.

8. That reading and writing at least should be the common right of
all, and that girls should be given equal opportunity with boys.

9. That training colleges for teachers should be established and
maintained.

The modern nature of many of Mulcaster's proposals may be seen
from the table of contents of his volume (R. 226). Mulcaster,
like Comenius, thought far in advance of his age, and in conse-
quence his book was soon and for long forgotten. Yet what
Quick ^ says of him is very true :

^ Quick, R. H, Essays on Educational Reformers, 2d ed., p. 97.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 433

It would have been a vast gain to all Europe if Mulcaster had been
followed instead of Sturm. He was one of the earliest advocates of the
use of the vernacular instead of Latin, and good reading and writing
in English were to be secured before Latin was begun. His elementary
course included five things: English reading, English writing, drawing,
singing, playing a musical instrument. If this were made to occupy
the school time up to twelve, Mulcaster held that more would be done
between twelve and sixteen than between seven and seventeen in the
ordinary (Latin grammar school) way. There would be a further gain
in that the children would not be set against learning.

John Locke, and the disciplinary theory of education. An-
other commanding figure in seventeenth-century pedagogical
thought was the English scholar, philosopher, teacher, physician,
and political writer, John Locke (163 2-1 704). In the preceding
chapter we pointed out the place of Locke as a writer on the edu-
cation of the sons of the EngHsh gentry, and illustrated by an ex-
tract from his Thoughts (R. 216) the importance he placed on such
a practical type of education as would prepare a gentleman's son
for the social and political demands of a world fast becoming
modern. Locke's place in the history of education, though, is of
much more importance than was there (p. 402) indicated. Locke
was essentially the founder of modern psychology, based on the
application of the methods of modern scientific investigation to a
study of the mind,^ and he is also of importance in the history
of educational thought as having set forth, at some length and
with much detail, the disciplinary conception of the educational
process.

Locke had served as a tutor in an English nobleman's family,
had worked out his educational theories in practice and thought
them through as mind processes, and had become thoroughly con-
vinced that it was the process of learning that was important,
rather than the thing learned. Education to him was a process
of disciplining the body, fixing good habits, training the youth in
moral situations, and training the mind through work with stud-

^ Locke was the first to lay the basis for modern scientific psychology to supersede
the philosophic psychology of Plato and Aristotle. In his Essay en the Conduct of
the Human Understanding (1690) upon which he spent many years of labor, he first
applied the methods of scientific observation to the mind, analyzed experiences, and
employed introspection and comparative mental study. He thus built up a psychol-
ogy based on the analysis of experiences, and came to the conclusion that our knowl-
edge is derived by reflection on experience coming through sensation. He is conse-
quently called the founder of empirical psychology, and the forerunner of modern
experimental psych6logy and child study. His philosophy, and his theory of educa-
tion as well, thus came to be a philosophy of experience — a rejection of mere
authority, and a constant appeal to reason as a guide.

434 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ies selected because of their disciplinary value. This conception
of education he sets forth well in the following paragraph, taken
from his Thoughts:

The great Work of the Governor is to fashion the Carriage and form
the Mind; to settle in his Pupils good Habits and the Principles of
Virtue and Wisdom; to give him by little and little a View of Mankind,
and work him into a Love and Imitation of what is excellent and praise-
worthy; and in the Prosecution of it, to give him Vigor, Activity, and
Industry. The Studies which he sets him upon, are but as it were the
Exercise of his Faculties, and Employment of his Time, to keep him
from Sauntering and Idleness, to teach him Application, and accustom
him to take Pains, and to give him some little Taste of what his own
Industry must perfect (§ 94).

In his Thoughts Locke first sets forth at length the necessity for
discipHning the body by means of diet, exercise, and the harden-
ing process. "A sound mind in a sound body " he conceives to be
'' a short but full description of a happy state in this world," and a
fundamental basis for morality and learning. The formation of
good habits and manners through proper training, and the proper
adjustment of punishments and rewards next occupies his atten-
tion, and he then explains his theory as to making all punishments
the natural consequences of acts. Similarly the mind, as the
body, must be discipKned to virtue by training the child to deny,
subordinate desires, and apply reason to acts. The formation of
good habits and the discipHning of the desires Locke regards as
the foundations of virtue. On this point he says:

As the Strength of the Body lies chiefly in being able to endure
Hardship, so also does that of the Mind. And the great Principle and
Foundation of all Virtue and Worth is plac'd in this : — That a Man is
able to deny hifnself his own Desires, cross his own Inclinations, and
purely follow what Reason directs as best, tho' the Appetite lean the
other Way (§ 33).

Similarly, in intellectual education, good thinking and the em-
ployment of reason is the aim, and these, too, must be attained
through the proper discipline of the mind. Good intellectual edu-
cation does not consist merely in studying and learning, he con-
tends, as was the common practice in the grammar schools of his
time, but mu^t be achieved by a proper drilling of the powers of
the mind through the use of selected studies. The purpose of
education, he holds, is above all else to make man a reasoning
creature. Nothing, in his judgment, trains to reason closely so
well as the study of mathematics, though Locke would have his

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 435

boy ''look into all sorts of knowledge," and train his understand-
ing with a wide variety of exercises. In the education given in the
grammar schools of his time he found much that seemed to him
wasteful of time and thoroughly bad in principle, and he used
much space to point out defects and describe better methods of
teaching and management, giving in some detail reasons there-
for. His ideas as to needed reforms in the teaching of Latin
(R. 227) are illustrative.

Locke on elementary education. For the beginnings of educa-
tion, and for elementary education in general, Locke sticks close
to the prevailing religious conception of his time. As for the edu-
cation of the common people, he writes:

The knowledge of the Bible and the business of his own calling is
enough for the ordinary man; a Gentleman ought to go further.

Continuing regarding the beginnings of education and the studies
and textbooks of his day, he says:

The Lord's Prayer, the Creeds, and the Ten Commandments, 't is
necessary he should learn perfectly by heart. . . . What other Books
there are in English of the Kind of those above-mentioned (besides the
Primer) fit to engage the Liking of Children, and tempt them to read,
I do not know ; . . . and nothing that I know has been considered of this
Kind out of the ordinary Road of the Horn Book, Primer, Psalter,
Testament, and Bible (§ 157).

Locke does, however, give some very sensible suggestions as to the
reading of the Bible (R. 228), the imparting of religious ideas to
children, and the desirability of transforming instruction so as to
make it pleasant and agreeable, with plenty of natural playful
activity.^ On this point he writes:

He that has found a Way how to keep up a Child's Spirit easy,
active, and free, and yet at the same time to restrain him from
many Things he has a Mind to, and to draw him to Things that
are uneasy to him; he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these
seeming Contradictions, has, in my Opinion, got the true Secret of
Education (§ 46).

Influence of Lockers Thoughts. The volume by Locke con-
tains much that is sensible in the matter of educating a boy. The

^ " Freedom and self-reliance, these are the watchwords of these two marvelously
modern men (Montaigne and Locke). Expansion, real education, drawing out,
widening out, that is the burden of their preaching; and voices in the wilderness
theirs were! Narrowness, bigotry, flippancy, inertia, these were the rule until
Rousseau's time, and even his voice was to fall upon deaf ears in England." (Mon-
roe, Jas. P., Evolution of the Educational Ideal, p. X22.)

436 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

emphasis on habit formation, reasoning, physical ^activities and
play, the individuaHty of children, and a reformed method in
teaching are its strong points. The thoroughly modern character
of the book, in most respects, is one of its marked characteristics.
The volume seems to have been much read by middle and upper-
class Englishmen, and copies of it have been found in so many old
colonial collections that it was probably well known among early
eighteenth-century American colonists. That the book had an
important influence on the attitude of the higher social classes of
England toward the education of their sons and, consciously or
unconsciously, in time helped to redirect the teaching in that
most characteristic of English educational institutions, the Eng-
lish PubHc (Latin Grammar) School, seems to be fairly clear. On
elementary religious and charity-school education it had practi-
cally no influence.

Locke's great influence on educational thought did not come,
though, for nearly three quarters of a century afterward, and it
came then through the popularization of his best ideas by Rous-
seau. Karl Schmidt ' well says of his work:

Locke is a thorough Englishman, and the principle underlying his
education is the principle according to which the English people have
developed. Hence his theory of education has in the history of peda-
gogy the same value that the English nation has in the history of the
world. He stood in strong opposition to the scholastic and formalized
education current in his time, a living protest against the prevailing
pedantry; in the universal development of pedagogy he gives impulse
to the movement which grounds education upon sound psychological
principles, and lays stress upon breeding and the formation of char-
acter.

Restating and expanding the leading ideas of Locke in his
Eniile (chapter xxi), and putting them into far more attractive
literary form, Rousseau scattered Locke's ideas as to educational
reform over Europe. In particular Rousseau popularized Locke's
ideas as to the replacement of authority by reason and investiga
tion, his emphasis on physical activity and health, his contention
that the education of children should be along lines that were
natural and normal for children, and above all Locke's plea for
education through the senses rather than the memory. In so
popularizing Locke's ideas, and at a time when all the political
tendencies of the period were in the direction of the rejection of

^ Schmidt, Karl, Geschichte der Pddagogik, translated in Barnard's American
Journal oj Education.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 437

authority and the emphasis of the individual, those educational
reformers who were inspired by the writings of Rousseau created
and applied, largely on the foundations laid down by John Locke,
a new theory as to educational aims and procedure which domi-
nated all early nineteenth-century instruction. This we shall trace
further in a subsequent chapter (chapter xxi).

It was at this point that the educational problem stood, in so
far as a theory as to educational aims and the educational process
waj concerned, when Rousseau took it up (1762). Before passing
to a consideration of his work, though, and the work of those in-
spired by him and by the French revolutionary writers and states-
men, let us close this third part of our history by a brief survey of
the development so far attained, the purpose, character, aims,
and nature of instruction in the schools, and their means of sup-
port and control at about the middle of the century in which
Rousseau wrote, and before the philosophical and political revolu-
tions of the latter half of the eighteenth century had begun to in-
fluence educational aims and procedure and control.

II. MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS

The purpose. The purpose of maintaining the elementary
vernacular school, in all European lands, remained at the middle
of the eighteenth century much as it was a century before, though
in the German States and in the American Colonies there was a
noticeable shifting of emphasis from the older exclusively religious
purpose toward a newer conception of education as preparation
for life in the world here. Still, one learned to read chiefly "to
learn some orthodox Catechism," "to read fluently in the New
Testament," and to know the will of God, or, as stated in the law
of the Connecticut Colony (R. 193), "in some competent measure
to understand the main grounds and principles of Christian re-
ligion necessary to salvation." The teacher was still carefully
looked after as to his "soundness in the faith" (R. 238 a); he was
required "to catechise his scholars in the principles of the Chris-
tian religion," and "to commend his labors amongst them unto
God by prayer morning and evening,^ taking care that his scholars
do reverently attend during the same." The minister in practi-
cally all lands examined the children as to their knowledge of the
Catechism and the Bible, and on his visits quizzed them as to the
Sunday sermon. In Boston (17 10) the ministers were required,

^ Rules for ihe schools of Dorchester, Massachusetts.

438 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

on their school visits, to pray with the pupils, and *'to entertain
them with some instructions of piety adapted to their age." In
Church-of- England schools ^'the End and Chief Design" of the
schools estabhshed continued to be instruction in " the Knowledge
and Practice of the Christian Religion as Professed and Taught in
the Church of England" (R. 238 b). In German lands the ele-
mentary vernacular school was still regarded as *'the portico of
the Temple," " Christianity its principal work," and not as "mere
establishments preparatory to public life, but be pervaded by the
religious spirit." ' The uniform system of public schools ordered
established for Prussia by Frederick the Great, in 1763, were after
all little more than religious schools (R. 274), conducted for pur-
poses of both Church and State. As Frederick expressed it, "we
find it necessary and wholesome to have a good foundation laid in
the schools by a rational and a Christian education of the young
for the fear of God, and other useful ends." In the schools of
La Salle's organization, which was most prominent in elementary
vernacular education in Catholic France, the aim continued to be
(R. 182) "to teach them to live honestly and uprightly, by in-
structing them in the principles of our holy religion and by teach-
ing them Christian precepts."

Weakening of the old religious theory. By the middle of the
eighteenth century, however, there is a noticeable weakening of
the hold of the old religious theory on the schools in most Protes-
tant lands. In England there was a marked relaxation of the
old religious intolerance in educational matters as the century
proceeded, and new textbooks, embodying but little of the old
gloomy religious material, appeared and began to be used. By
a series of decisions, between 1670 and 1701 (chapter xxiv), the
English courts broke the hold of the bishops in the matter of the
licensing of elementary schoolmasters, and by the Acts of 17 13
and 1 7 14 the Dissenters were once more allowed to conduct
schools of their own. Coincident with this growth of religious
tolerance among the English we find the Church of England re-
doubling its efforts to hold the children of its adherents, by the
organization of parish schools and the creation of a vast system
of charitable religious schools. In German lands, too, a marked
shifting of emphasis away from solely religious ends and toward
the needs of the government began, toward the end of the eight-

1 Duke Eberhard Louis's Renewed Organization of the German School, 1729; re-
published 1782.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 439

eenth century, to be evident. In Wiirtemberg, which was some-
what typical of late eighteenth-century action by other German
States, a Circular of the General Synod, of November 1787, de-
clares the German schools to be "those nurseries in which should
be taught the true and genuine idea of the duties of men — cre-
ated with a reasoning soul — toward God, government, their fel-
low-men, and themselves, and also at least the first rudiments of
usefrl and indispensable knowledge."

It was in the American Colonies, though, that the waning of the
old religious interest was most notable. Due to rude frontier
conditions, the decHne in force of the old religious-town govern-
ments, the diversity of sects, the rise of new trade and civil in-
terests, and the breakdown of old-home connections, the hold on
the people of the old religious doctrines was weakened there ear-
lier than in the old world. By 1750 the change in religious think-
ing in America had become quite marked. As a consequence
many of the earlier parochial schools had died out, while in the
New England Colonies the colonial governments had been forced
to exercise an increasing state oversight of the elementary school
to keep it from dying out there as well.

Studies and textbooks. The studies of the elementary vernac-
ular school remained, throughout the whole of the eighteenth
century, much as before, namely, reading, a little writing and
ciphering, some spelling, religion, and in Teutonic countries a
little music. La Salle (R. 182) had prescribed, for the Catholic
vernacular schools of France, instruction in French, some Latin,
"orthography, arithmetic, the matins and vespers, le Pater, lAve
Maria, le Credo et le Confiteor, the Commandments, responses.
Catechism, duties of a Christian, and maxims and precepts drawn
from the Testament." The Catechism was to be taught one half-
hour daily. The schoolbooks in England in Locke's day, as he
tells us (p. 435), were "the Horn Book, Primer, Psalter, Testa
ment, and Bible." These indicate merely a religious vernacular
school. The purpose stated for the English Church charity-
schools (R. 238 b), schools that attained to large importance in
England and the American Colonies during the eighteenth cen-
tury, shows them to have been, similarly, religious vernacular
schools. The School Regulations which Frederick the Great
promulgated for Prussia (1763), fixed the textbooks to be used
(R. 274, § 20), and indicate that the instruction in Prussia was
still restricted to reading, writing, religion, singing, and a little

440

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

arithmetic.

lAliiiu^ii'iifi'UUfLiJin/iiaiiniiiLMfuij

Sao tons At
ilmnopqrjf

|ntDe£>amf ofGODtlje
ifatOcc,tD£6onnc>^M

D©rjpatt)et,tDl)itl) art inl^ta-
. tKn,.©alotDeDb«tUp^amti
t\ip Kmseom tcmwZiiP mil be
lont in (Sartb.aBrt ts m^eabent
Mtttbs tbiflbap ouTOaiip b»ati
f no tojQtiu 1)0 our trtrpaflts.aik
@»t fojB'M tt)nn tfjat treJ^lIe
sj3«na««»&»«J Itabeusnot into
Nmpj|«tK>n/^©at DclitotrbBiCMP
ajill ^ /oj tHint «0 tOe {Mnflftorae,
potecr.8tib6K>i»a!W «»v 2la»o.

In colonial America, Noah Webster's description
(R. 230) of the schools he attended in Con-
necticut, about 1764-70, shows that the
studies and textbooks were "chiefly or
wholly Dilworth's SpelHng Books, the
Psalter, Testament, and Bible," with a
Httle writing and ciphering. A few words
of description of these older books may
prove useful here.

The Horn Book. The Horn Book goes
back to the close of the fifteenth cen-
tury,^ and by the end of the sixteenth
century was in common use throughout
England. Somewhat similar alphabet
boards, lacking the handle, were also
used in Holland, France, and in Ger-
man lands. This, a thin oak board on
which was pasted a printed slip, cov-
ered by translucent horn, was the book
from which children learned their letters

Fig. 130. A Horn Book ^^^ ^^^^^ t^. '^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^

usually required some time. Cowper

thus describes this little book:

Neatly secured from being soiled or torn

Beneath a pane of thin translucent horn,

A book (to please us at a tender age

'T is called a book, though but a single page)

Presents the prayer the Savior designed to teach,

Which children use, and parsons — when they preach.

The Horn Book was much used well into the eighteenth century,
but its reading matter was in time incorporated into the school
Primer, now evolved out of an earlier elementary religious man-
ual.

The Primer. Originally the child next passed to the Cate-
chism and the Bible, but about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury the Primer made its appearance. The Primer in its original
form was a simple manual of devotion for the laity, compiled

' One of the earliest horn books known appears in the illuminated manuscript
shown in Figure 44, which dates from 1503. The first definitely known horn book
in England dates from 1587, while most of the specimens found in museums date
from about the middle of the eighteenth century. As improvements or variations
of the horn book, cardboard sheets and wooden squares, known as battledores, ap-
peared after 1770. On these the illustrated alphabet was printed. (See Tuer, A. W.,
History of the Horn Book, 2 vols., illustrated, London, 1886, for detailed descriptions.)

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 441

without any thought of its use in the schools. It contained the
Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and a few of
the more commonly used prayers and psalms.^ The Catechism
soon was added, and with the prefixing of the alphabet and a few
syllables and words it was transformed, as schools arose, into the
first reading book for children. There was at first no attempt at
grading, illustration, or the introduction of easy reading material.
About the close of the seventeenth century the illustrated Primer,
with some attempt at grading and some additional subject-mat-
ter, made its appearance, both in England and America, and at
once leaped into great popularity.

The idea possibly goes back to the Orbis P ictus (1654) of Co-
menius (p. 413: R. 221), the first illustrated schoolbook ever
written. The first English Primer adapted to school use was The
Protestant Tutor, a rather rabid anti-Catholic work which ap-
peared in London, about 1685. A later edition of this contained
the alphabet, some syllables and words, the figures and letters,
the list of the books of the Bible, an alphabet of lessons, the
Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and a poem,
long famous, on the death of the martyr, John Rogers.^ It was
an abridgement of this book which the same publisher brought
out in Boston, about 1690, under the name of The New England
Primer (R. 202). This at once leaped into great popularity, and
became the accepted reading book in all the schools of the Ameri-
can Colonies except those under the Church of England. For
the next century and a quarter it was the chief school and reading
book in use among the Dissenters and Lutherans in America.
Schoolmasters drilled the children on the reading matter and the
Catechism it contained, and the people recited from it yearly in
the churches. It was also used for such spelling as was given. It
was the first great American textbook success, and was still in
use in the Boston dame schools as late as 1806. It was reprinted
in England, and enjoyed a great sale among Dissenters there. Its
sales in America alone have been estimated at least three million
copies. The sale in Europe was also large. It was followed in

^ The diversity of religious primers which had grown up by 1565 led Henry VIII
to cause to be issued a unified and official Primer, containing the Pater Noster, Ave
Maria, Credo, and the Ten Commandments.

- The title-page of an edition of 17 15 declares that edition to be: " The Protestant
Tutor, instructing Youth and Others, in the compleat method of Spelling, Reading,
and Writing True English: Also discovering to them the Notorious Errors,
Damnable Doctrines, and cruel Massacres of the bloody Papists which England may
expect from a Popish Successor."

442

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

England by other Primers and other introductory reading books,
of which The History of Genesis (1708), a series of simple stories
retold from the first book of the Bible, and The Child's Weeks-
Work (17 1 2), containing proverbs, fables, conundrums, lessons on
behavior, and a short catechism, are types. Frederick the Great,
in his list of required textbooks for Prussian schools (R. 274, § 20),
does not mention a Primer.

The Catechism. In all Protestant German lands the Shorter

Catechism prepared by Luther, or the later Heidelberg Cate-

^ . chism; in Calvinistic

lands the Catechism of
Calvin; and in England
and the American Col-
onies the Westminster
Catechism,^ formed the
backbone of the religious
instruction. Teachers
drilled their pupils

THE

SHORTER CATECHISM,

Agreed upon by the Reverend Assembl/
of D 1 V I N E $ at fV*Jiminfitr»

O.TT/H A T it the chief Enc of Man P

f^ jf, Man*$ chief End i$ to glorify
God and tDjoy him forever. ^, ^i ,,

Q. maiRuiehcthCcdgivtntodfnaus ^^^^^ ^^ thoroughly as
htii/\uBmoygUtify<3ndenfoyhi(nf ^^ ^^Y other subject,

A The Word ot Gcd which is contained in writing masters set as
theStripnire$ofihcO]dandNcwTefkameni, copies sentences from
I* the only rui^eto diredl us boiv Ave mw .r, u 1 1,1^
K^orily cttdenpj Him. ^^^ b^^^' children were

CX» fVhat do the Sen'pturef prfncipatfy KQcft^ required to memorize
J, The Sciipiurci principally teach whzt the answers, and the doc-
Man is lu believe concerning God, and whar
Duty God requires of Man,
Q, ffhai it God t

A, Godisa$pirit„ Infinite, EternftTand
Unehangesble, in his ht\c\g^ Wifdom, ?tVf'
fi, Holincis, Junice, Goodnefj and Tfiuh.
Q» Are there more Godt than Oot t

Fig. 131. The Westminster CATEcmsM
(A page from The New England Primer, natural size)

trines contained were
emphasized by teacher
and preacher so that the
children were saturated
with the religious ideas
set forth. No book ex-
cept the Bible did so

much to form the char-
acter, and none so much to fix the reUgious bias of the children.
Almost equal importance was given to the Catechism in CathoHc
lands (R. 182, §§ 21-22), though there supplemented by more
religious influences derived from the ceremonial of the Church.

^ This was compiled by the Westminster Assembly of Divines, called together
by Parhament, in 1643, composed of 121 clergymen, 30 of the laity, and 5 special
commissioners from Scotland. It held 1163 sessions, extending over six years, and
framed the series of 107 questions and answers which appeared in the Primer as
"The Shorter Catechism."

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 443

Spellers. The next step forward, in the transition from the re-
ligious Primer to secular reading matter for school children, came
in the use of the so-called Spellers. Probably the first of these
was The English School-Master of
Edmund Coote (R. 229), first is-
sued in 1596. This gave thirty-
two pages to the alphabet and
spelling; eighteen to a shorter Cat-
echism, prayers, and psalms; five
to chronology; two to writing cop-
ies; two to arithmetic; and twenty
to a list of hard words, alpha-
betically arranged and explained.
As will be seen from this analysis
of contents, this was a schoolmas-
ter's general manual and guide.
After about 1740 such books be-
came very popular, due to the
publication that year of Thomas
Dilworth's A New Guide to the
English Tongue. This book con-
tained, as the title-page (R. 229)
declared, selected lists of words
with rules for their pronunciation,
a short treatise on grammar, a col-
lection of fables with illustrations
for reading, some moral selections,
and forms of prayer for children. It became very popular in New
as well as in old England, and was followed by a long line of
imitators, culminating in America in the publication of Noah
Webster's famous blue-backed American Spelling Book, in 1783.
This was after the plan of the English Dilworth, but was put in
better teaching form. It contained numerous graded lists of
words, some illustrations, a series of graded reading lessons, and
was largely secular in character. It at once superseded the expir-
ing New England Primer in most of the American cities, and contin-
ued popular in the United States for more than a hundred years.*

^ So great was the sale of this book that the author was able to support his fam-
ily, during the twenty years (1807-27) he was at work on his Dictionary of the Eng-
lish Language, entirely from the royalties from the Speller though the copyright re-
turns were less than one cent a copy. At the time of his death (1843), the sales
were still approximately a million copies a year, and the book is still on sale.

Fig. 132. Thomas Dilworth

(?-i78o)

The most celebrated English text-
book writer of his day.

(From the Frontispiece of his School-
master's Assistant, 1740)

444

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

It was the second great American textbook success, and was
followed by a long list of popular Spellers and Readers, leading

up to the excellent secular Read-
ers of the present day.

Arithmetic and Writing. The
first EngHsh Arithmetic, published
about 1540 to 1542, has been en-
tirely lost, and was probably read
by few. The first to attain any
popularity was Cocker's Arithmetic
(1677), this "Being a Plain and
Famihar Method suitable to the
meanest Capacity, for the un-
derstanding of that incomparable
Art." A still more popular book
was Arithmetick : or that Necessary
Art Made Most Easie, by J. Hod-
der. Writing Master, a reprint of
which appeared in Boston, in
1 7 19. The first book written by
an American author was Isaac
Greenwood's Arithmetick, Vulgar
and Decimal, which appeared in
Boston, in 1729. In 1743 appeared Dilworth's The Schoolmaster's
Assistant, a book which retained its popularity in both England
and America until after the beginning of the nineteenth century.
No text in Arithmetic is mentioned in the School Regulations
of Frederick the Great (R. 274, § 20), or in scarcely any of the de-
scriptions left us of eighteenth-century schools. The study itself
was common, but not universal, and was one that many teachers
were not competent to teach. To possess a reputation as an
" arithmeticker " was an important recommendation for a teacher,
while for a pupil to be able to do sums in arithmetic was unusual,
and a matter of much pride to parents. The subject was fre-
quently taught by the writing master, in a separate school,^ while
the reading teacher confined himself to reading, spelling, and re-
Ugion. Thus, for example, following earlier English practice, the
Town Meeting of Boston, in 1789, ordered *Hhree reading schools

1 In Nuremberg, as an example of German practice, the guild of writing and
arithmetic masters continued, throughout all of the eighteenth century, and even
into the nineteenth, as an organization separate from that of other types of
teachers.

Fig. 133. Frontispiece to Noah

Webster's "American

Spelling Book"

This is from the 1827 edition, reduced
one third in size.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 445

and three writing schools established in the town" for the in-
struction of children between the ages of seven and fourteen, the
subjects to be taught in each being^

The writing schools
Writing
Arithmetic

The reading schools
Spelling
Accentuation

Reading of prose and verse
English grammar and composition

The teacher might or might not possess an arithmetic of his own,
but the instruction to the pupil was practically always dictated
and copied instruction. Each pupil made up his own book of
rules and solved problems, and few
pupils ever saw a printed arithmetic.
Many of the early arithmetics were
prepared after the catechism plan.
There was almost no attempt to use
the subject for drill in reasoning or to
give a concrete type of instruction,
before about the middle of the eigh-
teenth century,^ and but little along
such reform lines was accomplished
until after the beginning of the nine-
teenth century.

Writing, similarly, was taught by
dictation and practice, and the art of
the "scrivener," as the writing master

H0 2)i)£il's
ARITHMETICK:

OR. THAT

NecefTaryART

Made Moft Eafie ;

Being explain 'd in a. wa.y familiar
to the Capacity of any that de-
fire to learn it in a iittU Time.

By J. Hadder, Wiiting-MaftcT.

Th* atDCT aji& ^tDcntietf) (EMtioa, fit.-

•vful, Aigmtnlai. aitl tixnx a, Tkei^aao
Tauilts jbneruiti.

By William Hume, Philomath.

LONDON!

Wnted for D. ?Muxnt<r, A 5<«^.«orf». and

C. Hitch. R. Mmjin, A. Ward. J. and

P. Kjtapton. T. Itnaman, C. BalKudt, ajA
J-Cloj-k, in DucX-Lant. 1739^

Fig. 134. Title-Page of
Hodder's Arithmetic

/\n early reprint of this famous
bookappearedinBostonin 1719.

was called, was one thought to be
difficult to learn. The lack of prac-
tical value of the art, the high cost of
paper, and the necessity usually for
special lessons, all alike tended to
make writing a much less commonly
known art than reading. Fees also
were frequently charged for instruction in writing and arithmetic;
reading, spelling, and religion being the only free subjects. The
scrivener and the arithmetic teacher also frequently moved about,

^ Francke, in his Institutions at Halle (p. 418), had tried to develop a number-
concept, and apply the teaching. In the Braunschweig-Liineburg school decree of
1737 appeared directions for beginning number work by counting the fingers, apples,
etc., and basing the multiplication table on addition. A few German writers during
the eighteenth century suggested better instruction; Basedow (chapter xxii) tried
to institute reform in the teaching of the subject, but it was left for Pestalozzi
(chapter xxi) to give the first real impetus to the rational teaching of the subject.

446 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

as business warranted, and was not fixed as was the teacher of
the reading school.

The teachers. The development of the vernacular school was
retarded not only by the dominance of the religious purpose of the
school, but by the poor quahty of teachers found everywhere in
the schools. The evolution of the elementary-school teacher of
to-day out of the church sexton, bell-ringer, or grave-digger,^ or
out of the artisan, cripple, or old dame who added school teaching
to other employment in order to live, forms one of the interesting
as well as one of the yet- to-be-written chapters in the history of
the evolution of the elementary school.

Teachers in elementary schools everywhere in the eighteenth
century were few in number, poor in quality, and occupied but
a lowly position in the social scale. School dames in England
(R. 235) and later in the American Colonies, and on the continent
of Europe teachers who were more sextons, choristers, beadles,
bell-ringers, grave-diggers, shoemakers, tailors, barbers, pension-
ers, and invalids than teachers, too often formed the teaching body
for the elementary vernacular school (Rs. 231, 232, 233). In
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and some of the American Colo-
nies, where schools had become or were becoming local semi-civic
affairs, the standards which might be imposed for teaching also
were low. The grant of the tailoring monopoly to the elementary
teachers of Prussia,^ in 1738, and Kriisi's recollections of how he
became a schoolmaster in Switzerland, in 1793 (R. 234), were
quite typical of the time. In Catholic France, and in some German
Catholic lands as well, teaching congregations (p. 345), some of whose
members had some rudimentary training for their work, were
in charge of the existing parish schools. These provided a some-
what better type of teaching body than that frequently found in
Protestant lands, though by the latter part of the eighteenth cen-
tury the beginnings of teacher- training are to be seen in some of
the German States. The Church of England, too, had by this

^ Such offices were not considered in any sense as degrading, and the attaching of
the new duty of instructing the young of the parish in reading and religion dignified
still more the other church office. As schools grew in importance there was a grad-
ual shifting of emphasis, and finally a dropping of the earlier duties. Many early
school contracts in America (Rs. 105; 236) called for such church duties on the part
of the parish teacher. See also footnote, p. 370.

2 In 1722 country schoolmasters in Prussia were ordered selected from tailors,
weavers, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1 738 they were granted
the tailoring monopoly in their villages, to help them to live. Later Frederick the
Great ordered that his crippled and superannuated soldiers should be given teaching
positions in the elementary vernacular schools of Prussia.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 447

Fig. 135. A "Christian
Brothers" School

La Salle teaching at Grenoble.
Note the adult type of dress of
the boys.

time organized strong Societies ^ for the preparation of teachers
for Church-of-England schools, both at home and abroad. In
Dutch, German, and Scandinavian lands, and in colonies founded
by these people in America, the parish
school, closely tied up with and depen-
dent upon the parish church, was the
prevailing type of vernacular school,
and in this the teacher was regarded
as essentially an assistant to the pastor
(R. 236) and the school as a depend-
ency of the Church.

In England, in addition to regular
parish schools and endowed element-
ary schools, three peculiar institutions,
known as the Dame School, the reli-
gious charity-school, and the private-
adventure or ''hedge school" had
grown up, and the first two of these
had reached a marked development
by the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury. Because these were so charac-
teristic of early English educational effort, and also played such
an important part in the American Colonies as well, they merit
a few words of description at this point.

The Dame School. The Dame School arose in England after
the Reformation. By means of it the increasing desire for a rudi-
mentary knowledge of the art of reading could be satisfied, and at
the same time certain women could earn a pittance. This type of
school was carried early to the American Colonies, and out of it
was in time evolved, in New England, the American elementary
school. The Dame School was a very elementary school, kept in
a kitchen or living-room by some woman who, in her youth, had
obtained the rudiments of an education, and who now desired to
earn a small stipend for herself by imparting to the children of her
neighborhood her small store of learning. For a few pennies a
week the dame took the children into her home and explained to
them the mysteries connected with learning the beginnings of
reading and spelhng. Occasionally a Httle writing and counting

^ The "Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge," organized in 1699
to aid the Church and provide schools at home, and the "Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," organized in 1702 to supply ministers and teach-
ers for churches and schools in the English colonies.

44^ HISTORY OF EDUCATION

also were taught, though not often in England. In the American
Colonies the practical situations of a new country forced the em-
ployment as teachers of women who could teach all three sub-
jects, thus early creating the American school of the so-called
*'3Rs" — "Reading, Riting, Rithmetic." The Dame School ap-

FiG. 136. An English Dame School
(From a drawing of a school in the heart of London, after Barclay)

pears so frequently in English literature, both poetry and prose,
that it must have played a very important part in the beginnings
of elementary education in England. Of this school Shenstone
(1714-63) writes (R. 235):

In every village marked with little spire.
Embowered in trees, and hardly known to fame,
There dwells, in lowly shed and mean attire,
A matron old, whom we schoolmistress name,
Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame.

The Reverend George Crabbe (17 54-1 83 2), another poet of
homely life, writes (R. 235) of a deaf, poor, patient widow who
sits

And awes some thirty infants as she knits;

Infants of humble, busy wives who pay.

Some trifling price for freedom through the day.

This school flourished greatly in America during the eighteenth
century, but with the coming of Infant Schools, early in the nine-

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 449

teenth, was merged into these to form the American Primary
School.

The religious charity-school. Another thoroughly characteris-
tic English institution was the church charity-school. The first
of these was founded in Whitechapel, London, in 1680. In 1699,
when the School of Saint Anne, Soho (R. 237), was founded by
"Five Earnest Laymen for the Poore Boys of the Parish," it was
the sixth of its kind in England. In 1699 the "Society for the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge" (S.P.C.K.) was founded for
the purpose, among other things, of estabHshing catechetical
schools for the education of the children of the poor in the princi-
ples of the Established Church (R. 238 b). In 1701 the "Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" (S.P.G.)
was ajso founded to extend the work of the Anglican Church

Fig. 137. Gravel Lane Charity-School, Southwark

Founded in 1687, and one of the earliest of the Non-Conformist English charity-
schools. Still carrying on its work in the original schoolroom at the time this
picture appeared, in Londina Illustrata, in 1819.

abroad, supply schoolmasters and ministers, and establish schools,
to train children to read, write, know and understand the Cate-
chism, and fit into the teachings and worship of the Church. To
develop piety and help the poor to lead industrious, upright,
self-respecting lives, "to make them loyal Church members,

450

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and to fit them for work in that station of life in which it had
pleased their Heavenly Father to place them," were the prin-
cipal objects of the Society.

All were taught reading, spelling, and the Cat-
echism, and instruction in writing and arithmetic
might be added. The training might also be
coupled with that of the ^'schools of industry"
(workhouse schools, as described by Locke [R.
217]) to augment the economic efficiency of the
boy. Girls seem to have been provided for al-
most equally with boys, and, in addition to being
taught to read and spell, were taught "to knit
their Stockings and Gloves, to Mark, Sew, and
make and mend their Cloathes." Both boye and
girls were usually provided with books and cloth-
ing,^ a regular uniform being worn by the boys
and girls of each school.

The chief motive in the establishment of these
schools, though, was to decrease the "Prophaness
and Debauchery . . . owing' to a gross Igno-
rance of the Christian Religion" (R. 237) and
to educate "Poor Children in the Rules and
Principles of the Christian Religion as professed
and taught in the Church of England." Writ-
ing, in 1742, Reverend Grifhth Jones, an organizer for the
S.P.C.K. in Wales, said:

It is but a cheap education that we would desire for them [the poor],
only the moral and religious branches of it, which indeed is the most
necessary and indispensable part. The sole design of this charity is to
inculcate upon such ... as can be prevailed upon to learn, the knowl-
edge and practice, the principles and duties of the Christian religion ;
and to make them good people, useful members of society, faithful
servants of God, and men and heirs of eternal life.

These schools multiplied rapidly and soon became regular in-
stitutions, as the following table, showing the growth of the
S.P.C.K. schools in London alone, shows:

1 In 1704 the ordinary charge in London for a " School of 50 Boys Cloathed comes
to about £75 per Annum, for which a School-Room, Books, and Firing are provided,
a Master paid, and to each Boy is given yearly, 3 Bands, i Cap, i Coat, i Pair of
Stockings, and one Pair of Shooes." A girls' school of the same size cost £60 per
annum, which paid for the room, books, mistress, fixing and providing each girl
with " 2 Coyfs, 2 Bands, i Gown and Petticoat, i Pair of knit Gloves, i Pair of
Stockings, and 2 Pair of Shooes."

Fig. 138.
A Charity-
ScHOOL Girl
IN Uniform

Saint Anne's,
Soho, England

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 451

Year

Schools

Boys

Girls

Total

1699

1704

1386

745

2131

1709

2181

1221

3402

1714

117

3077

1741

4818

In England and Ireland combined the Society had, by 17 14, a
total of 1073 schools, with 19,453 pupils enrolled, and by 1729 the
number had increased to 1658, with approx-
imately 34,000 pupils. From England the
charity-school idea was early carried to the
AngHcan Colonies in America and became a
fixed institution in New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, Maryland, and somewhat in the
Colonies farther south. In the Pennsylvania
constitution of 1790 we find the following
directions for the establishment of a state
charity-school system to supplement the par-
ish schools of the churches:

Sec. I. The legislature shall, as soon as con-
veniently may be, provide, by law, for the estab-
lishment of schools throughout the State, in such
manner that the poor may be taught gratis.

Fig. 139.

A Charity-School

Boy in Uniform

Saint Anne's,
Soho, England

This was a school

The first Pennsylvania school law of 1802
carried this direction into effect by providing
for pauper schools in the counties, a condi-
tion that was not done away with until 1834.
In New Jersey the system lasted until 1838.
The private-adventure, or " hedge," school.
analogous to the Dame School, but was kept by a man instead of
a woman, and usually at his home or shop. Plate 15, showing
a shoe cobbler teaching, represents one type of such schools. The
term "hedge schools" arose in Ireland, where teaching was for-
bidden the Catholics, and secret schools arose in which priests and
others taught what was possible. Of these McCarthy writes: ^

On the highways and on the hillsides, in ditches and behind hedges,
in the precarious shelter of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey, or
under the roof of a peasant's, cabin, the priests set up schools and taught
the children of their race.

The term soon came to be applied to any kind of a poor school,

taught in an irregular manner or place. Similar irregular schools,

^ McCarthy, Justin H., Ireland since the Union, p. 13.

452 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

under equivalent names, also were found in German lands/ the
Netherlands, and in France, while in the American Colonies ''in-
dentured white servants" were frequently let out as schoolmas-
ters. The following advertisement of a teacher for sale is typical
of private-adventure elementary school- keeping during the colo-

To Be DISPOSED of,

A Likely Servant Mans Time for 4 Years
who is very well Qualified for a Clerk or to teach
a School, he Reads, Writes, underftands Arithmetick and
Accomptsvery weU, Enquire of the Printer hereof.

Fig. 140. Advertisement for a Teacher to Let

(From the American Weekly Mercury of Philadelphia, 1735)

nial period. These schools were taught by itinerant school-keep-
ers, artisans, and tutors of the poorer type, but offered the begin-
nings of elementary education to many a child who otherwise
would never have been able to learn to read. In the early eight-
eenth century these schools attained a remarkable development
in England.

A new influence of tremendous future importance — general
reading — was now coming in ; the vernacular was fast supplant-
ing Latin; newspapers were being started; little books or pam-
phlets (tracts) containing general information were being sold;
books for children and beginners were being written; the popular
novel and story had appeared; - and all these educative forces
were creating a new and a somewhat general desire for a knowl-
edge of the art of reading. This in turn caused a new demand
for schools to teach the long-locked-up art, and this demand was
capitalized to the profit of many types of people.

The apprenticing of orphans and children of the poor. Th<
compulsory apprenticing of the children of the poor, as we havr
seen (p. 326), was an old English institution, and workhouse train-
ing, or the so-called ''schools of industry," became, by the eight-
eenth century, a prominent feature of the English care of the
poor. These represented the only form of education supported

^ Frederick the Great, in the General School Regulations issued in 1763 (R. 274,
§ 15), strictly prohibited the keeping of "hedge schools" in the towns and rural dis-
tricts of Prussia.

2 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678,) Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), and
Gulliver's Travels (1726). The publication of these tremendously stirnulated the
desire to read.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 453

by taxation, and the only form of education to which Parliament
gave any attention during the whole of the eighteenth century.
This type of institution also was carried to the AngHcan Colo-
nies in America, as we have seen in the documents for Virginia (R.
200 a) , and became an established institution in America as well.

The apprenticing of boys to a trade, a still older institution,
was also much used as a means for training youths for a life in the
trades, not only in England and the American Colonies, but
throughout all European lands as well. The conditions surround-
ing the apprenticing of a boy had by the eighteenth century be-
come quite fixed. The '' Indenture of Apprenticeship " was drawn
up by a lawyer, and by it the master was carefully bound to clothe
and feed the boy, train him properly in his trade, look after his
morals, and start him in life at the end of his apprenticeship. This
is well shown in the many records which have been preserved,
both in England (R. 242) and the American Colonies (R. 201).
For many boys this type of education was the best possible at the
time, and worthily started the possessor in the work of his trade.

In the eighteenth century different English church parishes be-
gan to set up workhouse schools of various types, and to maintain
these 6ut of parish ''rates." The one established in Bishopsgate
Street, London, in 1701, is typical. This cared for about 375
children and in it, by 1720, there had been educated and placed
forth 1420 children, and in addition 123 had died. Of this school
it is recorded that poor children

''being taken into the said Workhouse are there taught to Read and
Write, and kept to Work until they are qualified to be put out to be
Apprentices, and for the Sea Service, or otherwise disposed; . . . The
Habit of the Children is all the same, being made of Russit Cloth, and
a round Badge worn upon their Breast, representing a poor Boy, and
a Sheep; the Motto: ' God''s Providence is our Inheritance J "... In this
workhouse children were "taught to spin Wool and Flax, to Sow and
Knit, to make their own Cloaths, Shoes, and Stockings, and the like
Employments; to inure them betimes to labour. They are also taught
to read, and such as are capable, to write and cast Accounts; and also
the Catechism, to ground them in Principles of Religion and Honesty." ^

The school estabhshed by Saint John's parish, Southwark, Lon-
don, in 1735, and designed to train and "put out" girls for domes-
tic service (R. 241), and which cared for, clothed, and trained
forty girls, is also typical of these parish schools "for the children
of the industrious poor."

^ Strype, John, Stowe's Survey of London, 1720; bk. i, pp. 199, 201-02.

454 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Methods of instruction. Throughout the eighteenth century
the method of instruction commonly employed in the vernacular
schools was what was known as the individual method. This was
wasteful of both time and effort, and unpedagogical to a high de-
gree (R. 244). Everywhere the teacher was engaged chiefly in
hearing recitations, testing memory, and keeping order. The
pupils came to the master's desk, one by one (see Figures 98, 99),
and recited what they had memorized. Aside from imposing dis-
cipline, teaching was an easy task. The pupils learned the as-
signed lessons and recited what they had learned. Such a thing
as methodology — technique of instruction — was unknown.
The dominance of the religious motive, too, precluded any liberal
attitude in school instruction, the individual method was time-
consuming, school buildings often were lacking, and in general
there was an almost complete lack of any teaching equipment,
books, or supplies. Viewed from any modern standpoint the
schools of the eighteenth century attained to but a low degree cf
efiiciency (R. 244). The school hours were long, the schoolmas-
ter's residence or place of work or business was commonly used as
a schoolroom, and such regular schoolrooms as did exist were
dirty and noisy and but poorly suited to school purposes. Schools
everywhere, too, were ungraded, the school of one teacher being
like that of any other teacher of that class.

So wasteful of time and effort was the individual method of in-
struction that children might attend school for years and get only
a mere start in reading and writing. Paulsen,^ writing of schools
in German lands at an even later date, says that even in the better
type of vernacular schools

many children never achieved anything beyond a little reading and
knowing a few things by heart. . . .The instruction in reading was
never anything else but a torture, protracted through years, from
saying the alphabet and formation of syllables to the deciphering of
complete words, without any real success in the end, while writing was
nothing but a wearisome tracing of the letters, the net result of all
the toil being the gabbling of the Catechism and a few Bible texts and
hymns, learned over and over again.

The imparting of information by the teacher to a class, or a class
discussion of a topic, were almost unknown. Hearing lessons,
assigning new tasks, setting copies, making quill pens, dictating
sums, and imposing order completely absorbed the time and the
attention of the teacher.

1 Paulsen, P'riedrich, German Education, p. 141.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 455

School discipline. The discipline everywhere was severe. ''A
boy has a back; when you hit it he understands," was a favorite
pedagogical maxim of the time. Whipping-posts were sometimes

set up in the schoolroom, and practically
all pictures of the schoolmasters of the
time show a bundle of switches near
at hand. Boys in the Latin grammar
schools were flogged for petty offenses
(R. 245). The ability to impose order
on a poorly taught and, in consequence,
an unruly school was always an impor-

FiG. 141. A School
Whipping-Post

Drawn from a picture of a five-
foot whipping-post which once
stood in the floor of a school-
house at Sunderland, Massa-
chusetts. Now in the Deerfield
Museum.

tant requisite of the
schoolmaster. ASwab-
ian schoolmaster, Hau-
berle by name, with
characteristic Teutonic
attention to details, has
left on record ^ that, in
the course of his fifty-
one years and seven
months as a teacher
he had, by a moder-
ate computation, given
911,527 blows with a
cane, 124,010 blows
with a rod, 20,989 blows
and raps with a ruler,

^ Barnard, Henry. Trans-
lated from Karl von Raumer;
in his American Journal of
Education, vol. v, p. 509.

Fig. 142. An Eighteenth- Century German
School

Reproduction of an engraving by J. Mettenleiter,
now in the Kupferstichkabinet, Munich, and printed
in Joh. Ferd. Schlez's Dorfschulen zu Langenkausen.
Nuremberg, 1795.

456 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

136,715 blows with the hand, 10,235 blows over the mouth,
7,905 boxes on the ear, 1,115,800 raps on the head, and 22,763
notahenes with the Bible, Catechism, singing book, and grammar.
He had 777 times made boys kneel on peas, 613 times on a triangu-
lar piece of wood, had made 3001 wear the jackass, and 1707 hold
the rod up, not to mention various more unusual punishments he
had contrived on the spur of the occasion. Of the blows with the
cane, 800,000 were for Latin words; of the rod 76,000 were for
texts from the Bible or verses from the singing book. He also had
about 3000 expressions to scold with, two thirds of which were
native to the German tongue and the remainder his invention.

Another illustration of German school discipline, of many that
might be cited, was the reform work of Johann Ernest Christian
Haun, who was appointed, in 1783, as inspector of schools in the
once famous Gotha (p. 317). Due to warfare and neglect the
schools there had fallen into disrepute. Haun drove the incapa-
ble teachers from the work, and for a time restored the schools to
something of their earlier importance. Among other reforms it is
recorded that he forbade teachers to put irons around the boys'
necks, to cover them with mud, to make them kneel on peas, or to
brutally beat them. Diesterweg (R. 244) describes similar pun-
ishments as characteristic of eighteenth-century German schools.
The eighteenth-century German schoolmaster shown in Fig. 142
was probably a good sample of his class.

Pedagogical writers of the time uniformly complain of the se-
vere discipKne of the schools, and the literature of the period
abounds in allusions to the prevaiHng harshness of the school dis-
cipline. A few writers condemn, but most approve heartily of the
use of the rod. '' Spare the rod and spoil the child " had for long
been a well-grounded pedagogical doctrine . Among many Hterary
extracts that might be cited illustrating this belief, the following
poem by the English poet Crabbe (17 54-1 83 2) is interesting. He
puts the following words into the mouth of his early schoolmaster:

Students like horses on the road,

Must be well lashed before they take the load;

They may be willing for a time to run,

But you must whip them ere the work be done;

To tell a boy, that if he will improve.

His friends will praise him, and his parents love.

Is doing nothing — he has not a doubt

But they will love him, nay, applaud without;

Let no fond sire a boy's ambition trust,

To make him study, let him learn he must.

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 457

Conditions surrounding childhood. It is difficult for us of to-
day to re-create in imagination the pitiful life- conditions which
surrounded children a century and a half ago. Often the lot of
the children of the poor, who then constituted the great bulk of
all children, was little less than slavery. Wretchedly poor, dirty,
unkempt, hard- worked, beaten about, knowing strong drink
early, iUiterate, often vicious — their lot was a sad one. For the
children of the poor there were few, if any, educational opportuni-
ties. Writing on the subject David Salmon says: ^

The imagination of the twentieth century cannot fathom the pov-
erty of the eighteenth. The great development of mines and manu-
factures, which has brought ease and independence within the reach of
industrious labour everywhere, had hardly begun; employment was so
scarce and intermittent, and wages were so low, that the working
classes lived in hovels, dressed in rags, and were familiar with the
pangs of hunger; while those who were forced to look to the rates for
hovels, rags, and food sufficient to maintain a miserable life numbered
a sixth of the whole population.

In the towns children were apprenticed out early in life, and for
long hours of daily labor. Child welfare was almost entirely neg-
lected, children were cuffed about and beaten at their work, juve-
nile delinquency was a common condition, child mortahty was
heavy, and ignorance was the rule. Schools generally were pay
institutions or a charity, and not a birthright, and usually existed
only for the middle and lower-middle classes in the population
who were attendants at the churches and could afford to pay a
little for the schooling given. Reading and religion were usually
the only free subjects. Only in the New England Colonies, where
the beginnings of town and colony school systems were evident,
and in a few of the German States where state control was begin-
ning to be exercised, was a better condition to be found.

Among the middle and upper social classes, particularly on
the continent of Europe, a stiff artificiality everywhere prevailed.
Children were dressed and treated as miniature adults, the normal
activities of childhood were suppressed, and the natural interests
and emotions of children found little opportunity for expression.
Wearing powdered and braided hair, long gold-braided coats, em-
broidered waistcoats, cockaded hats, and swords, boys were
treated more as adults than as children. Girls, too, with their
long dresses, hoops, powdered hair, rouged faces, and demure

^ Salmon, David, "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century" ;
in Educational Record, London, 1908.

458

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 143. Children as Miniature Adults

Children leaving school, from an eighteenth-century drawing by

Saint Aubin.

manner, were trained in a, for children, most unnatural man-
ner.^ The dancing master for their manners and graces, and the
religious instructor to develop in them the ability to read and
to go through a largely meaningless ceremonial, were the chief
guides for the period of their childhood.

^ "If you would comprehend the success of Rousseau's Entile, call to mind the
children we have described, the embroidered, gilded, dressed-up, powdered little
gentlemen, decked with sword and sash, . . . alongside of these, little ladies of six
years, still more artificial, — so many veritable dolls to which rouge is applied, and
with which a mother amuses herself for an hour and then consigns them to her maids
for the rest of the day. This mother reads Emile. It is not surprising that she
immediately strips the poor little thing (of its social harness of whalebone, iron, and
hair) and determines to nurse her next child herself." (Taine, H. A., The Ancient
Regime, vol. 11, p. 273.)

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 459

School support. No uniform plan, in any country, had as yet
been evolved for even the meager support which the schools of the
time received. The Latin grammar schools were in nearly all
cases supported by the income from old "foundations" and from
students' fees, with here and there some state aid. The new ele-
mentary vernacular schools, though, had had assigned to them
few old foundations upon which to draw for maintenance, and in
consequence support for elementary schools had to be built up
from new sources, and this required time.

In England the Act of Conformity of 1662 (R. 166), it will be
remembered (p. 324), had laid a heav}^ hand on the schools by
driving all Dissenters from positions in them, and the Five-Mile
Act of 1665 had borne even more severely on the teachers in the
schools of the Dissenters. Fortunately for elementary education
in England, however, the English courts, in 1670, had decided in a
test case that the teacher in an elementary school could not be de-
prived of his position by failure of the bishop to license him, if he
were a nominee of the founder or the lay patron of the school.
The result of this decision was that, between 1660 and 1730, 905
endowed elementary schools were founded in England, and 72
others previously founded had their endowments increased. The
number continued to increase throughout the eighteenth century,
and by 1842 had reached a total of 2194. These new foundations
probably gave the best schooling of the time, and tended to stir
the Established Church to action. Accordingly we find that dur-
ing the eighteenth century the vestries of the different church
parishes began the creation of parish elementary schools for the
children of the poor of the parish, supporting a teacher for them
out of the parish rates, and without specific legal authorization to
do so. These new parish schools also contributed somewhat to
the provision of elementary education, and mark the beginning of
the church ''voluntary schools" which were such a characteristic
feature of nineteenth-century English education. We thus have,
in England, endowed elementary schools, parish schools, dame
schools, private- adventure schools of many types, and charity-
schools, all existing side by side, and drawing such support as
they could from endowment funds, parish rates, church tithes,
subscriptions, and tuition fees. The support of schools by sub-
scription lists (R. 240) was a very common proceeding. Educa-
tion in England, more than in any other Protestant land, early
came to be regarded as a benevolence which the State was under

46o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

no obligation to support. Only workhouse schools were provided
for by the general taxation of all property.

In the Netherlands and in German lands church funds, town
funds, and tuition fees were the chief means of support, though
here and there some prince had provided for something approach-
ing state support for the schools of his little principality. Fred-
erick the Great had ordered schools estabHshed generally (1763)
and had decreed the compulsory attendance of children (R. 274),
but he had depended largely on church funds and tuition fees (§7)
for maintenance, with a proviso that the tuition of poor and or-
phaned children should be paid from ''any funds of the church or
town, that the schoolmaster may get his income" (§8). In Scot
land the church parish school was the prevailing type. In France
the religious societies (p. 345) provided nearly all the elementary
vernacular religious education that was obtainable.

In the Dutch Provinces, in the New England Colonies, and in
some of the minor German States, we find the clearest examples of
the beginnings of state control and maintenance of elementary
schools — something destined to grow rapidly and in the nine-
teenth century take over the school from the Church and main-
tain it as a function of the State. The Prussian kings early made
grants of land and money for endowment funds and support, and
state aid was ordered granted by Maria Theresa for Austria (R.
274 a), in 1774. In the New England Colonies the separation of
the school from the Church, and the beginnings of state support
and control of education, found perhaps their earliest and clearest
exemplification. In the other Colonies the lottery was much
used (R. 246) to raise funds for schools, while church tithes, sub-
scription lists, and school societies after the English pattern also
helped in many places to start and support a school or schools.

Only by some such means was it possible in the eighteenth cen-
tury that the children of the poor could ever enjoy any opportuni-
ties for education. The parents of the poor children, themselves
uneducated, could hardly be expected to provide what they had
never come to appreciate themselves. On the other hand, few of
the well-to-do classes felt under any obligation to provide educa-
tion for children not their own. There was as yet no realization
that the diffusion of education contributed to the welfare of the
State, or that the ignorance of the masses might be in any way a
pubHc peril. This attitude is well shown for England by the fact
that not a single law relating to the education of the people, aside

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 461

from workhouse schools, was enacted by Parliament during the
whole of the eighteenth century. The same was true of France
until the coming of the Revolution. It is to a few of the German
States and to the American Colonies that we must turn for the
beginnings of legislation directing school support. This we shall
describe more in detail in later chapters.

The Latin Secondary School. The great progress made in edu-
cation during the eighteenth century, nevertheless, was in ele-
mentary education. Concerning the secondary schools and the
universities there is little to add to what has previously been said.
During this century the secondary school, outside of German
lands, remained largely stationary. Having become formal and
Ufeless in its teaching (p. 283), and in England and France
crushed by religious-uniformity legislation, the Latin grammar
school of England and the surviving colleges in France practically
ceased to exert any influence on the national life. The Jesuit
schools, which once had afforded the best secondary education in
Europe, had so declined in usefulness everywhere that they were
about to be driven from all lands. The Act of Conformity of 1662
(R. 166) had dealt the grammar schools of England a heavy blow,
and the eighteenth century found them in a most wretched condi-
tion, with few scholars, and their endowments shamefully abused.
The Law of 1662, says Montmorency, "involved such a peering
into the hves of schoolmasters, such a course of inquisitorial folly,
that the position became intolerable. Men would not become
schoolmasters. . . . Education had no meaning when none but
poHtical and religious hypocrites were allowed to teach. . . . Na-
tional education was destroyed," and the grammar schools of
England were "practically withdrawn during more than two cen-
turies (1662-1870) from the national life." ^

In German lands the old Latin schools continued largely un-
changed until near the middle of the eighteenth century, with
Latin, taught as it had been for a century or more, as the chief
subject of study. Shortly after the coming of Frederick the
Great to the throne (1740) the Latin schools of Prussia, and after
them the Latin schools in other German States, were reorganized
and given a new life. The influence of Francke's school at Halle
(p. 418), and the new types of teaching developed there and by
his followers elsewhere, began to be felt. German, French, and
mathematics were given recognition, and some science work was
^ Montmorency, J. E. G. de., The Progress of Education in England, pp. 46, 50.

462 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

here and there introduced. Above all, though, Greek now at-
tained to the place of first importance in the reorganized Latin
schools.

It was not until after 1 740 that the German people awakened
to the possibility of an independent national life. Then, under
the new impulse toward nationality, French influence and man-
ners were thrown off, German literature attained its Golden Age,
the Ritterakademieen (p. 405) were discarded, and a number of
the German Principalities and States revised their school regula-
tions and erected, out of the old Latin schools, a series of human-
istic gymnasia in which the study of Greek life and culture occu-
pied the foremost place. New methods in classical study were
thought out and applied, and a new pedagogical purpose — cul-
ture and discipline — was given to the regenerated Latin schools.
A new Renaissance, in a way, took place in German lands, ^ and
a knowledge of Greek was proclaimed by German university and
gymnasial teachers as indispensable to a liberal education with
an earnestness of conviction not exceeded by Battista Guarino
(p. 268) four centuries before. To know Greek and to have some
familiarity with Greek literature and history now came to \>t re-
garded as necessary to the highest culture,^ and a pedagogical
theory for such study was erected, based on the discipline of the
mind,^ which dominated the German classical school throughout
the entire nineteenth century. It was in the eighteenth century

1 A change now took place in the intellectual life of Germany: "The nation began
to make itself independent of French influence. In literature Klopstock and
Lessing broke the fetters of French classicism. An ardent desire for a deeper culture
peculiar to the German people asserted itself. But the soil of the national life was
too poor in genus for a purely German culture, hence scholars looked for new models
and found them in classical antiquity. The ancient authors became again the mas-
ters of culture and taste; with this difference, though, that it was not desired tD
learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughts in Latin, but to
become familiar with their manner of thinking and feeling, for the purpose of en-
larging and ennobling German thought and speech. From this standpoint Greek,
on account of, its more valuable literature, assumed a higher importance, and, by
degrees, a superiority over Latin." (Nohle, E., History of the German School Sys-
tem, pp. 48-49.)

2 "If any one be destined for a studious career, let him not shirk his Greek les-
sons, inasmuch as he would thereby suffer irretrievable loss. ... He who reads the
classic writers, studying mathematical reasoning at the same time, trains his mind
to distinguish what is true or false, beautiful or unsightly, fills his memory with
manifold fine thoughts, attains skill in grasping the ideas of others as well as in
fluently expressing his own, acquires a number of excellent maxims for the improve-
ment of the understanding and the will, and thus learns by practice nearly all that
a good compendium of philosophy could teach him in systematic order and dog-
matic form." (School Regulations for Braunschweig-Liineburg, of 1737.)

^ "Be assured that if you forget your Greek, yes, even your Latin too, you still
have the advantage of having given your mind a training and discipline that will go
with you into your future occupation." (Friedrich Gedike, 1 755-1803.)

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 463

Fig. 144. A Pennsylvania Academy

York Academy, York, Pennsylvania,
founded by the Protestant Episcopal
Church, in 1787.

also that the German States began the development of the scien-
tific secondary school (Realschule) , see p. 420, as described in a
preceding chapter-
Rise of the Academy in America. As we have seen (p. 361),
the English Latin grammar school was early (1635) carried to New
England, and set up there and elsewhere in the Colonies, but after
the close of the seventeenth
century its continued main-
tenance was something of a
struggle. Particularly in the
central and southern colonies,
where commercial demands
early made themselves felt, the
tendency was to teach more
practical subjects. This tend-
ency led to the evolution, about
the middle of the eighteenth
century, of the distinctively
American Academy, with a
more practical curriculum, and by the close of the century it
was rapidly superseding the older Latin grammar school. Frank-
lin's Academy at Philadelphia, which began instruction in 1751,
and which later evolved into the University of Pennsylvania, was
probably the first American Academy. The first in Massachu-
setts was founded in 1761, and by 1800 there were seventeen in
Massachusetts alone. The great period of academy develop-
ment was the first half of the nineteenth century. The Phillips
Academy, at Andover, Massachusetts, founded in 1788, re-
veals clearly the newer purpose of these American secondary
schools. The foundation grant of this school gives the purpose
to be:

to lay the foundation of a public free school or ACADEMY for the
purposes of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Gram-
mar, Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences wherein they are com-
monly taught; but more especially to learn them thie GREAT END
AND REAL BUSINESS OF LIVING ... it is again declared that
the first and principle object of this Institution is the promotion of
TRUE PIETY and VIRTUE; the secofd, instruction in the Enghsh,
Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing, Arithmetic,
Music, and the Art of Speaking; the third, practical Geometry, Logic,
and Geography; and the fourth, such other liberal Arts and Sciences or
Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter admit, and as
the TRUSTEES shall direct. ,

464 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Though still deeply religious, these new schools usually were free
from denominationalisrn. Though retaining the study of Latin,
they made most of new subjects of more practical value. A study
of real things rather than words about things, and a new emphasis
on the native English and on science were prominent features of
their work.' They were also usually open to girls, as well as boys,
— an innovation in secondary education before almost wholly
unknown. Many were organized later for girls only. These
institutions were the percursors of the American public high
school, itself a type of the most democratic institution for secon-
dary education the world has ever known.

The universities. The condition of the universities by the
middle of the eighteenth century we traced in the preceding chap-
ter. They had lost their earlier importance as institutions of
learning, but in a few places the sciences were slowly gaining a
foothold, and in German lands we noted the appearance of the
first two modern universities — institutions destined deeply to
influence subsequent university development, as we shall point
out in a later chapter.

End of the transition period. We have now reached, in our
study of the history of educational progress, the end of the transi-
tion period which marked the change in thinking from mediaeval
to modern attitudes. The period was ushered in with the begin-
nings of the Revival of Learning in Italy in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and it may fittingly close about the middle of the eigh-
teenth.

We now stand on the threshold of a new era in world history.
The same questioning spirit that animated the scholars of the
Revival of Learning, now full-grown and become bold and self-
confident, is about to be applied to affairs of politics and govern-
ment, and we are soon to see absolutism and mediaeval attitudes
in both Church and State questioned and overthrown. New
political theories are to be advanced, and the divine right of the
people is to be asserted and established in England, the American
Colonies, and in France, and ultimately, early in the twentieth
century, we are to witness the final overthrow of the divine-right-
of-kings idea and a world-wide sweep of the democratic spirit.
A new human and political theory as to education is to be evolved;
the school is to be taken over from the Church, vastly expanded
in scope, and made a constructive instrument of the State; and
the wonderful nineteenth century is to witness a degree of human,

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 465

scientific, political, and educational progress not seen before in
all the days from the time of the Crusades to the opening of the
nineteenth century. It is to this wonderful new era in world
history that we now turn.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Contrast a religious elementary school, with the Catechism as its chief
textbook, with a modern public elementary school.

2. Contrast the elementary schools of Mulcaster and Comenius.

3. To what extent did the religious teachings of the time support Locke's
ideas as to the disciplinary conception of education?^'

4. Do we to-day place as much emphasis on habit formation as did Locke?
On character? On good breeding?

5. State some of the reasons for the noticeable weakening of the hold of the
old religious theory as to education, in Protestant lands, by the middle
of the eighteenth century.

6. How do you explain the slow evolution of the elementary teacher into a
position of some importance? Is the evolution still in process? Illus-
trate.

7. What were the motives behind the organization of the religious charity-
schools?

8. Show how tax-supported workhouse schools represented, for England,
the first step in public-school maintenance.

9. Show that teaching under the individual method of instruction was
school keeping, rather than school teaching.

10. How do you explain the general prevalence of harsh discipline well into
the nineteenth century?

11. Did any other country have, in the eighteenth century, so mixed a type
of elementary education as did England? Why was it so badly mixed
there?

12. Show how the English Act of Conformity, of 1662, stifled the English
Latin grammar schools.

13. What reasons were there for the development of the more practical
Academy in America, rather than in England?

14. Compare the American Academy with the German Realschule.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections, illustrative
of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

226. Mulcaster: Table of Contents of his Positions.

227. Locke: On the Teaching of Latin.

228. Locke: On the Bible as a Reading Book.

229. Coote-Dilworth: Two early "Spelhng Books."

230. Webster: Description of Pre-Revolutionary Schools.

231. Raumer: Teachers in Gotha in 1741.

232. Raumer: An i8th Century Swedish People's School.

233. Raumer: Schools of Frankfurt-am-Main during the Eighteenth Cen-
tury.

234. Kriisi: A Swiss Teacher's Examination in 1793.

-35- Crabbe; White; Shenstone: The English Dame School described.
236. Newburgh: A Parochial-School Teacher's Agreement.

466 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

237. Saint Anne: Beginnings of an English Charity School.

238. Regulations: Charity-School Organization and Instruction.

(a) Qualifications for the Master.

(b) Purpose and Instruction.

239. Allen and McClure: Textbooks used in English Charity-Schools.

240. England: A Charity-School Subscription Form.

241. Southwark: The Charity-School of Saint John's Parish.

242. Gorsham: An Eighteenth-Century Indenture of Apprenticeship.

243. Indenture: Learning the Trade of a Schoolmaster.

244. Diesterweg: The Schools of Germany before Pestalozzi.

245. England: Free School Rules, 1734.

246. Murray: A New Jersey School Lottery.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. State the main points in Mulcaster's scheme (226) for education.

2. Characterize Locke's criticism (227) on the teaching of Latin.

3. State Locke's ideas as to the use of the Bible (228).

4. Characterize the nature and contents of the so-called "Spellers" by
Coote and Dilworth (229).

5. Compare the Connecticut common school, as described by Webster (230),
with an English charity-school (238 b), or a Swedish popular school
(232) of the time.

6. Just what state of vernacular education in Teutonic lands is indicated
by the three selections (231, 232, 233)?

7. Compare the proprietary right of the teachers at Frankfort (233) with
the right of control claimed over song schools by the Precentor of a medi-
aeval cathedral (83).

8. Do such conditions as Kriisi describes (234) exist anywhere to-day?

Q. Characterize the Dame School of England, as to instruction and control,
from the descriptions given in the selections (235) reproduced.

10. State the relationship of teacher and minister at Newburgli (236), and
indicate the nature and probable extent of his income.

IT. State the purpose of the founders of Saint Anne of Soho (237), and
characterize the type of school they created.

12. What does the qualification for a charity-school teacher (238 a) indicate
as to the nature of the teacher's caUing in such schools? Outline the
instruction (238 b) in such a school.

13. What instruction did the textbooks as printed (239) provide for?

14. Show the voluntary and benevolent character of the charity-school by
comparing the subscription form (240) with some voluntary subscrip-
tion form used to-day.

15. How did the school in Saint John's parish (241) diflfer from apprentice-
ship training?

16. What changes do you note between the mediaeval Indenture of Appren-
ticeship (99) and the eighteenth-century EngHsh form (242)?

17. Compare Readings 201 and 242 on apprenticeship.

18. Compare conditions described in 244 with 231-233.

19. What do the Free School Rules of 1734 (245) indicate as to duties and
discipline?

20. What does the use of the lottery for school support (246) indicate as to
the conception and scope of education at the time?

THEORY AND PRACTICE BY 1750 467

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Allen, W. O. B., and McClure, E. Two Hundred Years; History of the

S.P.C.K., 1698-1898.
Barnard, Henry. English Pedagogy, Part 11, The Teacher in English
Literature.
*Birchenough, C. History of Elementary Education in England and Wales.
Brown, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools.
Cardwell, J. F. The Story of a Charity School.
Davidson, Thos. Rousseau.
*Earle, Alice M. Child Life in Colonial Days.
Field, Mrs. E. M. The Child and his Book.
Ford, Paul L. The New England Primer.
Godfrey, Elizabeth. English Children in the Olden Time.
*Johnson, Clifton. Old Time Schools and School Books.
*Kemp, W. W. The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
Kilpatrick, Wm. H. Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial New

York.
Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693).
*Montmorency, J. E. G. de. Progress of Education in England.
Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in English Education.
Mulcaster, Richard. Positions. (London, 1581.)
*Paulsen, Friedrich. German Education, Past and Present.
*Salmon, David. "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Cen-
tury"; reprinted from the Educational Record. (London, 1908.)
*Scott, J. F. Historic Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Education.
(Ann Arbor, 1914.)

PART IV
MODERN TIMES

• o

THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGE

THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY

A NEW THEORY FOR EDUCATION EVOLVED

THE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL

CHAPTER XIX
THE EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY

The eighteenth century a turning-point. The eighteenth cen-
tury, in human thinking and progress, marks for most western
nations the end of mediae vahsm and the ushering-in of modern
forms of intellectual hberty. The indifference to the old religious
problems, which was clearly manifest in all countries at the be-
ginning of the century, steadily grew and culminated in a revolt
against ecclesiastical control over human affairs. This change in
attitude toward the old problems permitted the rise of new types
of intellectual inquiry, a rapid development of scientific thinking
and discovery, the growth of a consciousness of national problems
and national welfare, and the bringing to the front of secular
interests to a degree practically unknown since the days of ancient
Rome. In a sense the general rise of these new interests in the
eighteenth century was but a culmination of a long series of move-
ments looking toward greater intellectual freedom and needed
human progress which had been under way since the days when
studia generalia and guilds first arose in western Europe. The
rise of the universities in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
the Revival of Learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
the Protestant Revolts in the sixteenth, the rise of modern scien-
tific inquiry in the sixteenth and seventeenth, and Puritanism in
England and Pietism in Germany in the seventeenth, had all been
in the nature of protests against the mediaeval tendency to con-
fine and limit and enslave the intellect. In the eighteenth cen-
tury the culmination of this rising tide of protest came in a gen-
eral and determined revolt against despotism in either Church or
State, which, at the close of the century, swept away ancient priv-
ileges, abuses, and barriers, and prepared the way for the marked
intellectual and human and poHtical progress which characterized
the nineteenth century.

Significance of the change in attitude. The new spirit and
interests and attitudes which came to characterize the eighteenth
century in the more progressive western nations meant the ulti-
mate overthrow of the tyranny of mediaeval supernatural the-
ology', the evolution of a new theory as to moral action which

472 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

should be independent of theology, the freeing of the new scien-
tific spirit from the fetters of church control, the substituting of
new philosophical and scientific and economic interests for the
old theological problems which had for so long dominated human
thinking, the substitution of natural poUtical organization for the
older ecclesiastical foundations of the State, the destruction of
what remained of the old feudal political system, the freeing of
the serf and the evolution of the citizen, and the rise of a modern
society interested in problems of national welfare — government
in the interest of the governed, commerce, industry, science, eco-
nomics, education, and social welfare. The evolution of such
modern-type governments inevitably meant the creation of en-
tirely new demands for the education of the people and for far-
reaching political and social reforms.

This new eighteenth-century spirit, which so characterized the
mid-eighteenth century that it is often spoken of as the ''Period
of the Enlightenment," ^ expressed itself in many new directions,
a few of the more important of which will be considered here as
of fundamental concern for the student of the history of educa-
tional progress. In a very real sense the development of state
educational systems, in both European and American States, has
been an outgrowth of the great liberalizing forces which first made
themselves felt in a really determined way during this important
transition century. In this chapter we shall consider briefly five
important phases of this new eighteenth-century HberaHsm, as
follows:

1. The work of the benevolent despots of continental Europe in
trying to shape their governments to harmonize them with the
new spirit of the century.

2. The unsatisfied demand for reform in France.

3. The rise of democratic government and liberalism in England.

4. The institution of constitutional government and religious free-
dom in America.

5. The sweeping away of mediaeval abuses in the great Revolution
' in France.

^ "The Period of the Enlightenment" had two main aims: (i) the perfection of
the individual, which gave a new emphasis to education, and (2) the mastery of
man over his environment, which expressed itself through the new scientific studies.
In German lands elementary education, a regenerated classical education, and the
Realschule were the fruits of this period.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 473

I. WORK OF THE BENEVOLENT DESPOTS OF CONTINENTAL

EUROPE

The new nationalism leads to interested government. In Eng-
land, as we shall trace a little further on, a democratic form of
government had for long been developing, but this democratic
life had made but little headway on the continent of Europe.
There, instead, the democratic tendencies which showed some
slight signs of development during the sixteenth century had been
stamped out in the period of warfare and the ensuing hatreds of
the seventeenth, and in the eighteenth century we find autocratic
government at its height. National governments to succeed the
earlier government of the Church had developed and grown
strong, the kingly power had everywhere been consolidated,
Church and State were in close working alliance, and the new
spirit of nationality — in government, foreign policy, languages,
literature, and culture — was being energetically developed by
those responsible for the welfare of the States. Everywhere, al-
most, on the continent of Europe, the theory of the divine right
of kings to rule and the divine duty of subjects to obey seemed to
have become fixed, and this theory of government the Church now
most assiduously supported. Unlike in England and the Ameri-
can Colonies, the people of the larger countries of continental
Europe had not as yet advanced far enough in personal liberty
or political thinking to make any demand of consequence for the
right to govern themselves. The new spirit of nationality abroad
in Europe, though, as well as the new humanitarian ideas begin-
ning to stir thinking men, alike tended to awaken a new interest
on the part of many rulers in the welfare of the people they
governed. In consequence, during the eighteenth century, we
find a number of nations in which the rulers, putting themselves
in harmony with the new spirit of the time, made earnest attempts
to improve the condition of their peoples as a means of advancing
the national welfare. We shall here mention the four nations in
which the most conspicuous reform work was attempted.

The rulers of Prussia. Three kings, to whom the nineteenth-
century greatness of Prussia was largely due, ruled the country
during nearly the whole of the eighteenth century. They were
fully as despotic as the kings of France, but, unlike the French
kings, they were keenly alive to the needs of the people, anxious
to advance the welfare of the State, tolerant in religion, and in

474

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 145. Frederick
THE Great

sympathy with the new scientific studies. The first, Frederick
WiHiam I (1713-40), labored earnestly to develop the resources
of the country, trained a large army, ordered elementary education

made compulsory, and made the begin-
nings in the royal provinces of the trans-
formation of the schools from the control
of the Church to the control of the State.
His son, known to history as Frederick
the Great, ruled from 1740 to 1786. Dur-
ing his long reign he labored continually
to curtail ancient privileges, aboHsh old
abuses, and improve the condition of his
people. During the first week of his reign
he abolished torture in trials, made the
administration of law more equitable,
instituted a limited freedom for the
press, ^ and extended religious toleration.-
He also partially abolished serfdom on the royaLdomains, and
tried to uplift the peasantry and citizen classes, but in this he
met with bitter opposition from the nobles of his realm. He
built roads, canals, and bridges, encouraged skilled artisans to
settle in his dominions, developed agriculture and industry, en-
couraged scientific workers, extended an asylum to thousands of
Huguenots fleeing from religious persecution in France,^ and did
more than any previous ruler to provide comnion schools through-
out his kingdom. By the general regulation of education in his
kingdom (chapter xxii) he laid the foundations upon which the
nineteenth-century Prussian school system was later built.

His rule, though, was thoroughly autocratic. "Everything
for the people, but nothing by the people,'' was the keynote of his
policies. He had no confidence in the ability of the people to
rule, and gave them no opportunity to learn the art. He em-
ployed the strong army his father built up to wage wars of con-
quest, seize territory that did not belong to him, and in conse-

' Frederick used to say that his subjects might think as they pleased so long as
they behaved as he ordered.

^ Though Prussia was primarily Lutheran, Catholics, Mennonites, Jews, and
Huguenots early found a home in the kingdom. Frederick used to say that "all
religions must be tolerated, for in this country every man must go to heaven in his
own way."

3 After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (p. 301; 1685), over 20,000 French
Huguenots — merchants, manufacturers, skilled workmen — found an asylum in
Prussia alone. Settling in the Rhine countries, they contributed much to the future
development of this region.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 475

quence made himself a great German hero.^ He may be said to
have laid the foundations of modern militarized, socialized, obedi-
ently educated, and subject Germany, and also to have begun the
''grand-larceny" and "scrap-of-paper'' poHcy which has charac-
terized Prussian international relationships ever since. Freder-
ick Wilham II, who reigned from 1786 to 1797, continued in large
measure the enlightened policies of his uncle, reformed the tax
system, lightened the burdens of his people, encouraged trade,
emphasized the German tongue, quickened the national spirit,
actively encouraged schools and universities, and began that
centrahzation of authority over the developing educational sys-
temx which resulted in the creation in Prussia of the first modern
state school system in Europe. The educational work of these
three Prussian kings was indeed important, and we shall study it
more in detail in a later chapter (chapter xxii) .

The Austrian reformers. Two notably benevolent rulers occu-
pied the Austrian throne for half a century, and did much to
improve the condition of the Austrian
people. A very remarkable woman, Maria
Theresa, came to the throne in 1740, and
was followed by her son, Joseph II, in 1 780.
He ruled until 1790. To Maria Theresa
the Austria of the nineteenth century owed
most of its development and power. She
worked with seemingly tireless energy for
the advancement of the welfare of her sub-
jects, and toward the close of her reign
laid, as we shall see in a later chapter, the
beginnings of Austrian school reform.

Joseph II carried still further his moth-
er's benevolent work, and strove to intro-
duce " enlightenment and reason " into the

administration of his realm. A student of the writings of the
eighteenth-century reform philosophers, and deeply imbued with
the reform spirit of his time, he attempted to abolish ancient

^ " For the first time since Luther, the German people could call a great hero their
own, whether they were the subjects of Frederick or not. Joyous pride in this prince,
whose achievements in times of peace were no less than those in time of war, brought
national consciousness to life again and this national feeling found expression in
Hterature. It was the restoration of confidence in themselves that gave the Ger-
mans the courage to break with French rules and French models, and to seek inde-
pendently after ideals of beauty. And this self-confidence they owed to Frederick
the Great." (Priest, G. M., History of German Literature, p. ii6.)

Fig. 146.
Maria Theresa

476 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

privileges, establish a uniform code of justice, encourage educa-
tion, free the serfs, abolish feudal tenure, grant religious tolera-
tion, curb the power of the Pope and the Church, break the power
of the local Diets, centralize the State, and ''introduce a uniform
level of democratic simplicity under his own absolute sway." He
attempted to alter the organization of the Church, aboKshed six
hundred monasteries,^ and reduced the number of monastic per-
sons in his dominion from 63,000 to 27,000. Attempting too
much, he brought down upon his head the wrath of both priest
and noble and died a disappointed man. The aboHtion of feudal
tenure and serfdom on the distinctively Austrian lands, of all his
attempted reforms, alone was permanent. His work stands as
an interesting commentary on the temporary character of the
results which follow attempts rapidly to improve the conditions
surrounding the lives of people, without at the same time edu-
cating the people to improve themselves.

The Spanish reformers. A very similar result attended the
reform efforts of a succession of benevolent rulers thrust upon
Spain, during the eighteenth century, by the complications of for-
eign poUtics. Over a period of nearly ninety years, extending
from the accession of Philip V (1700) to the death of Charles III
(1788), remarkable pohtical progress was imposed by a succession
of able ministers and with the consent of the kings.- The power
of the Church, always the crying evil of Spain, was restricted in
many ways; the Inquisition was curbed; the Jesuits were driven
from the kingdom; the burning of heretics was stopped; prosecu-
tion for heresy was reduced and discouraged; the monastic orders
were taught to fear the law and curb their passions; evils in public
administration were removed ; national grievances were redressed ;
the civil service was improved; science and literature were en-
couraged, in place of barren theological speculations; and an ear-
nest effort was made to regenerate the national life and improve
the lot of the common people.

All these reforms, though, were imposed from above, and no
attempt was made to introduce schools or to educate the people
in the arts of self-government. The result was that the reforms
never went beneath the surface, and the national life of the peo-

^ Though Joseph II claimed to be a good Catholic, he felt that monasticism had
outUved its usefulness as an institution, and that its continuance was inimical to the
interests of organized society and the State. This view has since been taken by the
rulers of every progressive modern nation.

2 The Cortes, or National Parliament, met but three times during the century,
and when it did meet possessed but few powers and exercised but liltk influence.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 477

pie remained largely untouched. Within five years of the death
of Charles III all had been lost. Under a native Spanish king,
thoroughly orthodox, devout, and lacking in any broad national
outlook, the Church easily restored itself to power, the priests
resumed their earlier importance, the nobles again began to exact
their full toll, free discussion was forbidden, scientific studies
were abandoned, the universities were ordered to discontinue the
study of moral philosophy, and the political and social reforms
which had required three generations to build up were lost in
half a decade. Not meeting any well-expressed need of the peo-
ple, and with no schools provided to show to the people the de-
sirable nature of the reforms introduced, it was easy to sweep
them aside. In this relapse to mediaevalism, the chance for
Spain — a country rich in possibilities and natural resources —
to evolve early into a progressive modern nation was lost. So
Spain has remained ever since, and only in the last quarter of a
century has reform from within begun to be evident in this until
recently priest-ridden and benighted land.

The intelligent despots of Russia. The greatest of these were
Peter the Great, who ruled from 1689 to 1725, and Catherine II,
who ruled from 1762 to 1796. Catching something of the new
eighteenth-century western spirit, these rulers tried to introduce
some western enlightenment into their as yet almost barbarous
land. Each tried earnestly to lift their people to a higher level
of living, and to start them on the road toward civilization and
learning. By a series of edicts, despotically enforced, Peter tried
to introduce the civilization of the western world into his country.
He brought in numbers of skilled artisans, doctors, merchants,
teachers, printers, and soldiers; introduced many western skills
and trades; and made the beginnings of western secondary edu-
cation for the governing classes by the establishment in the cities
of a number of German-type gymnasia.'^ Later Catherine II had
the French philosopher Diderot (p. 482) draw up a plan for her
for the organization of a state system of higher schools, but the
plan was never put into effect. The beginnings of Russian higher
civilization really date from this eighteenth- century work. The
power of the formidable Greek or Eastern Church remained, how-
ever, untouched, and this continued, until after the Russian revo-
lution of 191 7, as one of the most serious obstacles to Russian

1 The first Russian university was established at Kiev, in 1588; the second at
Dorpat, in 1632; the third at Moscow, in 1755; and the fourth at Kasan, in 1804.
The University of Petrograd dates from 18 19,

478 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

intellectual and educational progress. The serfs, too, remained
serfs — tied to the land, ignorant, superstitious, and obedient.

By the close of the eighteenth centur}^ Russia, largely under
Prussian training, had become a very formidable mihtary power,
and by the close of the nineteenth century was beginning to make
some progress of importance in the arts of peace. Just at present
Russia is going through a stage of national evolution quite com-
parable to that which took place in France a century and a quar-
ter ago, and the educational importance of this great people, as
we shall point out further on, lies in their future evolution rather
than in any contribution they have as yet made to western
development.

II. THE UNSATISFIED DEMAND FOR REFORM IN FRANCE

The setting of eighteenth-century France. Eighteenth-century
France, on the contrary, developed no benevolent despot to miti-
gate abuses, reform the laws, aboHsh privileges, temper the rule
of the Church,^ (R. 247), curb the monastic orders, develop the
natural resources, begin the establishment of schools, and allevi-
ate the hard lot of the serf and the peasant. There, instead,
absolute monarchy in Europe reached its most complete triumph
during the long reigns of Louis XIV (1643-17 15) and Louis XV
(1715-74), and the splendor of the court Hfe of France captivated
all Europe and served to hide the misery which made the splendor
possible. There the power of the nobles had been completely
broken, and the power of the parliaments completely destroyed.
*'I am the State," exclaimed Louis XIV, and the almost unlimited
despotism of the King and his ministers and favorites fully sup-
ported the statement. Local liberties had been suppressed, and
the lot of the common people — - ignorant, hard-working, down-
trodden, but intensely patriotic — was wretched in the extreme.
Approximately 140,000 nobles - and 130,000 monks, nuns, and
clergy owned two fifths of the landed property of France, and
controlled the destinies of a nation of approximately 25,000,000
people. Agriculture was the great industry of the time, but this

^ The great difiference between a church and true religion must always be kept in
mind. Reh'gion is a thing of the spirit, and its principle represents the loftiest
thoughts of the race; a church is a human governing institution, and clearly subject
to its own ambitions and the human frailties of its age.

'^ That is, 25,000 to 30,000 families. There were also, in even numbers, 83,000
monks in 2500 monasteries (one for every ninety square miles in France), 37,000
nuns in 1500 convents, and 60,000 priests. Of the soil of France, the King and
towns owned one fifth, the clergy and the monks one fifth, the nobiUty one fifth, the
bourgeoisie one fifth, and the peasantry one fifth.

• EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 479

was so taxed by the agents of King and Church that over one half
of the net profits from farming were taken for taxation.

Church and State were in close working alliance. The higher
offices of the Church were commonly held by appointed noblemen,
who drew large incomes,^ led worldly lives, and neglected their
priestly functions much as the Italian appointees in German
lands had done before the Reformation. Between the nobles and
upper clergy on the one hand and the peasant-born lower clergy
and the masses of the people on the other a great gulf existed.
The real brains of France were to be found among a small bour-
geois class of bankers, merchants, shopkeepers, minor officials,
lawyers, and skilled artisans, who lived in the cities and who,
ambitious and discontented, did much to stimulate the increasing
unrest and demand for reform which in time pervaded the whole
nation. A king, constantly in need of increasing sums of money;
an idle, selfish, corrupt, and discredited nobility and upper clergy,
incapable of aiding the king, many of whom, too, had been influ-
enced by the new philosophic and scientific thinking and were
willing to help destroy their own orders; an aggressive, discon-
tented, and patriotic bourgeoisie, full of new politica] and social
ideas, and patriotically anxious to reform France; and a vast
unorganized peasantry and city rabble, suffering much and
resisting little, but capable of a terrible fury and senseless
destruction, once they were aroused and their suppressed rage
let loose; — these were the main elements in the setting of
eighteenth-century France.

The French reform philosophers. During the middle decades
of the eighteenth century a small but very influential group of
reform philosophers in France attacked with their pens the an-
cient abuses in Church and State, and did much to pave the way
for genuine political and religious reform. In a series of widely
read articles and books, characterized for the most part by clear
reasoning and telUng arguments, these poHtical philosophers
attacked the power of the absolute monarchy on the one hand,
and the existing privileges of the nobles and clergy on the other,
as both unjust and inimical to the welfare of society (R. 248).
The leaders in the reform movement were Montesquieu (1689-

^ In 1788 the 131 bishops and archbishops of France had an average income of
100,000 francs, and 33 abbots and 27 abbesses had incomes ranging from 80,000 to
500,000 francs. The Cardinal de Rohan, Archbishop of Strasbourg, had an income
of more than 1,000,000 francs, and the 300 Benedictine monks at Cluny had an
income of more than 1,800,000 francs.

48o

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 147. Montesquieu
( I 689-1 755)

1755), Turgot (1727-81), Voltaire (1694-1778), Diderot (1713-84),
and Rousseau (1712-78).

Montesquieu. In. 1748 appeared Montesquieu's famous book,
the Spirit of Laws. In this he pointed out the many excellent

features of the constitutional government
which the English had developed, and
compared English conditions with the
many abuses to which the French people
were subject. He argued that laws
should be expressive of the wishes and
needs of the people governed, and that
the education of a people ''ought to be
relative to the principles of good gov-
ernment." Montesquieu also stands, with
Turgot as the founder of the sciences
of comparative politics ^ and the phi-
losophy of history — new studies which
helped to shape the political thinking
of eighteenth-century France.

Turgot. Two years after the publi-
cation of Montesquieu's book, Turgot delivered (1750) a series
of lectures at the Sorbonne, in Paris, in which he virtually cre-
ated the science of history. Looking at human history compre-
hensively, seeing clearly that there had been a hitherto unrecog-
nized regularity of march amid the confusion of the past, and that
it was possible to grasp the history of the progress of man as a
whole, he saw and stated the possibility of society to improve
itself through intelligent government, and the need for wise
laws and general education to enable it to do so.^

^ "The real importance of Esprit des lots is not that of a formal treatise on law, or
even on polity. It is that of an assemblage of the most fertile, original, and in-
spiriting views on legal and political subjects, put in language of singular suggestive-
ness and vigour, illustrated by examples which are always apt and luminous, per-
meated by the spirit of temperate and tolerant desire for human improvement and
happiness, and almost unique in its entire freedom at once from doctrinairism, vision-
ary enthusiasm, egotism, and an undue spirit of system. The genius of the author
for generalization is so great, his instinct in political science so sure, that even the
falsity of his premises frequently fails to vitiate his conclusions." (Saintsbury,
George, in Encyclopcedia Britannica, vol. xviii, p. 777.)

- " By the captivating prospects which he held out of future progress, and by the
picture which he drew of the capacity of society to improve itself, Turgot increased
the impatience which his countrymen were beginning to feel against the despotic
government, in whose presence amelioration seemed to be hopeless. These, and
similar speculations of the time, stimulated the activity of the intellectual classes,
cheered them under the persecutions to which they were exposed, and emboldened
them to attack the institutions of their native land." (Buckle, H. T., History of
Civilization in England, vol. i, p. 507.)

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 481

In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance by the new
King, Louis XVI, and during the two years before he was removed

y ij

Fig. 14S. Turcot
(1727-81)

Fig. 149. Voltaire
(1694-17 78)

from office he attempted to carry out many needed poHtical and
social reforms. Duruy ^ has summarized his suggested reforms
as follows:

1. Gradual introduction of a complete system of local self-govern-
ment.

2. Imposition of a land tax on nobility and clergy.

3. Suppression of the greater part of the monasteries.

4. Amelioration of the condition of the minor clergy.

5. Equalization of the burdens of taxation.

6. Liberty of conscience, and the recall of the Protestants to France.

7. A uniform system of weights and measures.

8. Freedom for commerce and industry.

9. A single and uniform code of laws.

10. A vast plan for the organization of a system of public instruction
throughout France.

This list is indicative of the reform philosophy in the light of
which he worked. Arousing the natural hostility of the nobility
and higher clergy, he was soon dismissed, and the reforms he had
proposed were abandoned by the King.

Voltaire. The keenest and most unsparing critic of the old

order was Voltaire. In clear and forceful French he exposed

existing conditions in society and government, and particularly

the control of affairs exercised by the most ancient and most

^ Duruy, V., History of France, p. 523.

482

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

powerful organization of his day — the Church. For this he was
execrated and hated by the clergy, and in return he made it the
chief task of his Hfe to destroy the reign of the priest. Having
lived for a time in England, he appreciated the vast difference
between the EngHsh and French forms of government. With a
keen and unsparing pen he exposed the scholasticism, despotism,
dogmatism, superstition, hypocrisy, servility, and deep injustice
of his age, and poured out the vials of his scorn upon the grubbing
pedantry of the Academicians who doted upon the past because
ignorant of the present. In particular he stood for the abolition
of that relic of feudalism — serfdom — which still seriously op-
pressed the peasantry of France ; for liberty in thought and action
for the individual; for curbing the powers and privileges of both
State and Church; for an equalization of the burdens of taxation
between the different classes in French society; and for the organ-
ization of a system of public education throughout the nation. He
died before the outbreak of the Revolution he had done so much to
bring about, but by the time he died the ''Ancient Regime" of
privilege and corruption and oppression was already tottering to
its fall. His conception of the relations that should exist between
Church and State are well set forth in a short article from his pen
on the subject (R. 248) reprinted from the Encyclopcsdia of Diderot.
Diderot. Another able thinker and writer was Diderot. Be-
sides other works of importance, he gave twenty years of his life

(1751-72) to the editing (with D Alembert)
of an Encyclopcsdia of seventeen volumes
of text and eleven of plates. Many of the
articles were written by himself, and were
expressive of his ideas as to reform. Many
were frankly critical of existing privileges,
abuses, and pretensions. Many interpreted
to the French the science of Newton and
the discoveries of the age, and awakened
a new interest in scientific study. Because
of its reform ideas the publication was sup-
pressed, in 1759, after the pubHcation of
the seventh volume, and had to be carried
on surreptitiously thereafter. Viscount Morley, writing recently
on Diderot, summarizes the nature and influence of the Encyclo-
pcedia in the following words:

The ecclesiastical party detested the Encydopcedia, in which they

Fig. 150. Diderot
(1713-84)

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 483

saw a rising stronghold for their philosophical enemies. To any one
who turns over the pages of these redoubtable volumes now, it seems
surprising that their doctrine should have stirred such portentous
alarm. There is no atheism, no overt attack on any of the cardinal
mysteries of the faith, no direct denunciation even of the notorious
abuses of the Church. Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the book
may w^ell have been displeasing to authorities who had not yet learnt
to encounter the modern spirit on equal terms. The Encyclopcedia
takes for granted the justice of religious toleration and speculative
freedom. It asserts in distinct tones the democratic doctrine that it is
the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the chief concern
of the nation's government. From beginning to end it is one unbroken
process of exaltation of scientific knowledge on the one hand, and
pacific industry on the other. All these things were odious to the old
governing classes of France.^

Rousseau. The fifth reform writer mentioned as exercising
a large influence was Rousseau. In 1749 the Academy at Dijon
offered a prize for the best essay on the subject : Has the progress
of the sciences and arts contributed to corrupt or to purify morals?
Rousseau took the negative side and won the prize. His essay
attracted widespread attention. In 1753 he competed for a
second prize on The Origin of Inequality among Men, in which he
took the same negative attitude. In 1752 appeared both his
Social Contract and Emile. In the former he contended that
early men had given to selected leaders the right to conduct their
government for them, and that these had in time become auto-
cratic and had virtually enslaved the people (R. 249 a) . He held
that men were not bound to submit to government against their
wills, and to remedy existing abuses he advocated the overthrow
of the usurping government and the establishment of a republic,
with universal suffrage based on "liberty, fraternity, and equal-
ity." The ideal State lay in a society controlled by the people,
where artificiality and aristocracy and the tyranny of society over
man did not exist. Nor could Rousseau distinguish between
political and ecclesiastical tyranny, holding that the former
inevitably followed from the latter (R. 249 b).

Crude as were his theories, and impractical as were many of
his ideas, to an age tired of absurdities and pretensions and injus-
tice, and suffering deeply from the abuses of both Church and
State, his attractively written book seemed almost inspired. The
Social Contract virtually became the Bible of the French Revolu-
tionists. In the Emile, a book which will be referred to more at

' Encyclopcedia Br itannica, nth ed., vol. viii, p. 204.

484 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

length in chapter XXI, Rousseau held that we should revert, in
education, to a state of nature to secure the needed educational
reforms, and that education to prepare for life in the existing
society was both wrong and useless.

A revolution in French thinking. These five men — Montes-
quieu, Turgot, Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau — and many
other less influential followers, portrayed the abuses of the time
in Church and State and pointed out the lines of political and
ecclesiastical reform. Those who read their writings understood
better why the existing privileges of the nobility and clergy were
no longer right, and the need for reform in matters of taxation
and government. Their writings added to the spirit of unrest
of the century, and were deeply influential, not only in France,
but in the American Colonies as well. Though the attack was
at first against the evils in Church and State, the new critical
philosophy soon led to intellectual developments of importance
in many other directions.

At the death of Louis XIV (17 15) France was intellectually
prostrate. Great as was his long reign from the point of view of
the splendor of his court, and large as was the quantity of litera-
ture produced, his age was nevertheless an age of misery, religious
intolerance, political oppression, and intellectual decline. It was
a reign of centralized and highly personal government. Men no
longer dared to think for themselves, or to discuss with any free-
dom questions either of politics or religion. "There was no popu-
lar liberty; there were no great men; there was no science; there
was no literature; there were no arts. The largest intellects lost
their energy; the national spirit died away." Between the death
of Louis XIV and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789)
an intellectual revolution took place in France, and for this revo-
lution English political progress and political and scientific think-
ing were largely responsible.

Great English influence on France. In 17 15 the Enghsh lan-
guage was almost unspoken in France, English science and polit-
ical progress were unknown there, and the English were looked
down upon and hated. Half a century later English was spoken
everywhere by the scholars of the time; the English were looked
upon as the political and scientific leaders of Europe; and the
scholars of France visited England to study English political,
economic, and scientific progress. Locke, an uncompromising
advocate of poHtical and religious liberty; Hobbes, the specula-

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 485

tive moral philosopher; and the great scientist Newton were the
teachers of Voltaire. More than any other single man, Voltaire
moulded and redirected eighteenth-century thought in France.^
Numerous French writers of importance — Helvetius, Diderot,
]^orellet, Voltaire, Rousseau, to mention but a few — drew their
inspiration from EngHsh writers. In the eighteenth century Eng-
land became the school for political Kberty for France,^

The effect of the work of Isaac Newton (p. 388), as popularized
by the writings of Voltaire, was revolutionary on a people who
had been so tyrannized over by the clergy as had the French
during the reign of Louis XIV. An interest in scientific studies
before unknown in France now flamed up, and a new generation
of French scientists arose. Physics, chemistry, zoology, and anat-
omy received a great new impetus, while botany, geology, and
mineralogy were raised to the rank of sciences. Popular scien-
tific lectures became very common. The classics were almost
abandoned for the new studies.

Economic questions now also began to be discussed, such as
questions of money, food, finance, and government expenditure.
In 1776 the EngHshman, Adam Smith, laid the foundations of
the new science of political economy by the publication of his
Wealth of Nations, and this was at once translated into French
and eagerly read. In 1781 a French banker by the name of
Necker published his Compte Rendu, a statistical report on the
finances of France. So feverishly eager were men to study prob-
lems of government that six thousand copies were sold the day it
was published, and eighty thousand had to be printed before the
demand for it was satisfied. A half -century earlier it would have
been read scarcely at all.

1 "The real king of the eighteenth century was Voltaire; but Voltaire, in his turn,
was a pupil of the English. Before Voltaire became acquainted with England,
through his travels and his friendships, he was not Voltaire, and the eighteenth
century was still undeveloped." (Cousin, History of Philosophy.)

^ "The first Frenchmen who in the eighteenth century turned their attention to
England were amazed at the boldness with which, in that country, political and
religious questions of the deepest moment were discussed — questions which no
Frenchman in the preceding age had dared to broach. With wonder they discov-
ered in England a comparative freedom of the public press, and saw with astonish-
ment how in Parliament itself the government of the Crown was attacked with
impunity, and the management of its revenues actually kept under control. To see
the civiHzation and prosperity of England increasing, while the power of the upper
classes and the King diminished, was to them a revelation. . . . England, said Helve-
tius, is a country where the people are respected, a country where each citizen has a
part in the management of affairs, where men of genius are allowed to enlighten the
public upon its true interests." (Dabney, R. H., Causes of the French Revolution,
p. 141.)

486 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

In the meantime taxes piled up, reforms were refused, the
power and arrogance of the clergy and nobility showed no signs
of diminution, the nation was burdened with debt, commerce and
agriculture declined, the lot of the common people became ever
more hard to bear, and the masses grew increasingly resentfi^
and rebellious. As national affairs continued to drift from bad
to worse in France, a series of important happenings on the
American continent helped to bring matters more rapidly to a
crisis. Before describing these events, however, we wish to
sketch briefly the rise of government by the people and the ex-
tension of liberalism in England — the first great democratic na-
tion of the western world.

III. ENGLAND THE FIRST DEMOCRATIC NATION

Early beginnings of English liberty. The first western nation
created from the wreck of the Roman Empire to achieve a meas-
urement of self-government was England. Better civilized than
most of the other wandering tribes, at the time of their coming
to EngHsh shores, the invading Angles, Saxons, and Jutes early
accepted Christianity (p. 120) and settled down to an agricultural
hfe. On EngKsh shores they soon built up a for- the- time substan-
tial civilization. This was later largely destroyed by the pillaging
Danes, but with characteristic energy the English set to work to
assimilate the newcomers and build up civiHzation anew. The
work of Alfred (p. 146) in reestabhshing law and order, at a time
when law and order scarcely existed anywhere in western Europe,
will long remain famous. Later on, and at a time when German
and Hun and Slav had only recently accepted Christianity in
name and had begun to settle down into rude tribal governments,
and when the Prussians in their original home along the eastern
Baltic were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen gods
(p. 120), the English barons were extorting Magna Charta from
King John and laying the firm foundations of English constitu-
tional fiber ty. In the meadow at Runnymede, on that justly
celebrated June day, in 121 5, government under law and based
on the consent of the governed began to shape itself once more
in the western world. Of the sixty- three articles of this Charter
of Liberties, three possess imperishable value. These provided :

1. That no free man shall be imprisoned or proceeded against except
by his peers, or the law of the land, which secured trial by jury.

2. That justice should neither be sold, denied, nor delayed.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 487

3. That dues from the people to the king could be imposed only with
the consent of the National Council (after 1246 known as Parlia-
ment).

So important was this charter to such a liberty-loving people as
the EngHsh have always been, and so bitterly did kings resent its
hampering provisions, that within the next two centuries kings
had been forced to confirm it no less than thirty-seven times.

By 1295 the first complete Parliament, representative of the
three orders of society — Lords, Clergy, and Commons — assem-
bled, and in 1333 the Commons gained the right to sit by itself.
From that time to the present the Commons, representing the
people, has gradually broadened its powers, working, as Tenny-
son has said/ "from precedent to precedent," until to-day it rules
the English nation. In 1376 the Commons gained the right to
impeach the King's ministers, and in 1407 the exclusive right to
make grants of money for any governmental purpose. Centuries
ahead of other nations, this insured an almost continual meeting
of the national assembly and a close scrutiny of the acts of both
kings and ministers.

■ In 1604 King James I, imitating continental European prece-
dents, proclaimed his theory as to the "divine right of kings" to
rule,- and a struggle at once set in which carried the English into
Civil War (1642-49); led to the beheading of Charles I (1649);
the overthrow and banishment of James II (1688); and the ulti-
mate firm establishment, instead, of the "divine right of the
common people." ^ In an age when the autocratic power and the

^ Tennyson, in his " You ask me why," well describes the growth of constitutional
liberty in England when he says that England is:

"A land of settled government,
A land of just and old renown,
Where freedom broadens slowly down.
From precedent to precedent."

2 James I, in 1604, had declared: ''As it is atheism to dispute what God can do,
so it is presumption and a high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do."
For this attitude the Commons continually contested his authority, his son lost his
crown and his head, and his grandson was driven from the throne and from England.
By contrast, and as showing the different attitude toward self-government of the
two peoples, the German Emperor William II, three centuries later, so continually
boasted of his rule by divine right that "Me and God" became an international
joke, and to his assumption the German people took little or no exception.

^ The passage of the Bill of Rights (1689) ended the divine-right-of -kings idea in
England for all time. This prohibited the King from keeping a standing army in
times of peace, gave every subject the right to petition for a redress of grievances,
gave Parliament the right of free debate, prohibited the King from interfering in
any way with the proper execution of the laws, declared that members ought to be
elected to Parliament without interference, and gave the Commons control of all
forms of taxation.

488 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

divine right of kings to rule was almost unquestioned elsewhere
in Europe, the English people compelled their king to recognize
that he could rule over them only when he ruled in their interests
and as they wished him to do. Though there was a period of
struggle later on with the German Georges (I, II, and III), and
especially with the honest but stupid George III, England has,
since 1688, been a government of and by the people.^ France
did not rid itself of the "divine-right" conception until the French
Revolution (1789), and Germany, Austria, and Russia not until
1918.

Growth of tolerance among the English. The results of the
long struggle of the English for liberty under law showed itself
in many ways in the growth of tolerance among the people of the
English nation. At a time when other nations were bound down
in blind obedience to king and priest, and when dissenting minori-
ties were driven from the land, the English people had become
accustomed to the idea of individual liberty, regulated by law,
and to the toleration of opinions with which they did not agree.
These characteristically English conceptions of liberty under law
and of the toleration of minorities have found expression in many
important ways in the life and government of the people (R. 250),
and have been elements of great strength in England's colonial
poHcy. One of the important ways in which this growth of toler-
ance among the English showed itself was in the extension of a
larger freedom to those unable to subscribe to the state religion.

Though the Reformation movement had stirred up bitter
hatreds in England, as on the Continent, the English were among
the first of European peoples to show tolerance of opposition in
religious matters. The high English State Church, which had
succeeded the Roman, had made but small appeal to many Eng-
lishmen. The Puritans had early struggled to secure a simplifi-
cation of the church service and the introduction of more preach-
ing (P- 359)? a,nd in the seventeenth century the organization of
three additional dissenting sects, which became known as Unitari-
ans, Baptists, and Quakers, took place. These sects divided off
rather quietly, and their separation resulted only in the enact-
ment of new laws regarding conformity, prayers, and teaching.

^ Though the EngHsh first developed regulated or constitutional government,
they themselves have no single written constitution. Instead, the foundations of
EngUsh constitutional government rest on Magna Charta (12 15), the Petition of
Rights (1628), and the Bill of Rights (1689), these three constituting "the Bible of
English Liberty."

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 489

During the latter half of the seventeenth century, after the
execution of Charles I (1649), the Puritans had temporarily risen
to power, and during their control of affairs had imposed their
strict Calvinistic standards as to Sabbath observance and piety
on the nation. This was very distasteful to many, and from such
strict observances the people in time rebelled. The standards
of the English in personal morality, temperance, amusements,
and manners at the beginning of the eighteenth century were not
especially high, and in the reaction from Puritan control and
strict religious observances the great mass of the people degen-
erated into positive irreligion and gross immorality. Drunken-
ness, rowdyism, robbery, blasphemy, brutaHty, lewdness, and
prostitution became very common. This moral decline of the
people the Church of England seemed powerless to arrest.

About 1730 a reform movement was begun under the able
leadership of a young Oxford student by the name of John Wesley,
ably seconded by George Whitefield (1714-
70), with a view to reaching the classes so
completely untouched by the high State
Church. By traveling over the country and
preaching a gospel of repentance, personal
faith, and better living, these two young
men made a deep emotional appeal, and
soon gained a strong hold on the poorer and
more ignorant classes of the people. For-
bidden to preach in Anglican churches, and
at times threatened with personal violence,
these two men were in time forced into open
rebellion against the Established Church.
Finally they founded a new Church, which
became known as the Methodist.^ This
new organization bore the same relation to
the Church of England that the Anglican Church two hujidred
years before had borne to the Church of Rome. Thus was ac-
complished a second spiritual reformation in England, and one
destined in time to spread to the colonies and deeply affect the
lives of a large portion of the English people.^ That such a well-

^ At first used as a term of ridicule, from the very methodical manner in which
the Wesleyans organized their campaigns.

^ "If we except the great Puritan movement of the seventeenth century, no such
appeal had been heard since the days when Augustine and his band of monks landed
in Kent and set forth on their mission among the barbarous Saxons. The results
answered fully to the zeal that awakened them. Better than the growing prosper-

FiG. 151. John Wesley
(1707-82)

Founder of Methodism

490 HISTORY OF EDUCATION".

organized sect could arise, such a moral reformation be preached,
and the power of the Established Church be challenged so openly
and without serious persecution, speaks much for the growth of
religious tolerance among the English people since the days of
the great Elizabeth. In 1778 the Roman Catholic Relief Act was
adopted, and in 1779 dissenting ministers and schoolmasters were
relieved from the disabilities under which they had so long re-
mained. These acts indicate a further marked growth in reli-
gious tolerance on the part of the English nation.'

New emancipating and educative influences. In 1662 the first
regular newspaper outside of Italy was established in England,
and in 1702 the first daily paper. Small in size, printed on
but one side of the sheet, and dealing wholly with local matters,
these nevertheless marked the beginnings of that daily expression
of popular opinion with which we are now so familiar.^ After
about 1705 the cheap political pamphlet made its appearance,
and after 17 10, instead of merely communicating news, the papers
began the discussion of political questions.

By 1735 a revolution had been effected in England, and papers
and presses began to be established in the chief cities and towns
outside of London ; the freedom of the press was in a large way

ity of extending commerce, better than all the conquests of the East or the West,
was the new reUgious spirit which stirred the people of both England and America,
and provoked the National Church to emulation in good works — which planted
schools, checked intemperance, and brought into vigorous activity all that was best
and bravest in a race that when true to itself is excelled by none." (Montgomery,
D. H., English History^ p. 322,)

1 The contrast between eighteenth-century England and France, in the matter of
religious liberty, is interesting. In France the Church took care, during the whole
of the eighteenth century, that the persecution process should go on. "In 171 7 an
assembly of seventy-four Protestants having been surprised at Andure, the men
were sent to the galleys and the women to prison. An edict of 1724 declared that
all who took part in a Protestant meeting, or who had any direct or indirect com-
munication with a Protestant preacher, should have their heads shaved and be im-
prisoned for life, and the men condemned to perpetual servitude in the galleys. In
1745 and 1746, in the province of Dauphine, 277 Protestants were condemned to
the galleys and a number of women flogged. From 1744 to 1752 six hundred Prot-
estants jn the east and south of France were condemned to various punishments.
In 1774 the children of a Calvinist of Rennes were taken from him. Up to the very
eve of the Revolution Protestant ministers were hanged in Languedoc, and dragoons
were sent against their congregations." (Dabney, R. H., Causes of the French
Revolution, p. 42.)

2 Back as early as 1695 the Commons had refused to renew the press-licensing
act, enacted in 1637, to control heresy. This had confined printing to London,
Oxford, and Cambridge, and to twenty master printers and four letter founders for
the realm. This refusal marks the beginning of the freedom of the press in England.
In 1709 the copyright law was enacted, and in 1776 the redress against publishers
of Hbelous articles was confined to the ordinary courts of law. A century ahead
of France, and more than two centuries ahead of Teutonic and Romanic lands,
England provided for a free press and open discussion.

ETGHTERNTTT A TRANSTTION CENTURY 491

completed, and newspapers, for the first time in the history of the
world, were made the exponents of public opinion. The press in
England in consequence became an educative force of great intel-
lectual and political importance, and did much to compensate
for the lack of a general system of schools for the people. In 1772
the right to pubHsh the debates in ParHament was finally won,
over the strenuous objections^ of George III. In 1780 the first
Sunday newspaper appeared, '^on the only day the lower orders
had time to read a paper at all," and, despite the efforts of reli-
gious bodies to suppress it, the Sunday paper has continued to
the present and has contributed its quota to the education and
enlightenment of mankind. In 1785 the famous London Times
began to appear. In the middle of the eighteenth century de-
bating societies for the consideration of public questions arose,
and in 1769 ^'the first public meeting ever assembled in England,
in which it was attempted to enlighten Englishmen respecting
their poHtical rights" was held, and such meetings soon became
of almost daily occurrence. All these influences stimulated polit-
ical thinking to a high degree, and contributed not only to a
desire for still larger political freedom but for the more general
diffusion of the ability to read as well (R. 250).

Still other important new influences arose during the early part
of the eighteenth century, each of which tended to awaken new
desires for schools and learning. In 1678 the first modern printed
story to appeal to the masses, Bunyan's Pilgrim^s Progress, ap-
peared from the press. Written, as it had been, by a man of the
people, its simple narrative form, its passionate religious feeling,
its picture of the journey of a pilgrim through a world of sin and
temptation and trial, and its Biblical language with which the
common people had now become familiar — all these elements
combined to make it a book that appealed strongly to all who
read or heard it read, and stimulated among the masses a desire
to read comparable to that awakened by the chaining of the
English Bible in the churches a century before (R. 170). In 17 19
the first great English novel, Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and in
1726 Gulliver's Travels, added new stimulus to the desires awak-
ened by Bunyan's book. All three were books of the common

^ George III, always consistently wrong, opposed this extension of popular rights.
In 1 77 1 he wrote the Prime Minister, Lord North: "It is highly necessary that this
strange and lawless method of publishing debates in the papers should be put a stop
to. But is not the House of Lords the best court to bring such miscreants before;
as it can fine, as well as imprison, and has broader shoulders to support the odium
of so salutary a measure."

492 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

people, whereas the dramas, plays, essays, and scholarly works
previously produced had appealed only to a small educated class.
In 1 75 1 what was probably the first circulating library of modern
times was opened at Birmingham, and soon thereafter similar
institutions were established in other EngHsh cities.

Science and manixfacturing; the new era. England, too, from
the first, showed an interest in and a tolerance toward the new
scientific thinking scarcely found in any other land. This in
itself is indicative of the great intellectual progress which the
English people had by this time made.^ At a time when Galileo,
in Italy (p. 388), was fighting, almost alone, for the right to think
along the lines of the new scientific method and being imprisoned
for his pains, Englishmen were reading with deep interest the
epoch-making scientific writings of Lord Francis Bacon (p. 390).
Earlier than in other lands, too, the Newtonian philosophy found
a place in the instruction of the national universities (p. 423), and
English scholars began to employ the new scientific method in
their search for new truths. The British Royal (Scientific) Soci-
ety " had begun to meet as early as 1645, and ever since has pub-
lished in its proceedings the best of English scientific thinking.
By the reign of George I (1714-27) scientific work began to be
popularized, and the first little booklets on scientific subjects
began to appear. These popular presentations of what had been
worked out were sold at the book stalls and by peddlers and were
eagerly read; by the beginning of the reign of George III (1760)
they had become very common. In 1704-10 the first "Diction-
ary of Arts and Sciences" was printed, and in 1668-71 the first
edition (three volumes) of the now famous EncyclopcBdia Britan-
nica appeared. In 1 7 5 5 the famous British Museum was founded.

^ "It is evident that a nation perfectly ignorant of physical laws will refer to
supernatural causes all the phenomena by which it is surrounded. But as soon as
natural science begins to do its work there are introduced the elements of a great
change. Each successive discovery, by ascertaining the law that governs events,
deprives them of that apparent mystery in which they were formerly involved. The
love of the marvelous becomes proportionally diminished; and when any sciencehas
made such progress as to enable it to foretell the events with which it deals, it is
clear that the whole of those events are at once withdrawn from the jurisdiction of
the supernatural, and brought under the authority of natural powers. . . . Hence
it is that, supposing other things equal, the superstition of a nation must always
bear an exact proportion to the extent of its physical knowledge." (Buckle, H. T.,
History of Civilization in England, vol. i, p. 269.)

2 The Charter of this Society stated the purpose to be to increase knowledge by
direct experiment, and that the object of the Society was the extension ot natural
knowledge, as opposed to that which is supernatural. As an institution embodying
the idea of intellectual progress it was most bitterly assailed by partisans of the old
thinking.

EICxHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 493

As early as 1698 a rude form of steam engine had been patented
in England, and by 1 7 1 2 this had been perfected sufficiently to be
used in pumping water from the coal mines. In 1765 James Watt
made the real beginning of the application of steam to industry
by patenting his steam engine; in 1760 Wedgwood estabhshed the
pottery industry in England; in 1767 Hargreaves devised the
spinning-jenny, which banished the spindle and distaff and the
old spinning-wheel; in 1769 Arkwright evolved his spinning-
frame; and in 1785 Cartwright completed the process by invent-
ing the power loom for weaving. In 1784 a great improvement
in the smelting of iron ores (puddling) was worked out. These
inventions, all English, were revolutionary in their effect on man-
ufacturing. They meant the displacement of hand power by
machine labor, the breakdown of home industry through the
concentration of labor in factories, the rise of great manufacturing
cities,^ and the ultimate collapse of the age-old apprenticeship
system of training, where the master workman with a few appren-
tices in his shop (p. 210) prepared goods for sale. They also
meant the ultimate transformation of England from an agricul-
tural into a great manufacturing and exporting nation, whose
manufactured products would be sold in every corner of the
globe.

By 1750 a change in attitude toward all the old intellectual
problems had become marked in England, and by 1775 attention
before unknown was being given there to social, political, eco-
nomic, and educational questions. Religious intolerance was
dying out, the harsh laws of earher days had begun to be modified,
new social and political interests - were everywhere attracting
attention, and the great commercial expansion of England was
rapidly taking shape. With England and France leading in the
new scientific studies; England in the van in the development of
manufacturing and the French to the fore in social influences
and polite literature; England and the new American Colonies
setting new standards in government by the people; the French

' Birmingham, Sheffield, Leeds, and Manchester, for example, great manufac-
turing cities early in the nineteenth century, were insigniiicant villages in Crom-
well's day. The steam engine made the coal and iron deposits of northern England
of immense value, and the "smoky mill towns" that arose in the north began to
displace southern agricultural England in population, wealth, and importance.

2 For example, in 1774 John Howard began his great work in prison reform; in
1772 pressing to death was abolished; in 1780 the ducking-stool was used for the
last time; and soon thereafter the earlier laws relating to the death penalty were
modified, and the slave trade abolished. Up to the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury as many as one hundred and sixty offenses were punishable by death.

494

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

theorists and economists giving the world new ideas as to the
function of the State; enlightened despots on the thrones of Prus-
sia, Austria, Spain, and Russia; and the hatreds of the hundred
years of religious warfare dying out; the world seemed to many,
about 1775, as on the verge of some great and far-reaching change
in methods of living and in government, and about ready to enter
a new era and make rapid advances in nearly all lines of human
activity. The change came, but not in quite the manner expected .

IV. INSTITUTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND
RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN AMERICA

Englishmen in America establish a Republic. Though the
early settlement of America, as was pointed out in chapter xv,
was made from among those people and from those lands which
had embraced some form of the Protestant faith, and represented

a number of nationalities
and several religious sects,
the thirteen colonies, nev-
ertheless, were essentiall)'
English in origin, speech,
habits, observances, and
political and religious con-
ceptions. This is well
shown for the white pop-
ulation by the results ol
the first Federal census,
taken in 1790, as given
in the adjoining figure.
This shows that of all the
people in the thirteen orig-
inal States, 83.5 per cent
possessed names indicat-
ing pure English origin,
and that 91.8 per cent had names which pointed to their having
come from the British Isles. The largest non-British name-
nationahty was the German, with 5.6 per cent of the whole,
and these were found chiefly in Pennsylvania where they con-
stituted 26.1 per cent of the State's population. Next were
those having Dutch names, who constituted but 2 per cent of
the total population, and but 16.1 per cent of the population
of New York. No other name-nationality constituted over one

Fig. 152. Nationality of the White Pop-
ulation, AS SHOWN BY THE FAMILY

Names in the Census of 1790

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 495

half of one per cent of the total. The New England States were
almost as EngHsh as England itself, 93 to 96 per cent of the names
being pure English, and 98.5 to 99. S per cent being from the Brit-
ish Isles.

We thus see that it was from England, the nation which had
done most in the development of individual and religious Hberty,
that the great bulk of the early settlers of America came, and in
the New World the EngHsh traditions as to constitutional govern-
ment and liberty under law were early and firmly established.
The centuries of struggle for representative government in Eng-
land at once bore fruit here. Colony charters, charters of rights
and liberties, public discussion, legislative assembhes, and liberty
under law were from the first made the foundation stones upon
which self-government in America was built up.

From an early date the American Colonies showed an independ-
ence to which even Englishmen were scarcely accustomed, and
when the home government attempted to make the colonists pay
some of the expenses of the Seven Years' War, and a larger share
of the expenses of colonial administration, there was determined
opposition. Having no representation in Parliament and no
voice in levying the tax, the colonists declared that taxation with-
out representation was tyranny, and refused to pay the taxes
assessed. Standing squarely on their rights as Englishmen, the
colonists were gradually forced into open rebellion. In 1765, and
again in 1774, Declarations of Rights were drawn up and adopted
by representatives from the Colonies, and were forwarded to the
King. In 1774 the first Continental Congress met and formed a
union of the Colonies; in 1776 the Colonies declared their inde-
pendence. This was confirmed, in 1783, by the Treaty of Paris;
in 1787, the Constitution of the United States was drafted; and
in 1789, the American government began. In the preamble to
the twenty-seven charges of tyranny and oppression made against
the King in the Declaration of Independence, we find a statement
of political philosophy ^ which is a combination of the results of
the long English struggle for liberty and the French eighteenth-
century reform philosophy and revolutionary demands.^ This
preamble declared:

^ The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson, a great
admirer of French life and a propagandist for French ideas.

2 Compare the American preamble with the following sentence from the Social
Contract (Book i, chap, ix) of Rousseau:

"I shall close this chapter and this book with a remark which ought to serve as a

496 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

We hold these truths to be eelf-evident — that all men are created
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien-
able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi-
ness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among
men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that,
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends,
it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a
new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organiz-
ing its powers in such form, as to them shah seem most likely to effect
their safety and happiness.

American contributions to world history. The American
Revolution and its results were fraught with great importance for
the future political and educational progress of mankind. Before
the close of the eighteenth century the new American government
had made at least four important contributions to world liberty
and progress which were certain to be of large political and educa-
tional value for the future.

In the first place, the people of the Colonies had erected inde-
pendent governments and had shown the possibility of the self-
government of peoples on a large scale, and not merely in Httle
city-states or communities, as had previously been the case where
self-government had been tried. Democratic government was
here worked out and applied to large areas, and to peoples of
diverse nationalities and embracing different religious faiths.
The possibility of States selecting their rulers and successfully
governing themselves was demonstrated.

In the second place, the new American government which was
formed did something new in world history when it united thir-
teen independent and autonomous States into a single federated
Nation, and without destroying the independence of the States.
What was formed was not a league, or confederacy, as had existed
at different times among differing groups of the Greek City-
States, and from time to time in the case of later Swiss and tem-
porary European national groupings, but the union into a sub-
stantial and permanent Federal State of a number of separate
States which still retained their independence, and with provi-
sion for the expansion of this national Union by the addition of
new States. This federal principle in government is probably
the greatest political contribution of the American Union to world

basis for the whole social system; it is that instead of destroying natural equality,
the fundamental pact, on the contrary, substitutes a moral and lawful equality for
the physical inequality which nature imposed upon men, so that, although unequal
in strength or intellect, they all become equal by convention and legal right."

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 497

development. In the twentieth-century conception of a League
of Nations it has borne still further fruit.

In the third place, the different American States changed their
old Colonial Charters into definite written Constitutions, each
of which contained a Preamble or Bill of Rights which affirmed
the fundamental principles of democratic liberty (R. 251). These
now became the fundamental law for each of the separate States,
and the same idea was later worked out in the Constitution of
the United States. These were the first written constitutions of
history, and have since served as a type for the creation of con-
stitutional government throughout the world. In such docu-
ments to-day free peoples everywhere define the rights and duties
and obligations which they regard as necessary to their safety
and happiness and welfare.

Finally, the Federal Constitution provided for the inestimable
boon of religious liberty, and in a way that was both revolution-
ary and wholesome. . At the beginning of the War for Independ-
ence the Anglican (Episcopal) faith had been declared " the estab-
lished religion" in seven of the Colonies, and the Congregational
was the established religion in three of the New England Colonies,
while but three Colonies had declared for religious freedom and
refused to give a preference to any special creed. This religious
problem had to be met by the Constitutional Convention, and
this body handled it in the only way it could have been intelli-
gently handled in a nation composed of so many different reli-
gious sects as was ours. It simply incorporated into the Federal
Constitution provisions which guaranteed the free exercise of
their religious faith to all, and forbade the establishment by Con-
gress of any state religion, or the requirement of any religious
test as a prerequisite to holding any office under the control of
the Federal Government. The American people thus took a
stand for religious liberty at a time when the hatreds of the
Reformation still burned fiercely, and when tolerance in religious
matters was as yet but little known.

Importance of the. religious-liberty contribution. The solution
of the religious question arrived at was only second in importance
for us to the establishment of the Federal Union, and the far-
reaching significance to our future national life of the sane and
for-the-time extraordinary provisions incorporated into our Na-
tional Constitution can hardly be overestimated. This action
led to the early abandonment of state religions, religious tests, and

49^ HISTORY OF EDUCATION

public taxation for religion in the old States, and to the prohibi-
tion of these in the new. The importance of this solution of the
reHgious question for the future of popular education in the
United States was great, for it laid the foundations upon which
our systems of free, common, public, tax-supported, non-sectarian
schools have since been built up. How we could have erected a
common pubHc-school system on a religious basis, with the many
religious sects among us, it is impossible to conceive. Instead,
we should have had a series of feeble, jealous, antagonistic, and
utterly inefficient church-school systems, chiefly confined to ele-
mentary education, and each largely intent on teaching its pecu-
liar church doctrines and struggling for an increasing share of
public funds.

How much the American people owe to the Fathers of the Re-
public for this most enlightened and intelligent provision, few
who have not thought carefully on the matter can appreciate. To
it we must trace not only the great blessing of religious hberty,
which we have so long enjoyed, but also the final establishment of
our common, free, public-school systems. The beginning of the
new state motive for education, which was soon to supersede the
religious motive, dates from the establishment with us of republi-
can governments; and the beginning of the emancipation of edu-
cation from church domination goes back to this wise provision
inserted in our National Constitution.

This national attitude was later copied in the state constitu-
tions, and as a preamble to practically all we find a Bill of Rights,
which in almost every case included a provision for freedom of
religious worship (Rs. 251, 260). After the middle of the nine-
teenth century a further provision prohibiting sectarian teaching
or state aid to sectarian schools was everywhere added.

V. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SWEEPS AWAY ANCIENT ABUSES

New demands for reform that could not be resisted. More
than in any other continental European country France had, by
1783, become a united nation, conscious of a modern national
feeling. Yet in France mediaeval abuses in both State and
Church had survived, as we have seen, to as great an extent al-
most as in any European nation. So determined were the clergy
and nobility to retain their old powers, not only in France but
throughout the continent of Europe as well, that progressive re-
form seemed well-nigh impossible. The work of the benevolent

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 499

despots had, after all, been superficial. By the last quarter of the
eighteenth, though, a progressive change was under way which
was certain to produce either evolution or revolution. The influ-
ence of the American experiment in nation-building now became
pronounced. In 1779 FrankUn took a copy of the new Pennsyl-

FiG. 153. The States-General in Session at Versailles
(After a contemporary drawing by Monnet)

vania Constitution with him to Paris, and in 1780 John Adams did
the same with the Massachusetts Constitution. Frenchmen in-
stantly recognized here, in concrete form, the ideas with which
their own heads were filled. In 1 783 Franklin published in France
a French translation of all the American Constitutions, and the
National Constitution of 1787 was as eagerly read and discussed
in Paris as in New York or Philadelphia or Boston. America

500 lilSJ(JRV i)l l^iJLUVi ION

appeared to the French of that stormy period as an ideal land,
where the dreams of Rousseau about the social contract had been
transformed into realities. Two years later the cahiers of the
Third Estate demanded a written constitution for P'rance. The
French, too, had aided the American Colonies in their struggle
for liberty, and French soldiers returning home carried back new
political ideas drawn from the remarkable political progress of the
new American Nation. By 1788 the demand for reform in France
had become so insistent, and the condition of the treasury of the
State was so bad, that it was finally felt necessary to summon a
meeting of the States-General — a sort of national parliament
consisting of representatives of the three great Estates: clergy,
nobilityj and commons — which had not met in France since
1614.

Besides electing its representatives, each locaHty and order was
allowed to draw up a series of instructions, or cahiers (R. 252), for
the guidance of its delegates. These cahiers are a mine of infor-
mation as to the demands and hopes and interests of the French
people,^ and it is interesting to know that the cahiers of nobility,
clergy, and commons alike included, among their demands, the
organization of a comprehensive plan of education for France.^

France establishes constitutional government. The States
General met May 5, 1789, and soon (June 20) resolved itself into

' "I read attcnlively the cahiers drawn up by the three Orders before their union
in 1789. I see that here the change of a law is demanded, and there of a custom —
and I make note of them. I continue thus to the end of this immense task, and,
when I come to put side by side all these particular demands, I see, with a sort of
terror, that what is called for is the simultaneous and systematic abolition of all the
laws and of all the customs existing in the country; whereupon T instantly perceive
the approach of the vastest and most dangerous revolutions that have taken place
in the world." (De Tocqueville, A. C, Slate oj Society in France before the Revolu-
tion of lySg, p. 219.)

2 For example, the clergy of Rodez and Saumur demanded " that there may be
formed a plan of national education for the young"; the clergy of Lyons that educa-
tion be restricted "to a teaching body whose members may not be removable except
for negligence, misconduct, or incapacity; that it may no longer be conducted a( -
cording to arbitrary principles, and that al! public instructors bo obliged to conform
to a uniform i)lan adopted by the States-Cieneral"; the (lergy of Blois that a system
of colleges under church control be formed (R. 252); the nobility of Lyons that "a
national character be impressed on the education of both sexes " ; the nobility of Paris
that "public education be perfected and extended to all classes of citizens"; the
nobility of Blois that "better facilities for the education of children, and elementary
textbooks adapted to their capacity, wherein the rights of man and the social duties
shall be clearly set forth" shall be provided, and to this end that "there be estab-
lished a council composed of the most enlightened scholars of the capital and of the
provinces and of the citizens of the different orders, to formulate a plan of national
education, for the benefit of all classes of society, and to edit elementary textbooks."
The Third Estate of Blois demanded the establishment of free schools in all the rural
parishes.

EIGiriiJ-.MH A TR.WSITIOX rP.XTT'RV 501

the National or Constituent Assembly. Terrified by the upris-
ings and burnings of chateaux throughout France, on the night of
August fourth, in a few hours, it adopted a series of decrees which
virtually aboHshed the Ancien Regime of privileges for France.
The nobility gave up most of their old rights, the serfs ^ were
freed, and the special privileges of towns were surrendered. Later
the Assembly adopted a ''Declaration of Rights of Man and of
the Citizen '" (R. 253). much like the American Declaration of In-
dependence. This declared, among other things, that all men
were bom free and have equal rights, that taxes should be propor-
tional to wealth, that all citizens were equal before the law and
have a right to help make the laws, and that the people of the na-
tion were sovereign. These principles struck at the very founda-
tions of the old system.

Soon a Constitution for France, the first ever promulgated in
modern EurofXi. was prepared and adopted (1791). This abol-
ished the ancient privileges and reorganized France as a self-gov-
erning nation, much after the American plan. Local government
was created, and the absolute monarchy was changed to a limited
constitutional one. Next the property of the Church was taken
over by the State, the monasteries were suppressed, and the
priests and bishops were made state officials and paid a fixed state
salary. The Jesuits had been expelled from France in 1764; and
in 1792 the Brothers of the Christian Schools were not allowed
longer to teach. Among other important matters, the Constitu-
tion of 1 791 declared that:

There shall be created and organized a system of public instruction
common to all citizens, and gratuitous, with respect to those branches
of instruction which are indispensable for all men.

Up to this point the Revolution in France had proceeded rela-
tively peacefully, con.sidering the nature of the long-standing
abuses which were to be remedied. In August, 1792, the King
was imprisoned, and in January', 1793, he was executed and a Re-
public proclaimed.^ Then followed a reign of terror, which we do

^ See footnote i, page 165. One of the great results of the French Revolution
was the abolition of serfdom in central and western Europe. The last European
nation to emancipate its serfs was Russia, where they were freed in 1861.

* "Great was the difference between France at the end of 1791 and at the end of
1793. At the former date all kxjked hopeful for the future; the king was the father
of his people; the Constitution of 1 791 was to regenerate France, and set an example
to Europe; all old institutions had been renovated; ever>'thing was new, and popular
on account of its novelty. ... By the end of 1793 all looked threatening for the fu-
ture; for the purpose of repelling her foreign foes, who included nearly the whole of

502 HIS1T)RY 01'^ EDrCATION

not need to follow, and which ended only when Napoleon became
master of France.

Beneficent results of the Revolution. The French Revolution
was not an accident or a product of chance, but rather the inevita-
ble result of an attempt to dam up the stream of human progress
and prevent its orderly onward flow. The Protestant Revolts
were the first great revolutionary wave, the Puritan revolution in
England was another, the formation of the American Republic
and the institution of constitutional government and religious
freedom another, while the French Revolution brought the rising
movement lo a head and swept away, in a deluge of blood, the
very foundations of the mediaeval system. Along with much that
was disastrous, the French Revolution accomplished after all
much that was of greatest importance for human progress. The
world at times seems to be in need of such a great catharsis.
Progress was made in a decade that could hardly have been made
in a century by peaceful evolution. The old order of privilege
came to an end, media^valism was swept away, and the serf was
evolved into the free farmer and citizen. One fifth of the soil of
France was restored to the use of the people from the monaster-
ies, and an additional one third from the Church and nobility.
The new principles of citizenship — Liberty, Equality, and Fra-
ternity — were for France revolutionary in the extreme, while the
assertion that the sovereignty of a nation rests with the people
rather than with the king, here successfully promulgated, ended
for all time the ^'divine-right-of-kings" idea for France. After
political theory had for a time run mad, the organizing genius of
Napoleon consoHdated the gains, gave France a strong govern-
ment, a uniform code of laws,^ and began that organization of
schools for the nation which ultimately meant the taking over of
education from the Church and its provision at the expense of and
in the interests of the nation.

Europe, France submitted to be ground down by the most despotic and arbitrary
government ever known in modern history, — the Great Committee of PubHc
Safety; the Reign of Terror was in full exercise, and it was doubtful whether the
energy, audacity, and concentrated vigour of the Great Committee would enable
France to be victorious over Europe, and thus secure for her the right of deciding
on the character of their own government. She was to be successful, but at what a
cost!" (Stephens, H. M., The French Revolution, vol. ii, p. 512.)

^ The Code Napoleon, prepared in 1804, was the first modern code of civil laws,
though Frederick the Great had earlier prepared a partial code of Prussian laws.
What the Justinian Code was to ancient Rome, this, organized into better form, was
to modem France. This Code, prepared under Napoleon's direction, substituted
one uniform code of laws worthy of a modern nation for the thousands of local laws
which formerly prevailed in France.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 503

The national idea extends to other lands. The reform work in
France, together with the examples of English and American lib-
erty, soon began to have their influence in other lands as well.
People everywhere began to see that the old regime of privilege
and misgovernment ought to be replaced. Other countries abol-
ished serfdom, introduced better laws, and made reforms in the
abuses of both Church and State. French armies and rulers car-
ried the best of French ideas to other lands, and, where the French
rule continued long enough, these ideas became fixed. In particu-
lar was the Code Napoleon copied in the Netherlands the Itahan
States, and the States of southern and western Germany. The
national spirit of Italy was awakened, and the Italian liberals be-
gan to look forward to the day when the small Italian States might
be reunited into an Itahan Nation, with Rome as its capital. This
became the work of nineteenth-century Italian statesmen. For
the first time in Spanish history, too, the people became conscious,
under French occupation, of a feehng of national unity, and simi-
larly the national spirit of German lands was stirred by the con-
quests of Napoleon.

A constitution was obtained in Spain, in 181 2, and between
1815 and 1821 all of Spain's South American colonies — -Argen-
tina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Paraguay,
Uruguay, and Venezuela — revolted, became independent, and
set up republics with constitutional governments, some oi the
larger ones based on the federal principle, as in the United States.
Brazil similarly freed itself from Portugal and set up a constitu-
tional and federated monarchy, in 1822. The Kingdom of Naples
obtained constitutional government in 1820, and Sardinia in 182 1.
In 1823, when Spain with Austria's aid prepared to reconquer the
Spanish South American Republics, President Monroe trans-
mitted to the American Congress his message in which he de-
clared that any attempt on the part of European nations to sup-
press republicanism on the American continent would be consid-
ered by the United States as an unfriendly act. This has since
been known as the Monroe Doctrine. In 1829 Greece obtained
her independence from Turkey, and in 1843 ^ constitutional form
of government was obtained.

Important consequences of the democratic movement. Since
the closing decades of the eighteenth century, when democratic
government and written constitutions began, the sweep of demo-
cratic government has become almost world wide. Nation after

504 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

nation has changed to democratic and constitutional forms of
government, the latest additions being Portugal (191 1), China
(191 2), Russia (191 7), and Germany (19 18). New EngHsh colo-
nies, too, have carried English self-government into almost every
continent. The World War of 1 914-18 gave a new emphasis to
democracy, and there is good reason to believe that government
of and by and for the people is ultimately destined to prevail
among all the intelligent nations and races of the earth.

With the development of democratic government there has
everywhere been a softening of old laws, the growth of humani-
tarianism, the wider and wider extension of the suffrage, impor-
tant legislation as to labor, a previously unknown attention to the
poor and the dependents of society, a vast extension of educa-
tional advantages, and the taking over of education from the
Church by the State and the erection of the school into an im-
portant institution for the preservation and advancement of the
national welfare. These consequences of the onward sweep of
new-world ideas we shall trace more in detail in the chapters
which follow.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show the importance, for human progress, of each of the meanings of the
new eighteenth-century liberalism, as enumerated on pages 471-72.

2. How do you explain the lack of any permanent influence on Spanish life
of the work of the benevolent despots in Spain?

3. Show the liberaHzing influence of the rise of scientific investigation and
economic studies, for a nation still oppressed by mediaevalism and bad
government.

4. Enumerate the new sciences which arose in the eighteenth century.

5. Indicate the importance of the freedom of the press in the development
of English political Hberty.

6. Explain how the religious-freedom attitude of the American national
constitution conferred an inestimable boon on the States in the matter
of public education.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selections
are reproduced:

247. Dabney: Ecclesiastical Tyranny in France.

248. Voltaire: On the Relation of Church and State.

249. Rousseau: Extract from the Social Contract.

250. Buckle: Changes in English Thinking in the Eighteenth Century.

251. Pennsylvania Constitution: Bill of Rights in.

252. Clergy of Blois: Cahier of 1779.

253. France: Declaration of the Rights of Man.

EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY 505

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain why ecclesiastical tyranny should have awakened such a spirit
of rebellion in France (247), and not in Spain or in Italian lands.

2. Just what attitude toward religion is shown in the extract from Voltaire
(248)?

3. Bolshevists in Russia and in America talk to-day as did Rousseau in the
Social Contract (249). Compare the justification of each with the
eighteenth-century France of Rousseau.

4. What do all the changes enumerated by Buckle (250) indicate as to the
spread of general education, irrespective of schools, among the English
people?

5. Compare the Pennsylvania Bill of Rights of 1776 (251) with that of your
own present-day state constitution.

6. Just what type of educational provisions, and what administrative
organization, did the recommendations of the Clergy of Blois (252) con-
template? Indicate its shortcomings for eighteenth-century France.

7. Compare the main ideas of 251 and 253.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Dabney, R. H. The Causes of the French Revolution.
Taine, H. A. The Ancient Regime.

CHAPTER XX
THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION

r. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE

The State as servant of the Church. With the rise of the Prot-
estant sects we noted, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and
for the first time since Christianity became supreme in the west-
ern world, the beginnings of a state connection with the education
of the young. The Protestant reformers, obtaining the support
of the Protestant princes and kings, had successfully used this
support to assist them in the organization of church schools as an
aid to the reformed faith. Luther, it will be recalled (p. 312),
had made a strong appeal to the mayors and magistrates of all
German lands to establish schools as a part of their civic duties
(R. 156), and had contended that a solemn obligation rested upon
them to do so. The Dutch Provinces had worked closely with
the Dutch Protestant synods (p. 334) in ordering schools estab-
lished and in providing for their financing; Calvin had organized
a religious City-State at Geneva (p. 330), of which religion and
learning had been the corner-stones; the Scottish Parliament, by
the laws of 1633 and 1646 (p. 335), had ordered schools for Scot-
tish children in connection with the churches; and in the Scandi-
navian countries and in Finland the beginnings of a connection
with the State had also been made (p. 315). Finally, in the new
Massachusetts Colony the laws of 1642 and 1647 (p. 366) had, for
the first time in the English-speaking world, ordered that children
be taught '' to read and understand the principles of religion and
the capital laws of the country" (p. 364), and that schools be es-
tablished by the towns, under penalty if they refused to do so. In
all Protestant lands we saw that the reformers appealed, from
time to time, to what were then the servants of the churches —
the rising civil governments and principalities and States — - to
use their civil authority to force the people to meet their new
religious obligations in the matter of schooling.

The purpose of the schooling ordered established, however, was
almost wholly rehgious. Massachusetts, in ordering instruction
in the ''capital laws of the country," as well as reading and re-
ligion, had formed a marked exception. In nearly all lands the
rising state governments merely helped the Protestant churches

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 507

to create the elementary verPxacular religious school, and to make
of it an auxiliary for the protection of orthodoxy and the advance-
ment of the faith. Even in the new state school systems of the
German States — Saxony, Wiirtemberg (p. 317), Brunswick,
Weimar, Gotha — the elementary schools established were for re-
Hgious rather than for state ends. This condition continued until
well toward the middle of the eighteenth century.

The new state theory of education. After about the middle of
the eighteenth century a new theory as to the purpose of educa-
tion, and one destined to make rapid headway, began to be ad-
vanced. This theory had already made marked progress, as we
shall see, in the New England Colonies, and had also found ex-
pression, as we shall also see in a later chapter, in the organizing
work of Frederick the Great in Prussia. It was from the French
poHtical philosophers of the eighteenth century, though, that its
clearest definition came. They now advanced the idea that
schools were essentially civil affairs, the purpose of which should
be to promote the everyday interests of society and the welfare of
the State, rather than the welfare of the Church, and to prepare
for a life here rather than a life hereafter.

After about 1750 a critical and reformatory pedagogy rapidly
began to take shape in France, and the second half of the eight-
eenth century became a period of criticism and discontent and
reconstruction in education, as well as in politics and religion.

This criticism and discontent in France was greatly stimulated
by the decline in character and influence of the Jesuit schools.
Unwilling to change their instruction to meet the needs of a chang-
ing society, their schools had become formal in character (R. 146) .
and were now engaged chiefly in stifling thinking rather than in
promoting it. In consequence the schools had fallen into disre-
pute throughout all France. The Society, too, in the eighteenth
century, came to be a powerful political organization which strove
to dominate the State. So bad had the situation become by
I 762, that the different parHaments in the provinces and in Paris
had formulated complaints against the Jesuits and their schools,^

^ The complaints were largely along such lines as that the instruction was confined
to a few Latin authors; that instruction in the French language was neglected; that
instruction in the history and geography of France should Be introduced; that time
was wasted "in copying and learning notebooks filled with vain distinctions and.
frivolous questions"; that training in the use of the French language should be
substituted for the disputations in Latin; that in religion the study of the Bible. was
neglected for books oi devotion and propaganda compiled by the members of the
Ord2r; that moral casuistry and religious bigotry were taught; and that the disci-
pline was unnecessarily severe and wrong in chri^racter.

508

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and, in 1764, the king was induced to suppress the Order. ' This
decline in influence and final suppression of the Society gave rise
to some rather remarkable pedagogical Hterature, which looked to
the creation of a system of state secondary schools in France to
replace those of the Jesuits.

The outcome was the rise of a new national and individual con-
ception of the educational purpose. This was destined in time to
spread to other lands and to lead to the rise of complete state
school systems, financed and managed by the State and conducted
for state ends, and to the ultimate divorce of Church and State, in
all progressive lands, in the matter of the education of the young.
Teachers trained and certificated by the State were in time to
supplant the nuns and brothers of the religiouG congregations in
Cathohc lands, as well as teachers who served as assistants to the
pastors in Protestant lands and whose cliief purpose was to up-
hold the teachings and advance the interests of the sect; citizens
were to supplant the ecclesiastic in the supervision of instruction;
and the courses of instruction were to be changed in direction and
vastly broadened in scope to make them minister to the needs of
the State rather than the Church, and to prepare pupils for useful
life here rather than for life in another world.

II. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN FRANCE

The French political theorists. The leadhig French pohtical

theorists of the two decades between 1760
and 1780 now began to discuss education
as in theory a civil affair, intimately con-
nected with the promotion of the welfare
of the State. The more important of
these, and their chief ideas were:

I . Rousseau. The first of the critical and
reformatory pedagogical writers to awaken
any large interest and obtain a general
hearing was Jean- Jacques Rousseau. The
same year (1762) that his Social Contract
appeared and attacked the foundations of
the old political system (p. 483), his Emile
also appeared and attacked with equal vigor the rehgious and

1 In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1767 from Spain, and in
1773 the Pope at Rome, "recqgnizing that the members of this Society have not a
little troubled the Christian commonwealth, and that for the welfare of Christendom
it were better that the Order should disappear," abolished the Society entirely.
Forty years later it was reconstituted in a modernized form.

Fig. 154. Rousseau
( 1712-78)

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 509

social theory as to education then prevailing throughout western
Europe. For the stiff and unnatural methods in education, under
which children were dressed and made to behave as adults/ the
harsh discipline of the time, and the excessive emphasis on religious
instruction and book education, he preached the substitution of
life amid nature, childish ways and sports, parental love, and an
education that considered the instincts and natural development
of children.

Gathering up the political and social ideas of his age as to ec-
clesiastical and political despotism; the nature of the social con-
tract; that the " state of nature " was the ideal one, and the one in
which men had been intended to live; that human duty called for
a return to the ''state of nature," whatever that might be; and
that the artificiality and hypocrisy of his age in manners, dress,
reHgion, and education were all wrong — Rousseau restated his
political philosophy in terms of the education of the boy, Emile.
Despite its many exaggerations, much faulty reasoning, and many
imperfections, the book had a tremendous influence upon Europe
in laying bare the limitations and defects and abuses of the formal
and ecclesiastical education of the time.^ He may be regarded as
the first important writer to sap the foundations of the old system
of religious education, and to lay a basis for a new type of child
training (R. 254). Though Rousseau's enthusiasm took the form
of theory run mad, and the educational plan he proposed was
largely impossible, he nevertheless popularized education, not
only in France, but among the reading public of the progressive
European States as well. After he had written, the old limited
and narrow religious education was on the defensive, and, though
time was required, the transition to a more secular type of educa-
tion was inevitable as fast as nations and peoples could shake off
the dominance of the Church in state affairs.

2. La Chalotais. The year following the publication of Rous-
seau's Emile appeared La Chalotais's Essai d^ education nalionale
(1763). Rene de la Chalotais, a Solicitor- General for the Parlia-
ment of Bretagne, was one of the notable French parHamentari-

^ Little boys wore their hair long and powdered, carried a sword, and had coats
with gilded cuffs, while little girls were dressed in imitation of the lady of fashion.
Proper deportment was an important part of a child's training.

2 The iconoclastic nature of Rousseau's volume may be inferred from its opening
sentence, in which he says: "Everything is good as it comes from the hand of the
author of nature; everything degenerated in the hand of man." In another place
he breaks out: " Man is born, lives, and dies in a state of slavery. At his birth he is
stitched into swaddling clothes, at his death he is nailed in his cofhn; and as long as
he preserves the human form he is held captive by our institutions."

510

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 155
La Chalotais

(1701-83)

ans of the middle of the eighteenth century. UnHke Rousseau's
highly imaginary, exaggerated, sentimental, and paradoxical vol-
ume. La Chalotais produced a practical and philosophical discus-
sion of the problem of the education of a
people. Declaring firmly that education
was essentially a civil affair; that it was the
function of government to make citizens con-
tented by educating them for their sphere in
society; that citizen and secular teachers
should not be excluded for celibates; ^ that
the real purpose of education should be to
prepare citizens for France; that the poor
were deserving of education; and that "the
/ most enlightened people wi] 1 always have the
advantage" in the struggles of a modern
world, La Chalotais produced a work which
was warmly approved by such political phil-
osophers as Voltaire, Diderot, and Turgot,
and which was translated into several European languages (R.
255). Though far less widely read than Rousseau's Emile, it was
far more influential in shaping subse-
quent political theory and action regard-
ing the relations of education to the State.
Nearly every proposal for educational
legislation during the days of the Revo-
lution went back in idea to this philoso-
phic discussion of the question by La
Chalotais and to the practical proposals
of Rolland and Turgot.

3. Rolland. In 1768 Rolland, presi-
dent of the Parliament of Paris, presented
to his colleagues a* report in which he
outlined a national system of educa-
tion to replace both the schools of the

Jesuits and those of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. La
Chalotais had proposed a more modern system of state schools
chiefly to replace those of the Jesuits, but Rolland went further

^ "I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics, but I protest against the exclusion
of laymen. I dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the
State, because it belongs essentially to the State; because every State has an inalien-
able and indefeasible right to instruct its members; because, finally, the children of
the State ought to be educated by the members of tlic State." (La Chalotais.)

^^!'T\y'«.C7N,

Fig. 156. Rolland
(1734-93)

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 511

and proposed the extension of education to all, and the supervi-
sion of all schools by a central council of the Government. By
means of a centralized control, a central university to which the
other universities of France were to be subordinate, a higher
normal school to train teachers for the colleges (secondary
schools), and universal education, ^ Rolland hoped to develop for
France a national spirit, a national character, and a national gov-
ernment and code of laws, and to bring the youth of the provinces
into harmony with the best of all French ideas.

4. Turgot. In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance
(p. 481), and in 1775 he made a series of recommendations to the
King in which he set forth ideas analogous to those of Rolland,
and presented an eloquent plea for the formation of a national
council of public instruction and the establishment of a system of
civil and national education for the whole of France. In closing
he wrote:

Your kingdom, Sir, is of this world. Without opposing any obstacle
to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already have their
rules and their expounders, I think I can propose to you nothing of more
advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects
an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to society
and to your power to protect them, and the interest they have in ful-
filling those duties for the public good and their own. This moral and
social instruction requires books expressly prepared, by competition,
and with great care, and a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them
to children, along with the art of writing, reading, counting, measuring,
and the principles of mechanics. The study of the duty of citizenship
ought to be the foundation of all the other studies. . . . There are
methods and establishments for training geometricians, physicists, and
painters, but there are none for training citizens.

5. Diderot. In 1776 Diderot, editor with D'Alembert of the
£/zcy<:/c/?«^f a (1751-72), prepared, at the request of Catherine II
(p. 477), under the title of Plan of a University, a complete scheme
for the organization of a state system of public instruction for
Russia. Though the plan was never carried out, it was printed
and much discussed in France, and is important as coming from
one of the most influential Frenchmen of his time. He commends
as an example to be followed the work of the German States in the
organization of popular instruction. For Russia he outlines first

^ "Education cannot be too widely diffused, to the end that there may be no
class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in its benefits. It is expedi-
ent that each citizen receive the education which is adapted to his needs." (Rol-
land.)

512 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

a system of people's schools, which shall be free and obligatory for
all, and in which instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, mor-
als, civics, and religion shall be taught. '' From the Prime Minis-
ter to the lowest peasant," he says, ''it is good for every one to
know how to read, write, and count." For the series of secondary
schools to be established, he condemns the usual practice of devot-
ing so much of the instruction to the humanities and a mediaeval
type of logic and ethics, and urges instead the introduction of in-
struction in mathematics, in the modern sciences, literature, and
the work of governments. Classical studies he would confine to
the last years of the course. Science, history, drawing, and music
find a place in his scheme.

All this instruction Diderot would place under the supervisory
control of an administrative bureau to be known as the University
of Russia, at the head of which should be a statesman, who should
exercise control of all the work of public instruction beneath.
Though never carried out in Russia, the University of France of
1808 is largely an embodiment of the ideas he proposed in 1776.

Legislative proposals to embody these ideas. During the quar-
ter of a century between the publication of Rousseau's Entile and
the summoning of the States-General to reform France (1762-88),
the educational as well as the political ideas of the French reform-
ers had taken deep root with the thinking classes of the nation.
The cahiers of 1789, of all Orders (p. 500), gave evidence of this
in their somewhat general demand for the creation of some form
of an educational system for France (R. 252). From the first
days of the Revolution pedagogical literature became plentiful,
and the successive National Assemblies found time, amid the in-
ternal reorganization of France, constitution-making, the trou-
bles with and trial of the King, and the darkening cloud of foreign
intervention, to listen to reports and addresses on education and
to enact a bill for the organization of a national school system.
The more important of these educational efforts were:

I. The Constituent Assembly (June 17, 1789, to September 30,
1791). In the Constituent Assembly, into which the States-Gen-
eral resolved itself, June 17, 1789, and which continued until after
it had framed the constitution of 1791, two notable addresses and
one notable report on the organization of education were made.
The Count de Mirabeau, a nobleman turned against his class and
elected to the States-General as a representative of the Third
Estate, made addresses on the ''Organization of a Teaching

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 513

Fig. 157
Count de Mirabeau

(1749-91)

Body," and on the'' Organization of a National L^'cee." In the first
he advocated the estabHshment of primary schools throughout
France. In the second he proposed the estabHshment of colleges
of literature in each department, with a
National Lycee at Paris for higher (uni-
versity) education, and to contain the es-
sentials of a national normal school or
teachers' college as well.

Mirabeau 's proposals represent rather a
transition in thinking from the old to the
new, but the Report of Talleyrand (1791),
former Bishop of Autun, now turned revo-
lutionist, embodies the full culmination of
revolutionary educational thought. Pub-
lic instruction he termed "a power which
embraces everything, from the games of
infancy to the most imposing fetes of the
Nation." He definitely proposed the or-
ganization of a complete state system of public instruction for
France, to consist of a primary school in every canton (com-
munity, district), open to the children of peasants and workmen

— classes heretofore unprovided with edu-
cation ; a secondary school in every depart-
ment (county) ; a series of special schools
in the chief French cities, to prepare for
the professions; and a National Institute,
or University, to be located at Paris. In-
spired by Montesquieu's principle that
''the laws of education ought to be rela-
tive to the principles of government,"
Talleyrand proposed a bill designed to
give effect to the provisions of the Con-
stitution of 1 79 1 relating to education (p.
501), and to provide an education for the
people of France who were now to exercise,
through elected representatives, the legis-
lative power for France. Instruction he held to be the necessary
counterpoise of liberty, and every citizen was to be taught to
know, obey, love, and protect the new constitution. Political,
social, and personal morality were to take the place of religion in
the cantonal schools, which were to be free and equally open to

158. Talleyrand
(1758-1838)

514 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

all. As the Constituent Assembly was succeeded by the newly
elected Legislative Assembly within three weeks after Talleyrand
submitted his Report, no action was taken on his bill.

2. The Legislative Assembly (October i, 1 791, to September 21,
1792). This new legislative body was far more radical in char-
acter than its predecessor, and far more radical than was the

sentiment of France at the time. Among
other acts it aboHshed (1792) the old uni-
versities and confiscated (1793) their prop-
erty to the State. To it was submitted
(April 20-21, 1792) by the mathematician,
philosopher, and revolutionist, Marquis de
Condorcet/ on behalf of the Committee
on Public Instruction and as a measure of
reconstruction, a Report and draft of a
Law for the organization of a complete
democratic system of pubHc instruction
Fig. 159. CoNDORCET for France (R. 256). It provided for the

organizing of a primary school for every
four hundred inhabitants, in which each individual was "to
be taught to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenti-
tude of his own rights," and where principles would be taught,
calculated to ''insure the perpetuation of liberty and equaHty."
The bill also provided, for the first time, for the organization
of higher primary schools in the principal towns; colleges (sec-
ondary schools) in the chief cities (one for every four thousand
inhabitants); a higher school for each "department"; Lycees,
or institutions of still higher learning, at nine places in France;
and a National Society of Sciences and Arts to crown the edu-
cational system at Paris. The national system of education he
proposed was to be equally open to women, as well as men, and
to be gratuitous throughout. Teachers for each grade of school
were to be prepared in the school next above. Sunday lectures
for workingmen and peasants were to be given by teachers every-
where. PubHc morality, pofitical intelligence, human progress,
and the preservation of liberty and equality were the aims of
the instruction. The necessity for education in a constitutional
government he saw clearly. "A free constitution," he writes,

1 Condorcet had not been a member of the Constituent Assembly, but for some
years had been deeply interested in the idea of public education, and had published
five articles on the subject. His Report was a sort of embodiment, in legal form, of
his previous thinking on the question.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 515

"which should not be correspondent to the universal instruction
of citizens, would come to destruction after a few conflicts, and
would degenerate into one of those forms of government which
cannot preserve the peace among an ignorant and corrupt peo-
ple." Anarchy or despotism he held to be the future for peoples
who become free without being enlightened. He held it to be a
fundamental principle that:

The order of nature includes no distinctions in society beyond those
of education and wealth. To establish among citizens an equality in
fact, and to realize the equality confirmed by law, ought to be the
primary object of national instruction.

The bill proposed by Condorcet, while too ambitious for the
France of his day, was thoroughly sound as a democratic theory
of education, and an accurate prediction of what the nineteenth
century brought gener-
ally into existence. Con-
dorcet's Report was dis-
cussed, but not acted
upon.

3. The National Con-
vention (September 2 1 ,
1792, to October 26,
1795). The Convention
was also a radical body,
deeply interested in the
creation of a system of
state schools for the peo-
ple of France. To higher
education there was for
a time marked opposi-
tion, though later in its
history the Convention
erected a number of im-
portant higher technical
institutions and schools,

Fig. 160. The Institute of France

Founded by Article 298 of the Constitution of
Year III (1793)

among the most important of which was the Institute of France.
There was also in the Convention marked opposition to all forms
of clerical control of schools. The schools of the Brothers of the
Christian Schools were suppressed by it, in 1792, and all secular
and endowed schools and colleges were abolished and their prop-
erty confiscated, in 1793. The complete supremacy of the State in

5i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

all educational matters was now asserted. Great enthusiasm was
manifested for the organization of state primary schools, which
were ordered estabHshed in 1793 (R. 258 a), and in these:

Children of all classes were to receive that first education, physical,
moral, and intellectual, the best adapted to develop in them republican
manners, patriotism, and the love of labor, and to render them worthy
of liberty and equality.

The course of instruction' was to include: "to speak, read, and write
correctly the French language; the geography of France; the rights and
duties of men and citizens; ^ the first notions of natural and familiar
objects; the use of numbers, the compass, the level, the system of
weights and measures, the mechanical powers, and the measurement of
time. They are to be taken into the fields and the workshops where
they may see agricultural and mechanical operations going on, and
take part in the same so far as their age will allow."

What a change from the course of instruction in the religious

schools just preceding this period!
A multiplicity of reports, bills, and decrees, often more or less

contradictory but still embodying ideas advanced by Condorcet

and Talleyrand, now appeared. Where'as
the preceding legislative bodies had con-
sidered the subject carefully, but without
taking action, the Convention now acted.
The nation, though, was so engrossed by
the internal chaos and foreign aggression
that there was neither time nor funds to
carry the decrees into effect.

The most extreme proposal of the period
was the bill of Lepelletier le Saint-Fargeau
to create a national system of education
modeled closely after that of ancient Sparta.
Fig. 161. Lakanal 'pj^g j^gg^- ^f ^j^g proposals probably was

the Lakanal Law, of November 17, 1794,
which ordered a school for every one thousand inhabitants, with
special divisions for boys and girls, and which provided for in-
struction in:

1. Reading and writing the French language.

2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, and the Constitution.

3. Lessons on republican morals.

1 All the educational aims of the pa^t were now relegated to a second place, and
man became a political animal, "brought into the world to know, to love, and to
obey the Constitution." The Declaration of the Rights of Man became the new
Catechism of childhood.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 517

4. The rules of simple calculation and surveying.

5. Lessons in geography and the phenomena of nature.

6. Lessons on heroic actions, and songs of triumph.

Lakanal also carefully prescribed the method of instruction, and
advocated the founding of a national normal school (Latin
norma; a rule), which idea the Convention adopted in 1794, the
school opening ^ in January, 1795. Supplementing this was the
law of February 25, 1795, ordering central or higher schools es-
tabHshed to replace the former colleges,^ one for every three hun-
dred thousand of the population, which were to offer instruction
from twelve to eighteen. The course was to include:

12 to 14 -^ Drawing, natural history, ancient and living languages.
14 to 16 — Mathematics, natural philosophy, experimental chemis-
try.
16 to 18 — Grammar, literature, history, legislation.

Organized on a soviet principle, each professor declared the
equal of every other, and lacking any effective administration or
discipline, these institutions soon fell into disrepute and were
displaced when Napoleon reorganized secondary education in
France.

The law of October 25, 1795, closed the work of the Conven-
tion. This made less important provisions for primary education
(R. 258 b) than had preceding bills, but was the only permanent
contribution of this period to the organization of primary schools.
It placed greater emphasis than had the legislative Assembly on
the creation of secondary and higher institutions (R. 258 a), of
more value to the bourgeois class. This bill of 1795 represents a
reaction from the extreme republican ideas of a few years earlier,
and the triumph of the conservative middle-class elements in the
nation over the radical republican elements previously in control.

The Convention also, in the latter part of its history, created
a number of higher technical institutions of importance, which

' This was created on a grand and visionary scale. Its purpose was to supply
professors for the higher institutions. It opened with a large attendance, and lec-
tures on mathematics, science, politics, and languages were given by the most emi-
nent scholars of the time. A normal school, though, it hardly was, and in 1795 it
closed — a virtual failure. In 1808 Napoleon re-created it, on a less pretentious
and a more useful scale, and since then it has continued and rendered useful service
as a training-school for teachers for the higher secondary schools of France.

2 A total of 105 of these Central Schools Were to be established, five in Paris, and
one in each of the one hundred chief towns in the departments. By 1796 there
were 40, by 1797 there were 52, by 1798 there were 59, by 1799 there were 86, and
by 1800 there were 91 such schools in existence. This, times considered, was a
remarkable development.

5i8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

were expressive alike of the French interest in scientific subjects
which arose during the latter part of the eighteenth century, and
of the new French military needs. Many of these institutions
have persisted to the present, so well have they answered the sci-
entific interests and needs of the nation. A mere list of the insti-
tutions created is all that need be given. These were:

Museum or Conservatory of Arts (Jan. i6, 1794).

Conservatory of Arts and Trades (Oct. 10, 1794).

New medical schools {Schools of Health) ordered (Dec. 4, 1794).

Museum of Natural History (Dec. 11, 1794).

Central Schools to succeed the former Colleges (secondary schools)

(Feb. 25, 1795).
School of Living Oriental Languages (March 30, i795).'
Veterinary Schools (April 21, 1795).
Course in Archaeology, National Library (June 8, 1795).
Bureau of Longitude (June 29, 1795).
Conservatory of Music (Aug. 3, 1795).
The National Library (Oct. 17, 1795).
Museum of Archaeological Monuments (Oct. 20, 1795).
Polytechnic Schools (R. 257); School of Civil Engineering; School of

Hydrographic Engineers; and School of Mining (Oct. 22, 1795).

The Convention also adopted the metric system of weights and
measures; enacted laws under which the peasants could acquire
title to the lands they had tilled for so long; and began the unifica-
tion of the laws of the different parts of the country into a single
set, which later culminated in the Code Napoleon.

4. The Directory (1795-99) ^^^^ ^^^ Consulate (i 799-1804).
The Revolution had by this time largely spent itself, the Direc-
tory followed, and in 1799 Napoleon became First Consul and for
the next sixteen years was master of France. The Law of 1795
for primary schools (R. 258 b) was but feebly administered under
the Directory, as foreign wars absorbed the energies and re-
sources of the Government. Napoleon's chief educational inter-
est, too, was in opening up opportunities for talent to rise, in en-
couraging scientific work and higher specialized institutions, and
in developing schools of a type that would support the kind of
government he had imposed upon France. The secondary and
higher schools he established and promoted cost him money at a
time when money was badly needed for national defense, and
primary education was accordingly neglected during the time he
directed the destinies of the nation. His educational organiza-
tions and work we shall refer to again in a later chapter.

The Revolutionary enthusiasts had stated clearly their theory

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 519

of republican education, but had failed to establish a permanent
state school system according to their plans. This now became
the work of the nineteenth century. In the meantime, in the new
United States of America the same ideas were taking shape and
finding expression, and to the developments there we next turn.

III. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN AMERICA

Waning of the old religious interest. As early as 1647 Rhode
Island Colony had enacted the first law providing for freedom of
reUgious worship ever enacted by an English-speaking people,
and two years later Maryland enacted a similar law. Though the
Maryland law was later repealed, and a rigid Church-of-England
rule established there, these laws were indicative of the new spirit
arising in the New World. By the beginning of the eighteenth
century a change in attitude toward the old problem of personal
salvation had become evident. Frontier conditions; the gradual
rise of a civil as opposed to a religious form of town government;
the rising interests in trade and shipping; the beginnings of the
breakdown of the old aristocratic traditions and customs trans-
planted from Europe; the rising individualism in both Europe
and America — ■ these all helped to weaken the hold on the people
of the old religious doctrines.

By 1750 the change in religious thinking in the American Colo-
nies had become quite marked.' Especially was this change evi-
denced in the dying out of the old religious fervor and intolerance,
and the breaking-up of the old religious solidarity. While most
of the Colonies continued to maintain an "established Church,"
other sects had to be admitted to the Colony and given freedom of
worship. The Puritan monopoly in New England was broken, as
was also that of the Anglican faith in the central Colonies. The
day of the monopoly of any sect in a Colony was over. New secu-
lar interests began to take the place of religion as the chief topic of
thought and conversation, and secular books began to dispute the
earlier predominance of the Bible. A few colonial newspapers
had begun (seven by 1750), and these became expressive of the
new colony interests.

Changing character of the schools. These changes in attitude
toward the old religious problems materially affected both the

1 "The commercial depression of 1740 fell upon a generation of New Englanders
whose minds no longer dwelt preeminently upon religious matters, but who were,
on the contrary, preeminently commercial in their interests." (Green, M. L.,

Development of Religious Liberty in Connecticut, p. 22b.)

520 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

support and the character of the education provided in the Colo-
nies. The Law of 1647, requiring the maintenance of the Latin
grammar schools, had been found to be increasingly difficult of
enforcement, not only in Massachusetts, but in all the other New
England Colonies which had followed the Massachusetts exam-
ple. With the changing attitude of the people, which had become
clearly manifest by 1750, the demand for relief from the mainte-
nance of this school in favor of a more practical and less aristo-
cratic type of higher school, if higher school were needed at all,
became marked. By the close of the colonial period the new
American Academy (p. 463), with its more practical studies, had
begun to supersede the old Latin grammar school.

The elementary school experienced something of the same diffi-
:ulties. Many of the parochial schools died out, while others de-
clined in character and importance. In Church-of-England Colo-
nies all elementary education was left to private initiative and
philanthropic and religious effort (p. 373). In the southern Colo-
nies the classes in society and the character of the plantation life
made common schools impossible, and the feejing of any need for
elementary schools almost entirely died out. In New England
the eighteenth century was a continual struggle on the one hand
to prevent the original religious town school from disappearing,
and on the other to establish in its place a series of scattered and
inferior district schools, while either church or town support and
tuition fees became ever harder to obtain. Among other changes
of importance the reading school and the writing school now be-
came definitely united, in all the smaller places and in the rural
districts, as a measure of economy, to form the American school
of the *'3 Rs." New textbooks, too, containing less of the gloom-
ily rehgious than the New England Primer, and secular rather
than religious in character (p. 443), appeared after 1750 and be-
gan to be used in the schools. After 1750, too, it was increasingly
evident that the old religious enthusiasm for schools had largely
died out; that European traditions and ways and types of schools
no longer completely satisfied; and that the period of the trans-
planting of European educational ideas and schools and types of
instruction was coming to an end. Instead, the evolution of a
public or state school out of the original religious school, and the
beginnings of the evolution of distinctly American types of
schools, better adapted to American needs, became increasingly
evident in the Colonies as the eighteenth century progressed.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 521

Rise of the civil or state school. As has been stated earlier, the
school everywhere in America arose as a child of the Church. In
the Middle Colonies, where the parochial-school conception of edu-
cation was the prevailing type, the school remained under church
control until after the foundation of our national government.
In New England, though — and the New England evolution in
time became the prevailing American practice — the school passed
through a very interesting development during colonial times.

As we have seen (p. 360), each little New England town was
originally estabhshed as a little religious republic, with the
Church in complete control. The governing authorities for
church and civil affairs were much the same. When acting as
church officers they were known as Elders and Deacons; when
acting as civil or town officers they were known as Selectmen.
The State, as represented in the colony legislature or the town
meeting, was clearly the servant of the Church, and existed in
large part for religious ends. It was the State acting as the serv-
ant of the Church which enacted the Massachusetts laws of 1642
and 1647 (Rs. 190, 191), requiring the towns to maintain schools
for religious ends. Now, so close was the connection between the
religious town, which controlled church affairs, and the civil
town, which looked after roads, fences, taxes, and defense — the
constituency of both being one and the same, and the meetings of
both being held at first in the meeting-house — • that when the
schools were established the colony legislature placed them under
the civil — as involving taxes, and being a public service —
rather than under the religious town. The interests of one were
the interests of both, and, being the same in constituency and
territorial boundaries, there seemed no occasion for friction or
fear. From this religious beginning the civil school and the civil
school- town and school- township, with all their elaborate school
administrative machinery, were later evolved.

The erection of a town hall, separate from the meeting-house,
was a first step in the process. School affairs now were discussed
at the town hall, instead of in the church. The town authorities
now appointed committees to locate and build schoolhouses, se-
lect and certificate the teachers, and visit and examine the school.
Next a regular town school committee was provided for. To this
was given the management of the town school, and town taxes,
instead of church taxes, were voted for buildings and maintenance.
The minister continued to certificate the grammar-school master

522 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

until the close of the colonial period, but the power to certificate
the elementary-school teachers passed to the town authorities
early in the eighteenth century. By the close of the century all
that the minister — as the only surviving representative of church
control — had left to him was the right to accompany the town
authorities in the visitation of schools. Thus gradually but cer-
tainly did the earlier religious school in America pass out from
under the control of the Church and come under the control of the
vState. When our national government and the different state
governments were established, the States were ready to accept, in
principle at least, the theory gradually worked out in New Eng-
land that schools are state institutions, and should be under the
control of the State.

The early state constitutions and laws. In framing the Federal
Constitution, in 1787, education, then being regarded largely as a
local matter, was left to the States to handle as they saw fit; so we
turn to the early state constitutions and laws to see how far the
new American States had, by the close of the eighteenth century,
advanced toward the conception of education as an affair of the
State.

During the period from the Declaration of Independence to the
close of the eighteenth century (i 776-1800), all the States, except
Rhode Island and Connecticut, which considered their colonial
charters as satisfactory, formulated and adopted new state con-
stitutions. Three new States — Vermont, Kentucky, and Ten-
nessee— were admitted to the Union before 1800, and these
framed constitutions also. Of the sixteen States forming the
Union by 1800, seven had incorporated into their constitutions a
clause setting forth the State's duty in the matter of education
(R. 259). As in the earlier period of American education, it was
Calvinistic New England which incorporated into the constitu-
tions the best provisions regarding learning. In the parochial-
school central Colonies the mention was much less emphatic, while
the old Anglican- Church Colonies and the new States of Ken-
tucky and Tennessee remained silent on the subject. Massachu-
setts, Vermont, and New Hampshire, in particular, incorporated
strong sections directing the encouragement of learning and vir-
tue, the protection and fostering of school societies, and the es-
tablishment of schools. The Massachusetts provision, after-
wards copied by New Hampshire, is so explicit in the matter of
state duty that it is worth quoting in full.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 523

Chap. V, Sec. 2. Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused
generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preser-
vation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on spreading
the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of
the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be
the duty of the legislatures and magistrates, in all future periods of
this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sci-
ences, and all seminaries of them; especially the university at Cam-
bridge, public schools, and grammar schools in the towns; to encourage
private societies and public institutions, by rewards and immunities,
for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades,
manufactures, and a natural history of the country; to countenance
and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence,
public and private charity, industry and frugality, honesty and punctu-
ality in their dealings; sincerity, good humor, and all social affections
and generous sentiments among the people.

Though the Federal Constitution made no provision for educa-
tion or aid to schools, when the Congress of the Confederation, in
1787, adopted the Ordinance for the organization and govern-
ment of the Northwest Territory, out of which the States of Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin were later carved, it
prefixed to this Ordinance the following significant provision:

Art. 3. Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good
government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of
education shall forever be encouraged [in the States to be formed from
this Territory].

By the time the first State formed from this western territory was
ready to be admitted to the Union (Ohio, 1802), the theory that
education is a function of the State had come to be so thoroughly
accepted, in principle at least, by the new American people that
Congress now began a policy, ever since continued, of aiding each
new State to establish and maintain a state system of schools. To
this end Congress gave the new State for this purpose a generous
endowment of national land, and in addition three townships of
land to endow a state university. We also find that the constitu-
tions of the first States created from this new Northwest Territory
(Ohio, 1802; Indiana, 1816^) contain for the time good provisions
relating to public education. The Ohio provisions (R. 260) are
noteworthy for the strong stand for religious freedom and against

^ Prominent in the Indiana constitutional convention of 1816 were a number of
Frenchmen of bearing and abiUty, then residing in the old territorial capital —
Vincennes. How much they influenced the statement of the article on education is
not known, but it reads as though French revolutionary ideas had been influential
in shaping it.

524 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

any discrimination in the schools between rich and poor, while the
Indiana provisions (R. 261) are marked for their broad and gener-
ous conception of the scope and purpose of a state system of pub-
lic instruction.

Many of the older States enacted general state school laws
early in their history (R. 262). Connecticut continued the gen-
eral school laws of 1700, 171 2, and 17 14 unchanged, and in 1795
added $1,200, 000, derived from land sales, to a permanent state
school endowment fund, created as early as 1750. Vermont en-
acted a general school law in 1782. Massachusetts and New
Hampshire enacted new general school laws, in 1789, which re-
stated and legalized the school development of the preceding hun-
dred and fifty years. All these required the maintenance of
schools by the towns for a definite term each year, ordered taxa-
tion, and fixed the school studies required by the State. New
York, in 1787, created an administrative organization, known as
the University of the State of New York, to supervise secondary
and higher education throughout the State — an institution
clearly modeled after the centralizing ideas of Condorcet, Rol-
land, and Diderot (p. 477), and very similar to the ideas proposed
by Talleyrand and Condorcet and later (1808) embodied in the
University of France by Napoleon. In 1795 New York also pro-
vided for a state system of elementary education. Georgia cre-
ated a state system of academies, as early as 1783. Delaware
created a state school fund, in 1796, and Virginia enacted an op-
tional school law the same year. North Carolina created a state
university, as early as 1795.

The new political motive for schools. We thus see, in the new
United States, the theories of the French revolutionary thinkers
and statesmen actually being realized in practice. • The constitu-
tional provisions, and even the legislation, often were in advance
of what the States, impoverished as they were by the War of In-
dependence, could at once carry out, but they mark the evolution
in America of a clearly defined state theory as to education, and
the recognition of a need for general education in a government
whose actions were so largely influenced by the force of public
opinion. The Federal Constitution had extended the right to
vote for national officers to all, and the older States soon began to
remove their earlier property qualifications for voting and to ex-
tend general manhood suffrage to all citizens.

This new development in government by the people, which

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 525

meant the passing of the rule of a propertied and educated class
and the establishment of a real democracy, caused the leading
American statesmen to turn early to general education as a neces-
sity for republican safety. In his Farewell Address to the Ameri-
can people, written in 1796, Washington said:

Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for
the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of
a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that pubUc
opinion should be enlightened.

Jefferson spent the years 1784 to 1789 in Paris, and became
a great propagandist in America for French political ideas.
Writing to James Madison from France, as early as 1787, he
said:

Above all things, I hope the education of the common people will
be attended to ; convinced that on this good sense we may rely with the
most security for the preservation of a due sense of liberty.

In 1799, then, as a member of the Virginia legislature, Jefferson
tried unsuccessfully to secure the passage of a comprehensive bill,
after the plan of the French Revolutionary proposals, for the or-
ganization of a complete system of
pubHc education for Virginia. The
essential features of the proposed bill
(R. 263) were that every county
should be laid* off into school dis-
tricts, five to six miles square, to be
known as "hundreds," and in each
of these an elementary school was to
be established to which any citizen
could send his children free of charge
for three years, and as much longer
as he was willing to pay tuition ; that
the leading pupil in each school was
to be selected annually and sent to
one of twenty grammar (secondary)
schools to be established and maintained at various points in the
State; after two years the leaders in each of these schools were
to be selected and further educated free for six years, the less
promising being sent home; and at the completion of the grammar-
school course, the upper half of the pupils were to be given three
years more of free education at the State College of William and

Fig. 162. Thomas Jefferson

(1743-1826)

526 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Mary, and the other half were to be employed as teachers for
the schools of the State. ^

Though the scheme failed of approval, Jefferson never lost in-
terest in the education of the people for intelligent participation
in the functions of government. Writing from Monticello to
Colonel Yancey, in 1816, after his retirement from the presidency,
he wrote:

If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization it
expects what never was and never will be. . . . There is no safe deposit
(for the functions of government) but with the people themselves;
nor can they be safe with them without information.

In 1819 the founding of the University of Virginia crowned Jef-
ferson's efforts for education by the State, and the institution
stands to-day, together with the Declaration of Independence
and the statute for religious freedom in Virginia, as the three en-
during monuments to his memory.^

Other of the early American statesmen expressed similar views
as to the importance of general education by the State. John
Jay, first Chief Justice of the United States, in a letter to his
friend. Dr. Benjamin Rush, wrote:

1 consider knowledge to be the soul of a Republic, and as the weak
and the wicked are generally in alliance, as much care should be taken
to diminish the number of the former as of the latter. Education is the
way to do this, and nothing should be left undone to afford all ranks
of people the means of obtaining a proper degree of it at a cheap and
easy rate.

James Madison, fourth President of the United States, wrote:

A satisfactory plan for primary education is certainly a vital desid-
eratum in our republics.

A popular government without popular information or the means of
acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or, perhaps, both.
Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; and a people who mean to
be their own governors must arm themselves with the power which
knowledge gives.

John Adams, with true New England thoroughness, expressed
•the new motive for education still more forcibly when he wrote:

^ For the original Bill of 1799 in full, in the original spelling, see the Biennial
Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for Virginia, 1900-01, pp. Ixx-lxxv.

2 Though Jefferson had been Governor of Virginia during the Revolutionary War;
had repeatedly served in the Virginia legislature and in Congress; and had twice
been President of the United States, he counted all these as of less importance than
the three services mentioned, and in preparing the inscription to be placed on his
tomb he included only these three.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 527

The instruction of the people in every kind of knowledge that can
be of use to them in the practice of their moral duties as men, citizens,
and Christians, and of their political and civil duties as members of
society and freemen, ought to be the care of the public, and of all who
have any share in the conduct of its affairs, in a manner that never yet
has been practiced in any age or nation. The education here intended
is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble, but of every
rank and class of people, down to the lowest and poorest. It is not too
much to say that schools for the education of all should be placed at
convenient distances and maintained at the public expense. The
revenues of the State would be applied infinitely better, more chari-
tably, wisely, usefully, and therefore poUtically in this way than even
in maintaining the poor. This would be the best way of preventing
the existence of the poor. . . .

Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower
classes of people, are so extremely wise and useful that, to a humane
and generous mind, no expense for this purpose would be thought
extravagant.

Having founded, as Lincoln so well said later at Gettysburg,
"on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedi-
cated to the proposition that all men are created equal," and hav-
ing built a constitutional form of government based on that
equality, it in time became evident to those who thought at all on
the question that that liberty and political equality could not be
preserved without the general education of all. A new motive
for education was thus created and gradually formulated in the
United States, as well as in revolutionary France, and the nature
of the school instruction of the youth of the State came in time to
be colored through and through by this new political motive.
The necessary schools, though, did not come at once. On the
contrary, the struggle to establish these necessary schools it will
be our purpose to trace in subsequent chapters, but before doing
so we wish first to point out how the rise of a political theory for
education led to the development of a theory as to the nature
of the educational process which exercised a far-reaching in-
fluence on all subsequent evolution of schools and teaching.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1 . What do the proposals of La Chalotais, Rolland, and Turgot indicate
as to the degree of unification of France attained by the time they wrote?

2. What new subjects did Diderot add to the religious elementary school
of his time?

3. Show how the decline in efficiency of the Jesuits was a stimulating force
for the evolution of a system of public instruction in France.

528 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

4. Show the statesman-like character of the proposals made in the legisla-
tive assemblies of France for the organization of national education.

5. Assuming that there had been peace, and funds to carry out the law
(1793) of the Convention for primary instruction, what other difficulties
would have been met that would have been hard to surmount?

6. Compare the Lakanal school with an American elementary school of a
half- century ago.

7. Show that many of the important educational reforms of Napoleon were
foreshadowed in the National Convention.

8. Was Napoleon right in his attitude toward education and schools?

g. Explain the lack of success of the revolutionary theorists in the estab-
lishment of a state system of education.

10. Explain why the breakdown of the old religious intolerance came earlier
in the American Colonies than in the Old World.

11. Show the great value of the Laws of 1642 and 1647 in holding New Eng-
land true to the maintenance of schools during the period of decline.

12. What might have been the result in America had the New England Colo-
nies established the school as a parish institution, as did the central
Colonies?

13. Analyze the Massachusetts constitutional provision for education, and
show what it provided for.

14. Show the similarity of the University of the State of New York to the
proposals for governmental control in France.

15. Explain why the French revolutionary ideas as to education were realized
so easily in the new United States, whereas France did not realize them
until well into the nineteenth century.

16. Compare Jefferson's proposed law with the proposals of Talleyrand for
France.

17. Just what type of educational institutions did Washington have in mind
in the quotation from his Farewell Address? John Jay? John Adams?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are repro-
duced:

254. Dabney: The Far-Reaching Influence of Rousseau's Writings.

255. La Chalotais: Essay on National Education.

256. Condorcet: OutUne of a Plan for Organizing Public Instruction in

France.

257. Report: Founding of the Polytechnic School at Paris.

258. Barnard: Work of the National Convention in France.

{a) Various legislative proposals.

\h) The Law of 1795 organizing Primary Instruction.

259. American States: Early Constitutional Provisions relating to Edu-

cation.

260. Ohio: Educational Provisions of First Constitution.

261. Indiana: Educational Provisions of First Constitution.

262. American States: Early School Legislation in.

263. Jefferson: Plan for Organizing Education in Virginia.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

I. Explain the conditions of society under which the emotional writings of
a man of the type of Rousseau could have made such a deep impression
(254) on the nation.

BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION 529

2. In how far do nations to-day accept the theories of La Chalotais (255)?
'^. What type of administrative organization was proposed by Condorcet
(256)?

4. What does the founding of the Polytechnic School (257) indicate as to
the French interest in science?

5. What real progress was made by the National Convention (258 a), and
to what degree did it fail?

6. Explain the type of school system proposed and the conception of edu-
cation lying behind the early constitutional provisions (259) for educa-
tion in each of the American States.

7. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Ohio con-
stitution (260) remarkable?

8. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Indiana
constitution (261) remarkable?

9. Characterize the early school legislation reproduced (262).

10. Just what type of educational system did Jefferson propose to organize
in Virginia (263)?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, vol. 22, pp. 651-64.
Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, chapters 15, 16, 17.
Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States, chapter 3,

CHAPTER XXI

A NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER FOR THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

In chapters xvii and xviii we traced the development of educa-
tional theory up to the point where John Locke left it (p. 436)
after outlining his social and disciplinary theory for the educa-
tional process, and in the chapter preceding this one we traced the
evolution of a new state theory as to the purpose of education to
replace the old religious theory. The new theory as to state con-
trol, and the erection of a citizenship purpose for education, made
it both possible and desirable that the instruction in the school,
and particularly in the vernacular school, should be recast, both in
method and content, to bring the school into harmony with the
new secular purpose. In consequence, an important reorgan-
ization of the vernacular school now took place, and to this
transformation of the elementary school we next turn.

I. THE NEW THEORY STATED

Iconoclastic nature of the work of Rousseau. The inspirer of
the new theory as to the purpose of education was none other
than the French-Swiss iconoclast and political writer, Jean- Jacques
Rousseau, whose work as a poHtical theorist we have previ-
ously described. Happening to take up the educational problem
as a phase of his activity against the political and social and
ecclesiastical conditions of his age, drawing freely on Locke's
Thoughts for ideas, and inspired by a feeling that so corrupt and
debased was his age that if he rejected everything accepted by it
and adopted the opposite he would reach the truth, Rousseau re-
stated his political theories as to the control of man by society
and his ideas as to a life according to "nature " in a book in which
he described the education, from birth to manhood, of an imagi-
nary boy, Emile, and his future wife, Sophie. In the first sentence
of the book Rousseau sets forth his fundamental thesis:

All is good as it comes from the hand of the Creator; all degenerates
under the hands of man. He forces one country to produce the fruits
of another, one tree to bear that of another. He confounds climates,
elements, and seasons; he mutilates his dog, his horse, his slave; turns

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 531

Fig. 163. The Rousseau
Monument at Geneva

everything topsy-turvy," disfigures everything. He will have nothing
as nature made it, not even man himself; he must be trained like a
managed horse, trimmed like a tree in a garden.

His book, published in 1762, in no sense outlined a workable
system of education. Instead, in charming literary style, with
much sophistry, many paradoxes, numerous irrelevent digressions
upon topics having no relation
to education, and in no system-
atic order, Rousseau presented his
ideas as to the nature and purpose
of education. Emphasizing the
importance of the natural devel-
opment of the child (R. 264 a),
he contended that the three great
teachers of man were nature, man,
and experience, and that the sec-
ond and third tended to destroy
the value of the first (R. 264 b);
that the child should be handled
in a new way, and that the most
important item in his training up

to twelve years of age was to do nothing (R. 264 c, d) so that
nature might develop his character properly (R. 264 e) ; and that
from twelve to fifteen his education should be largely from things
and nature, and not from books (R. 264 f). As the outcome of
such an education Rousseau produced a boy who, from his point
of view, would at eighteen still be natural (R. 264 g) and un-
spoiled by the social life about him, which, after all, he felt was
soon to pass away (R. 264 i). The old religious instruction he
would completely supersede (R. 264 h).

So depraved was the age, and so wretched were the educational
practices of his time, that, in spite of the malevolent impulse
which was his driving force, what he wrote actually contained
many excellent ideas, pointed the way to better practices, and be-
came an inspiration for others who, unlike Rousseau, were deeply
interested in problems of education and child welfare. One can-
not study Rousseau's writings as a whole, see him in his eight-
eenth-century setting, know of his personal Hfe, and not feel that
the far-reaching reforms produced by his J^mile are among the
strangest facts in history.

The valuable elements in Rousseau^s work. Amid his glitter-

532 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ing generalities and striking paradoxes Rousseau did, however,
set forth certain important ideas as to the proper education of
children. Popularizing the best ideas of the Englishman, Locke
(p. 433), Rousseau may be said to have given currency to certain
conceptions as to the education of children which, in the hands of
others, brought about great educational changes. Briefly stated,
these were:

1. The replacement of authority by reason and investigation.

2. That education should be adapted to the gradually unfolding
capacities of the child.

3. That each age in the life of a child has activities which are normal
to that age, and that education should seek for and follow these.

4. That physical activity and health are of first importance.

5. That education, and especially elementary education, should take
place through the senses, rather than through the memory.

6. That the emphasis placed on the memory in education is funda-
mentally wrong, dwarfing the judgment and reason of the child.

7. That catechetical and Jesuitical types of education should be
abandoned.

8. That the study of theological subtleties is unsuited to child needs
or child capacity.

9. That the natural interests, curiosity, and activities of children
should be utilized in their education.

10. That the normal activities of children call for expression, and that
the best means of utilizing these activities are conversation,
writing, drawing, music, and play.

1 1 . That education should no longer be exclusively literary and lin-
guistic, but should be based on sense perception, expression, and
reasoning.

12. That such education calls for instruction in the book of nature,
with home geography and the investigation of elementary prob-
lems in science occupying a prominent place.

13. That the child be taught rather than the subject-matter; life
here rather than hereafter; and the development of reason rather
than the loading of the memory, were the proper objects of edu-
cation.

14. That a many-sided education is necessary to reveal child possi-
bihties; to correct the narrowing effect of specialized class educa-
tion; and to prepare one for possible changes in fortune.

A new educational ideal presented. Rousseau's Emile pre-
sented a new ideal in education. According to his conception it
was debasing that man should be educated to behave correctly in
an artificial society, to follow blindly the doctrines of a faith, or to
be an obedient subject of a king. Instead he conceived the func-
tion of education to be to evolve the natural powers, cultivate the
human side, unfold the inborn capacities of every human being,

xNEW IJIEORY AND SliBJECT-MATl ER 533

and to develop a reasoning individual, capable of intelligently
directing his life under diverse conditions and in any form of
society. A book setting forth such ideas naturally was revolu-
tionary ^ in matters of education. It deeply influenced thinkers
along these lines during the remaining years of the, eighteenth
century, and became the inspiring source of nineteenth-century
reforms. As Rousseau's Social Contract became the political
handbook of the French Revolutionists, so his Emile became the
inspiration of a new theory as to the education of children.

Coming, as it did, at a time when political and ecclesiastical
despotisms were fast breaking down in France, when new forces
were striving for expression throughout Europe, and when new
theories as to the functions of government were being set forth in
the American Colonies and in France, it gave the needed inspira-
tion for the evolution of a new theory of non-religious, universal,
and democratic education which would prepare citizens for intelli-
gent participation in the functions of a democratic State, and for
a reorganization of the subject-matter of education itself. A new
theory as to the educational purpose was soon to arise, and the
whole nature of the educational process, in the hands of others,
was soon to be transformed as a result of the fortunate conjunc-
tion of the iconoclastic and impractical discussion of education by
Rousseau and the more practical work of English, French, and
American political theorists and statesmen. Out of the fusing of
these, modern educational theory arose.

II. GERMAN ATTEMPTS TO WORK OUT A xNEW THEORY

Influence of the Emile in German lands. The Emile was
widely read, not only in France, but throughout the continent of
Europe as well. In German lands its publication coincided with
the rising tide of nationaHsm — the '' Period of Enlightenment"

^ '' As a man who sought after glory, and whose gloomy temper took umbrage at
everything, Rousseau complained that his Emile did not obtain the same success
as his other writings. He was truly hard to please! The anger of some, the ardent
sympathy of others; on the one hand, the parliamentary decrees condemning the
book and issuing a warrant for the author's arrest, the thunders of the Church, and
the famous mandate of the Archbishop of Paris; on the other hand, the applause
of the philosophers, of Clairant, Duclos, and d'Alembert, — what more, then, did
he want? Emile was burned in Paris and Geneva, but it was read with passion; it
was twice translated in London, an honor which no French work had received up
to then. In truth never did a book make more noise and thrust itself so much on
the attention of men. By its defects, no less than by its qualities, by the inspired
and prophetic character of its style, as well as by the paradoxical audacity of its
ideas, Emile swayed opinion and stirred up the more generous parts of the human
soul." (Compayre, G., Jcam-Jacques Rousseau, p. loo.)

534 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

— and the book was warmly welcomed by such (then young)
men as Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Richter, Fichte, and Kant. It
presented a new ideal of education and a new ideal for humanity,
and its ideas harmonized well with those of the newly created
aristocracy of worth which the young German enthusiasts were
busily engaged in proclaiming for their native land. The ideal of
the perfected individual, strong in the consciousness of his powers,
now found expression in the new ''classics of individuaHsm'"
which marked the outburst of the best that German hterature has
ever produced. As Paulsen ^ well says:

Rousseau exercised an immense influence on his times, and Germany
was stirred perhaps even more deeply than France. In France Vol-
taire continued to be regarded as the great man of his time, whereas, in
Germany, his place in the esteem of the younger generation had been
taken by the enthusiast of Geneva. Kant, Herder, Goethe, Schiller,
Fichte, all of them were roused by Rousseau to the inmost depths of
their natures. He gave utterance to the passionate longing of their
souls: to do away with the imitation of French courtly culture, by
which Nature was suppressed and perverted in every way, to do away
with the established political and social order, based on court society
and class distinctions, which was feh to be lowering to man in his
quality as a reasonable being, and to return to Nature, to simple and
unsophisticated habits of life, or rather to find a way through Nature
to a better civilisation, which would restore the natural values of life
to their rightful place and would be compatible with truth and virtue,
sincerity and probity of character.

The great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (17 24-1804),
was so deeply stirred by the Emile that the regularity of his daily
walks and the clearness of his thinking were disturbed by it.
Goethe called the book ''the teacher's Gospel." Schiller praised
Rousseau as "a new Socrates, who of Christians wished to make
men." Herder acclaimed Rousseau as a German, and his "di-
vine work" as his guide. Jean-Paul Richter confessed himself
indebted to Rousseau for the best ideas in his Levana. Lavater
declared himself ready for a Reformation in education along the
lines laid down by Rousseau.

Basedow and his work. Perhaps the most important practical
influence exerted by the Emile in German lands came in the work
of Johann Bernard Basedow and his followers. Basedow was a
North German who had been educated in the Gymnasium at
Hamburg, had studied in the theological faculty at Leipzig, had
been a tutor in a nobleman's family, and had been a teacher in a

^ Paulsen, Fr., German Education, Past and Present, p. 157.

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 535

Fig. 164. Basedow
(1723-90)

RiUerakademie in Denmark and the Gymnasium at Altona.
Deeply imbued with the new scientific spirit, in thorough revolt
against the dominance of the Church in human Uves, and incited
to new efforts by his reading of the
Entile, Basedow thought out a plan
for a reform school which should put
many of Rousseau's ideas into prac-
tice. In 1768 he issued his Address
to Philanthropists and Men of Prop-
erty on Schools and Studies and their
Influence on the Public Weal, in which
he appealed for funds to enable him
to open a school to try out his ideas,
and to enable him to prepare a new
type of textbooks for the use of
schools. He proposed in this appeal
to organize a school which should be
non-sectarian, and also advocated the creation of a National
Council of Education to have charge of all public instruction.
These were essentially the ideas of the French political reformers
of the time. The appeal was widely scattered, awakened much
enthusiasm, and subscriptions to assist him poured in from many
sources.^

In 1774 Basedow pubHshed two works of more than ordinary
importance. The first, a Book of Method for Fathers and Mothers
of Families and of Nations, was a book for adults . and outlined a
plan of education for both boys and girls. The keynotes were
''following nature," "impartial religious instruction," children to
be dealt with as children, learning through the senses, language
instruction by a natural method, and much study of natural ob-
jects. The ideas were a combination of those of Bacon, Come-
nius, and Rousseau. The second book, in four volumes, and con-
taining one hundred copper-plate illustrations, was the famous
Elementary Work (Elementarwerk mit Kupfern) (R. 266), the
first illustrated school textbook since the Orhis Pictus (1654) of
Comenius. This work of Basedow's became, in German lands,

^ Within three years Basedow had collected seven thousand Reichsthaler , sub-
scriptions coming to him from such widely scattered sources as Joseph II of Austria,
Empress Catherine of Russia, King Christian VII of Denmark, "the wealthy class
in Basle," the Abbot of the monastery of Einsiedel in Switzerland, "the royal gov-
ernment of Osnabruck," the Grand Prince Paul, and others. Jews and Freemasons
seem to have taken particular interest in his ideas. Freemason lodges in Hamburg,
Leipzig, and Gottingen were among the generous contributors.

536 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the Orbis Pictus of the eighteenth century. By means of its
"natural methods" (R. 265) children were to be taught to read,
both the vernacular and Latin, more easily and in less time than
had been done before, and in addition were to be given a knowl-
edge of morals, commerce, scientific subjects, and social usages by
"an incomparable method," founded on experience in teaching
children. The book enjoyed a wide circulation among the middle
and upper classes in German lands.

Basedow^s Philanthropinum. In 1774 Prince Leopold, of Des-
sau, a town in the duchy of Anhalt, in northern Germany, gave
Basedow the use of two buildings and a garden, and twelve thou-
sand thalers in money, with which to establish his long-heralded
Philanthropinum, which was to be an educational institution of a
new type. Great expectations were aroused, and a widespread
interest in the new school awakened. Education according to na-
ture, with a reformed, time-saving, natural method for the teach-
ing of languages, were to be its central ideas. Children were to
be treated as children, and not as adults. Powdered hair, gilded
coats, swords, rouge, and hoops were to be discarded for short
hair, clean faces, sailor jackets, and caps, while the natural plays
of children and directed physical training were to be made a fea-
ture of the instruction. The languages were to be taught by con-
versational methods. Each child was to be taught a handicraft
— turning, planing, and carpentering were provided — for both
social and educational reasons. Instruction in real things —
science, nature — was to take the place of instruction in words,
and the vernacular was to be the language of instruction. The
institution was to have the atmosphere of religion, but was not
to be Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, or Jewish, and was to be
free from "theologizing distinctions." Latin, German, French,
mathematics, a knowledge of nature (geography, physics, natural
history) , music, dancing, drawing, and physical training were the
principal subjects of instruction. The children were divided into
four classes, and the instruction for each, with the textbooks to be
used, was outlined (R. 265).

The school opened with Basedow and three assistants as teach-
ers, and two of Basedow's children and twelve others as pupils.
Later the school came to have many boarding pupils, drawn from
as far-distant points as Riga and Spain. In 1776 a public exami-
nation was held, to which many distinguished men were invited,
and the work which Basedow's methods could produce was ex-

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 537

Fig. 165

Immanuel Kant

(i 724-1804)

hibited. These methods seem to have been successful, judging

from the rather full accounts which have been left us.^ The

school represented a new type of educational effort, and was

frankly experimental in purpose. It was

an attempt to apply, in practice, the main

ideas of Rousseau's Emile. Basedow tried

the plan of education outHned by Rousseau

with his own daughter, whom he named

Emilie.

As a promising experiment the school
awakened widespread interest, and Base-
dow was supported by such thinkers of the
time as Goethe and Kant. The year fol-
lowing the "Examination'^ Kant, then pro-
fessor of philosophy at the University of
Konigsberg, contributed an article to the
Konigsherg Gazette explaining the impor-
tance of the experiment Basedow was mak-
ing. Still later, in his university lectures On Pedagogy, he further
stated the importance of such a new experiment, in the following
words :

It was imagined that experiments in education were not necessary;
and that, whether any thing in it was good or bad, could be judged of
by the reason. But this was a great mistake; experience shows very
often that results are produced precisely the opposite to those which
had been expected. We also see from experiment that one generation
cannot work out a complete plan of education. The only experi-
mental school which has made a beginning toward breaking the path
was the Dessau institution. This praise must be given to it, in spite
of the many faults which may be charged against it; faults which be-
long to all conclusions based upon such undertakings; and which make
new experiments always necessary. It was the only school in which
the teachers had the liberty to work after their own methods and
plans, and where they stood in connection, not only with each other,
but with men of learning throughout all Germany.

Basedow's influence, and followers. Basedow, though, was an
impractical theorist, boastful and quarrelsome, vulgar and coarse,
given to drunkenness and intemperate speech, and fond of making
claims for his work which the results did not justify. In a few
years he had been displaced as director, and in 1793 the Philan-
thropinum closed its doors. The school, nevertheless, was a very

' See Barnard's American Journal of Education, vol. v, pp. 487-520, for an ac-
count of the examinations and the institution.

538 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

important educational experiment, and Basedow's work for a
time exerted a profound influence on German pedagogical thought.
He may be said to have raised instruction in the Realien in
German lands to a place of distinct importance, and to have
given a turn to such instruction which it has ever since retained.^
The methods of instruction, too, worked out in arithmetic, geog-
raphy, geometry, natural history, physics, and history were in
many ways as revolutionary as those evolved by Pestalozzi later
on in Switzerland. In his emphasis on scientific subject-matter
Basedow surpassed Pestalozzi, but Pestalozzi possessed a clearer,
intuitive insight into the nature and purpose of the educational
process. The work of the two men furnishes an interesting basis
for comparison (R. 271), and the work of each gave added import-
ance to that of the other.

From Dessau an interest in pedagogical ideas and experiments
spread over Europe, and particularly over German lands. Other
institutions, modeled after the Philanthropinum, were founded in
many places, and some of Basedow's followers ^ did as important
work along certain lines as did Basedow himself. His followers
were numerous, and of all degrees of worth. They urged accept-
ance of the new ideas of Rousseau as worked out and promulgated
by Basedow; vigorously attacked the old schools, making con-
verts here and there; and in a way helped to prepare northern
German lands for the incoming, later, of the better- organized
ideas of the German-Swiss reformer Pestalozzi, to whose work we
next turn.

1 "The pedagogical character of the Real-school was established by Basedow and
his followers. Originally the plan was to provide for the middle classes what would
be called nowadays manual training schools, in which the scientific principles under-
lying the various trades and business vocations should have a prominent place.
These schools were to be one step removed from the trade schools for the lower
classes. But under the influence of the Philanthropinists the Real-school was trans-
formed into a modern humanistic school, and placed in competition with the human-
istic Gymnasium.'^ (Russell, J. E., German Higher Schools, pp. 65-66.)

2 His two most important followers were Joachim Heinrich Campe (i 746-1818),
who succeeded Basedow at Dessau and later founded a Philanthropinum at Ham-
burg, and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811), who founded a school at
Schnep fen thai, in Saxe-Gotha. Both these men had for a time been teachers with
Basedow at Dessau. Campe translated Locke's Thoughts and Rousseau's Emile
into German, wrote a number of books for children (chief among which was the
famous Swiss Family Robinson), and also prepared a number of treatises for teach-
ers. Salzmann's school, opened in 1784 in the Thuringen forest, made much of
gardening, agricultural work, animal study, home geography, nature study, gym-
nastics, and recreation, as well as book study. It was distinctively a small but
high-grade experimental school, so successful that in 1884 it celebrated its one hun-
dredth anniversary. A pupil in the school was Carl Ritter, the founder of modern
geographical study.

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 539

III. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI

The inspiration of Pestalozzi. Among those most deeply in-
fluenced by Rousseau's Emile was a young German-Swiss by the
name of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, who was born (1746) and
brought up in. the ancient city of Zurich. Inspired by Rousseau's
writings he spent the early part of his life in trying to render serv-
ice to the poor, and the latter part in working out for himself a
theory and a method of instruction based on the natural develop-
ment of the child. To Pestalozzi, more than to any one else, we
owe the foundations of the modern secular vernacular elementary
school, and in consequence his work is of commanding importance
in the history of the development of educational practice.

Trying to educate his own child according to Rousseau's plan,
he not only discovered its impracticability but also that the only
way to improve on it was to study the children themselves. Ac-
cordingly he opened a school and home on his farm at Neuhof ,
in 1774. Here he took in fifty abandoned children, to whom
he taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, gave them moral
discourses, and trained them in gardening, farming, and cheese-
making. It was an attempt to regenerate beggars by means of
education, which Pestalozzi firmly believed could be done. At
the end of two years he had spent all the money he and his wife
possessed, and the school closed in failure — a blessing in dis-
guise — though with Pestalozzi's faith in the power of education
unshaken. Of this experiment he wrote: " For years I have lived
in the midst of fifty Uttle beggars, sharing in my poverty my
bread with them, living like a beggar myself in order to teach
beggars to live Hke men."

Turning next to writing, while continuing to farm, Pestalozzi
now tried to express his faith in education in printed form. His
Leonard and Gertrude (1781) was a wonderfully beautiful story of
Swiss peasant life, and of the genius and sympathy and love of a
woman amid degrading surroundings. From a wretched place
the village of Bonnal, under Pestalozzi's pen, was transformed by
the power of education. ^ The book was a great success from the

^ "The picture shown in Leonard and Gertrude is very crude. Everywhere; is
visible the rough hand of the painter, a strong, untiring hand, painting an eternal
image, of which this in paper and print is the merest sketch. . . . Read it and see
how puerile it is, how too obvious are its moraUties. Read it a second time, and
note how earnest it is, how exact and accurate are its peasant scenes. Read it yet
again, and recognize in it the outpouring of a rare soul, working, pleading, ready to
be despised, for fellow souls." (J. P. Monroe, The Educational Ideal, p. 1S2.)

540 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

first, and for it Pestalozzi was made a "citizen" of the French
Republic, along with Washington, Madison, Kosciusko, Wilber-
force, and Tom Paine. He continued to farm and to think,
though nearly starving, until 1798, when the opportunity for
which he was really fitted came.

Pestalozzi^s educational experiments. In 1798 ''The Helvetic
Republic" was proclaimed, an event which divided Pestalozzi's
life into two parts. Up to this time he had been interested whollv
in the philanthropic aspect of education, believing that the poor
could be regenerated through education and labor. From this
time on he interested himself in the teaching aspect of the prob-
lem, in the working-out and formulation of a teaching method
based on the natural development of the child, and in training
others to teach. Much to the disgust of the authorities of the
new Swiss Government, citizen Pestalozzi appKed for service as
a schoolteacher. The opportunity to render such service soon
came.

That autumn the French troops invaded Switzerland, and, in
putting down the stubborn resistance of the three German can-
tons, shot down a large number of the people. Orphans to the
number of 169 were left in the httle town of Stanz, and citizen
Pestalozzi was given charge of them. For six months he was
father, mother, teacher, and nurse. Then, worn out himself, the
orphanage was changed into a hospital. A little later he became
a schoolmaster in Burgdorf ; was dismissed; became a teacher in
another school; and finally, in 1800, opened a school himself in an
old castle there. He now drew about him other teachers inter-
ested in improving instruction^ and in consequence could special-
ize the work. He provided separate teachers for drawing and
singing, geography and history, language and arithmetic, and
gymnastics. The year following the school was enlarged into a
teachers' training-school, the government extending him aid in re-
turn for giving Swiss teachers one month of training as teachers in
his school. Here he wrote and published How Gertrude teaches
her Children, which explained his methods and forms his most im-
portant pedagogical work (R. 267) ; a Guide for teaching Spelling
and Reading; and a Book for Mothers, devoted to a description of
''object teaching." In 1803, the castle being needed by the gov-
ernment, Pestalozzi moved first to Munchenbuchsee, near Hof-
wyl, opening his Institute temporarily in an old convent there.
For a few months, in 1804, he was associated with Emanuel von

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 54I

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Fig. 166. The Scene of Pestalozzi's Labors

Fellenberg, at Hofwyl (p. 546), but in October, 1804, he moved
to Yverdon, where he reestabhshed the Institute, and where the
next twenty years of his hfe were spent and his greatest success
achieved.

The contribution of Pestalozzi. The great contribution of
Pestalozzi lay in that, following the lead of Rousseau, he rejected
the religious aim and the teaching of mere words and facts, which
had characterized all elementary education up to near the close of
the eighteenth century, and tried instead to reduce the educa-
tional process to a well-organized routine, based on the natural
and orderly development of the instincts, capacities, and powers
of the growing child. Taking Rousseau's idea of a return to na-
ture, he tried to apply it to the education of children. This led to
his rejection of what he called the ''empty chattering of mere
words " and "outward show " in the instruction in reading and the
catechism, and the introduction in their place of real studies,
based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning. "Sense
impression" became his watchword.^ As he expressed it, he

1 "When I now look back and ask myself: What have I specially done for the
very being of education, I find I have fixed the highest supreme principle of instruc-
tion in the regagnition of sense impression as the absolute foundation of all knowledge.
Apart from all special teaching I have sought to discover the nature of teaching itself,
and the prototype, by which nature herself has determined the instruction of our
race." (Pestalozzi, How Gertrude teaches her Children, x, § i.)

542 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

''tried to organize and psychologize the educational process" by
harmonizing it with the natural development of the child (R. 267) .
To this end he carefully studied children, and developed his
methods experimentally as a result of his observation. To this
end, both at Burgdorf and Yverdon, all results of preceding teach-
ers and writers on education were rejected, for fear that error might
creep in. Read nothing, discover everything, and prove all things,
came to be the working guides of himself and his teachers.

The development of man he believed to be organic, and to pro-
ceed according to law. It was the work of the teacher to discover
these laws of development and to assist nature in securing "a.
natural, symmetrical, and harmonious development" of all the
''faculties " of the child. Real education must develop the child
as a whole — mentally, physically, morally — and called for the
training of the head and the hand and the heart. The only proper
means for developing the powers of the child was use, and hence
education must guide and stimulate self-activity, be based on in-
tuition and exercise, and the sense impressions must be organized
and directed. Education, too, if it is to follow the organic devel-
opment of the child, must observe the proper progress of child de-
velopment and be graded, so that each step of the process shall
grow out of the preceding and grow into the following stage. To
accomplish these ends the training must be all-round and har-
monious; much liberty must be allowed the child in learning; edu-
cation must proceed largely by doing instead of by words, the
method of learning must be largely analytical; real objects and
ideas must precede symbols and words; and, finally, the organiza-
tion and correlation of what is learned must be looked after by the
teacher.

Still more, Pestalozzi possessed a deep and abiding faith, new at
the time, in the power of education as a means of regenerating
society. He had begun his work by trying to ''teach beggars to
live like men," and his belief in the potency of education in work-
ing this transformation, so touchingly expressed in his Leonard
and Gertrude, never left him. He believed that each human being
could be raised through the influence of education to the level of
an intellectually free and morally independent life, and that every
human being was entitled to the right to attain such freedom and
independence. The way to this lay through the full use of his
developing powers, under the guidance of a teacher, and not
through a process of repeating words and learning by heart. Not

Plate ii. Pestalozzi Monument at Yverdon

A picture of this monument occupies a prominent place in every
schoolroom in Switzerland.

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 543

only the intellectual qualities of perception, Judgment, and reason-
ing need exercise, but the moral powers as well. To provide such
exercise and direction was the work of the school.

Pestalozzi also resented tne brutal discipline which for ages had
characterized all school instruction, believed it by its very nature
immoral, and tried to substitute for this a strict but loving dis-
cipline — a " thinking love," he calls it — and to make the school
as nearly as possible like a gentle and refined home. To a Swiss
father, who on visiting his school exclaimed, "Why, this is not a
school, but a family," Pestalozzi answered that such a statement
was the greatest praise he could have given him.

The consequences of these ideas. The educational conse-
quences of these new ideas were very large. They in time gave
aim and purpose to the elementary school of the nineteenth cen-
tury, transforming it from an instrument of the Church for church
ends, to an instrument of society to be used for its own regenera-
tion and the advancement of the welfare of all.^ The introduc-
tion of the study of natural objects in place of words, and much
talking about what was seen and studied instead of parrot-like
reproductions of the words of a book, revolutionized both the
methods and the subject-matter of instruction in the developing
elementary school. Observation and investigation tended to
supersede mere memorizing; class discussion and thinking to su-
persede the reciting of the words of the book; thinking about
what was being done to supersede routine learning; and class in-
struction to supersede the wasteful individual teaching which had
for so long characterized all school work. It meant the reorgani-
zation of the work of the vernacular school on a modern basis,
with class organization and group instruction, and a modern-
world purpose (R. 269).

The work of Pestalozzi also meant the introduction of new
subject-matter for instruction, the organization of new teaching
subjects for the elementary school, and the redirection of the el-
ementary education of children. Observation led to the devel-
opment of elementary-science study, and the study of home
geography; talking about what was observed led to the study of

' "What he did was to emphasize the new purpose in education, but vaguely
perceived, where held at all, by others; to make clear the new meaning of education
which existed in rather a nebulous state in the public mind; to formulate an entirely
new method, based on new principles, both of which were to receive a further devel-
opment in subsequent times, and to pass under his name; and finally, to give an
entirely new spirit to the schoolroom." (Monroe, Paul, Text Book in the History of
Education, p. 600.)

544 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

language usage, as distinct from the older study of grammar; and
counting and measuring led to the study of number, and hence to
a new type of primary arithmetic. The reading of the school also
changed both in character and purpose. In other words, in place
of an elementary education based on reading, a little writing and
spelling, and the catechism, all of a memoriter type and with re-
ligious ends in view, a new primary school, essentially secular in
character, was created by the work of Pestalozzi. This new
school was based on the study of real objects, learning through
sense impressions, the individual expression of ideas, child activ-
ity, and the development of the child's powers in an orderly way.
In fact, ''the development of the faculties" of the child became a
by-word with Pestalozzi and his followers.

Pestalozzi's deep abiding faith in the power of education to re-
generate society was highly influential in Switzerland, throughout
western Europe, and later in America in showing how to deal
with orphans, vagrants, and those suffering from physical defects
or in need of reformation, by providing for such a combination of
intellectual and industrial training.

The spread and influence of Pestalozzi^s work. So famous did
the work of Pestalozzi become that his schools at Burgdorf and
Yverdon came to be "show places," even in a land filled with nat-
ural wonders. Observers and students came from America (R.
268) and from all over Europe to see and to teach in his school,
and draw inspiration from seeing his work (R. 270) and talking
with him.^ In particular the educators of Prussia were attracted
by his work, and, earlier than other nations, saw the far-reaching
significance of his discoveries. Herbart visited his school as early
as 1799, when but a young man of twenty- three, and wrote a very
sympathetic description of his new methods. Froebel spent the
years 1808 to 18 10 as a teacher at Yverdon, when he was a young

^ In 1809 the German, Carl Ritter, a former pupil of Campe (see footnote 2,
p. 538) and the creator of modern geographical study, visited Pestalozzi at Yverdon.
Of this visit he writes:

"I have seen more than the paradise of Switzerland, I have seen Pestalozzi, I
have learned to know his heart and his genius. Never have I felt so impressed with
the sanctity of my vocation as when I was with this noble son of Switzerland. I
cannot recall without emotion this society of strong men, struggling with the present,
with the aim of clearing the way for a better future, men whose only joy and reward
is the hope of raising the child to the dignity of man.

"I left Yverdon resolved to fulfill my promise made to Pestalozzi to carry his
method into geography. . . , Pestalozzi did not know as much geography as a child
in our Primary Schools, but, none the less, have I learned that science from him, for
it was in listening to him that I felt awaken within me the instinct of the natural
methods; he showed me the way." (Guimps, Baron de, Pestalozzi, his Aim and
Work, p. 167.)

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 545

man of twenty-six to eight. ''It soon became evident to me,"
wrote Froebel, ''that 'Pestalozzi' was to be the watchword of my
life.'' The philosopher Fichte, whose Addresses (1807-08) on the
condition of the German people (page 568), after their hu-
miliating defeat by Napoleon, did much to reveal to Prussia the
possibilities of national regeneration by means of education, had
taught in Zurich, knew Pestalozzi, and afterward exploited his
work and his ideas in Berlin.^ As early as 1803 an envoy, sent by
the Prussian King,^ reported favorably on Pestalozzi's work, and
in 1804 Pestalozzian methods were authorized for the primary
schools of Prussia. In 1808 seventeen teachers were sent to
Switzerland, at the expense of the Prussian Government, to spend
three years in studying Pestalozzi's ideas and methods. On
their return, these and others spread Pestalozzian ideas through-
out Prussia. A pastor and teacher from Wlirtemberg, Karl
August Zeller (i 774-1847), came to Burgdorf in 1803 to study.
In 1806 he opened a training-school for teachers in Zurich, and
there worked out a plan of studies based on the work of Pesta-
lozzi. This was printed and attracted much attention. In 1808
the King of Wlirtemberg listened to five lectures on Pestalozzian
methods by Zeller, and invited him to a position as school inspec-
tor in his State. Before he had done but a few months' work he
was called to Prussia, to organize a normal school and begin the
introduction of Pestalozzian ideas there. From Prussia the ideas
and methods of Pestalozzi gradually spread to the other German
States.

Many Swiss teachers were trained by Pestalozzi, and these also
helped to extend his work and ideas over Switzerland. Particu-
larly in German Switzerland did his ideas take root and reorgan-
ize education. As a result modern systems of education made an
early start in these cantons. One of Pestalozzi's earliest and most
faithful teachers, Hermann Kriisi, became principal of the Swiss
normal school at Gais, and trained teachers there in Pestalozzian

1 The young German student of geology and mineralogy, Karl George von Rau-
mer (1783-1865), was in Paris, in 1808. While there he read Pestalozzi's How Ger-
trude teaches her Children, and what Fichte had said of his work in his Addresses to
the German Nation (see chapter xxii). These sent him to Yverdon to see for him-
self. He remained two years, and returned to Germany as a teacher. In 1846 he
published his four- volume Geschichte der P adage gik, the first important history of
education to be written.

- In 1814 King Frederick William III himself visited Pestalozzi, at Neufchatel.
His queen, Louise, was deeply touched by reading the Emile, and frequently spent
hours in the Prussian schools witnessing work conducted after the ideas of Pesta-
lozzi.

546 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

methods. Zeller's pupils, too, did much to spread his influence
among the Swiss. Pestalozzi's ideas were also carried to England,
but in no such satisfactory manner as to the German States.
Where German lands received both the method and the spirit,
the English obtained largely the form. Later Pestalozzian ideas
came to the United States, at first largely through EngHsh sources,
and, after about i860, resulted in a thoroughgoing reorganization
of American elementary education.

After Pestalozzi's institution had become celebrated, and visi-
tors and commissions from many countries had visited him and
it, and after governments had vied with one another in intro-
ducing Pestalozzian methods and reforms, the vogue of the Pesta-
lozzian ideas became very extended. Many excellent private
schools were founded on the Pestalozzian model, while on the
other hand self-styled Pestalozzian reformers sprang up on all
sides. All this imitation was both natural and helpful; the fool-
ishness and charlatanism in time disappeared, leaving a real ad-
vance in the educational conception.

The manual-labor school of Fellenberg. Of the Swiss associ-
ates and followers of Pestalozzi one of the most influential was
Phillip Emanuel von Fellenberg (17 71-1844). The son of a
Swiss official of high political and social position, possessed of
wealth, having traveled extensively, Fellenberg, having become con-
vinced that correct early education was the only means whereby
the State might be elevated and the lot of man made better,
resolved (1805) to devote his life and his fortune to the working-
out of his ideas. For a short time associated with Pestalozzi, he
soon withdrew and established, on his own estate, an Institution
which later (1829) came to comprise the following:

1. A farm of about six hundred acres.

2. Workshops for manufacturing clothing and tools.

3. A printing end lithographing establishment.

4. A literary institution for the education of the well-to-do.

5. A lower or real school, which trained for handicrafts and middle-
class occupations.

6. An agricultural school for the education of the poor as farm
laborers, and as teachers for the rural schools.

By 1 8 10 the Institution had begun to attract attention, and soon
pupils and visitors came from distant lands to study in and to ex-
amine the schools. The agricultural school in particular aroused
interest. More than one hundred Reports (R. 272) were pub-

Plate 12. Fellenberg's Institute at Hofwyl

The first Agricultural and Mechanical College. This school contained the
germ-idea of all our agricultural education.

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 547

lished, in Europe and America, on this very successful experi-
ment in a combined intellectual and manual-labor type of educa-
tion. Fellenberg died in 1844, and his family discontinued the
school in 1848.

Fellenberg's work was a continuation of the social-regeneration
conception of education held by Pestalozzi, and contained the
germ- idea of all our agricultural and
industrial education. His plan was
widely copied in Switzerland, Ger-
many, England, and the United States.
It was well suited to the United States
because of the very democratic condi-
tions then prevailing among an agri-
cultural people possessed of but little
wealth. The plan of combining farm-
ing and schooling made for a time a
strong appeal to Americans, and such

schools were founded in many parts ^

r .-, . rm, -J 4. II ^ Fig. 167. Fellenberg

of the country. The idea at first (1771-1844)

was to unite training in agriculture

with schooling, but it was soon extended to the rapidly rising
mechanical pursuits as well. The plan, however, was rather
short-lived in the United States, due to the rise of manufacturing
and the opening of rich and cheap farms to the westward, and
lasted with us scarcely two decades. A generation later it reap-
peared in the Central West in the form of a new demand for col-
leges to teach agricultural and mechanical arts, but with the
manual-labor idea omitted. This we shall refer to again, later on
(chapter xxix).

IV. REDIRECTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Significance of this work. Though some form of parish school
for the elements of religious instruction had existed in many
places during the later Middle Ages, and foundations providing
for some type of elementary instruction had appeared here and
there in almost all lands, the elementary vernacular school, as we
have previously pointed out, was nevertheless clearly the out-
come of the Protestant movement in the sixteenth century, and
in its origin was essentially a child of the Church. A child of the
Church, too, for more than two centuries the elementary vernacu-
lar school remained. During these two centuries the elementary

54^ HISTORY OF EDliCATION

school made slow but rather unsatisfactory progress, due largely
to there being no other motive for its maintenance or expansion
than the original religious purpose. Only in the New England
Colonies in North America, in some of the provinces of the Neth-
erlands, and in a few of the German States had any real progress
been made in evolving any different type of school out of this
early religious creation, and even in these places the change was
in form of control rather than in subject-matter or purpose. The
school remained religious in purpose, even though its control was
beginning to pass from the Church to the State.

Now, within half a century, beginning with the work of Rous-
seau (1762), and by means of the labors of the political philoso-
phers of France, the Revolutionary leaders in the American Colo-
nies, the legislative Assemblies and Conventions in France, and
the experimental work of Basedow and his followers in German
lands and of Pestalozzi and his disciples in Switzerland, the whole
purpose and nature of the elementary vernacular school was
changed. The American and French political revolutions and the
more peaceful changes in England had ushered in new concep-
tions as to the nature and purpose and duties of government. As
a consequence of these new ideas, education had come to be re-
garded in a new Hght, and to assume a new importance in the
eyes of statesmen. In place of schools to serve religious and sec-
tarian ends, and maintained as an adjunct of the parishes or of a
State Church, the elementary vernacular school now came to be
conceived of as an instrument of the State, the chief purpose of
which was to serve state ends. Some time would, of course, be
required to develop the state support necessary to effect the com-
plete transformation in control, and the forces of reaction would
naturally delay the process as much as possible, but the theory of
state purpose had at last been so effectively proclaimed, and the
forces of a modern world were pushing the idea so steadily for-
ward, that it was only a question of time until the change would
be effected.

A new impetus for change in control. Basedow and Pestalozzi,
too, had given the movement for a transfer of control a new im-
petus by working out new methods in instruction and in organiz-
ing new subject-matter for the school, and methods and subject-
matter which harm_onized with the spirit and principles of the new
democracy that had been proclaimed. Pestalozzi in particular
had sought, guided by a clearer insight into the educational prob-

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 549

lem than Basedow possessed (R. 271), to create a school in which
children might, under the wise guidance of the teacher, develop
and strengthen their own "faculties" and thus evolve into reason-
ing, self-directing human beings, fitted for usefulness and service
in a modern world. To make intelligent and reasoning individu-
als of all citizens, to develop moral and civic character, to train
for life in organized society, and to serve as an instrument by
means of which an ignorant, drunken, immoral, and shiftless
working-class and peasantry might be elevated into men and
women of character, intelligence, and directive power, was in
Pestalozzi's conception the underlying meaning of the school.
After Pestalozzi, the earlier conception as to the religious purpose
of the elementary vernacular schools, by means of which children
were to be trained almost exclusively "in the principles of our
holy religion" and to become "loyal church members," and to
"lit them for that station in life in which it hath pleased their
Heavenly Father to place them," was doomed. In its stead
there was certain to arise a newer conception of the school as an
instrument of that form of organized society known as the State,
and maintained by the State to train its future citizens for intelli-
gent participation in the duties and obligations of citizenship, and
for social, moral, and economic efficiency.

The way now becoming clear. After two hundred and fifty
years of confusion and political failure, the way was now at last
becoming clear for the creation of national instead of church sys-
tems of elementary education, and for the firm establishment of
the elementary vernacular school as an important obligation to
its future citizens of every progressive modern State and the com-
mon birthright of all. This became distinctively the work of the
nineteenth century. It also became the work of the nineteenth
century to gather up the old secondary-school and university
foundations, accumulated through the ages, and remould them to
meet modern needs, fuse them into the national school systems
created, and connect them in some manner with the people's
schools. To see how this was done we next turn to the begin-
nings of the organization of national school systems in the German
States, France, Italy, England, and the United States. These
may be taken as types. As Prussia was the first modern State to
grasp the significance of national education, and to organize state
schools, we shall begin our study by first tracing the steps by
which this transformation was effected there.

550 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Compare the statement of the valuable elements in the theories of Rous-
seau (p. 530) with the main ideas of Basedow (p. 535); Ratke (p. 607);
Comenius (p. 409).

2. Do we accept all the fourteen points of Rousseau's theory to-day?

3. Might a Rousseau have done work of similar importance in Russia, early
in the twentieth century? Why?

4. Explain the educational significance of "self-activity," "sense impres-
sions," and "harmonious development."

5. What were the strong points in the experimental work of Basedow?

6. Explain the great enthusiasm which his rather visionary statements and
plans awakened.

7. Show the importance of such work as that of Basedow in preparing the
way for better-organized reform work.

8. How far was Pestalozzi right as to the power of education to give men
intellectual and moral freedom?

9. What do you understand Pestalozzi to have meant by " the development
of the faculties"?

10. State the importance of the work of Pestalozzi from the point of view
of showing the world how to deal with orphans and defectives.

11. Show how the germs of agricultural and technical education lay in the
work of Fellenberg.

12. Explain the greater popularity of the Emile in German lands.

13. State the change in subject-matter and aims from the vernacular church
school to the school as thought out by Pestalozzi.

14. Show that it was a fortunate conjunction that brought the work of Pesta-
lozzi alongside of that of the political reformers of France.

15. What differences might there have been had Comenius lived and done
his work in the time of Pestalozzi?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections, illustrative
of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

264. Rousseau: Illustrative Selections from the Emile.

265. Basedow: Instruction in the Philanthropinum.

266. Basedow: A Page from the Elementarwerk.

267. Pestalozzi: Explanation of his Work.

268. Griscom: A Visit to Pestalozzi at Yverdon.

269. Woodbridge: An Estimate of Pestalozzi's Work.

270. Dr. Mayo: On Pestalozzi.

271. Woodbridge: Work of Pestalozzi and Basedow compared.

272. Griscom: Hofwyl as seen by an American.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Show the fallacy of Rousseau's reasoning (264 b) as to society being a
denominator which prevents man from realizing himself.

2. What are the elements of truth and falsity in Rousseau's idling-to-the-
twelfth-year (264 b) idea?

3. Would such a training up to twelve (264 e) be possible, or desirable?

4. What type of education is presupposed in 264 f?

5. Show the similarity in the conceptions of the Orbis Pictus (221) and the
Elementarwerk ( 2 66) .

NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER 551

6. What types of schools and conceptions of education were combined in
the Philanthropinum (265)?

7. Just what did Pestalozzi attempt (267) to accompHsh?

8. Compare the accounts as to purpose and instruction given by Pestalozzi
(267) and Griscom (268).

9. What do the tributes of Woodb ridge (269) and Mayo (270) reveal as
to the character of Pestalozzi and his influence?

10. Analyze the courses of instruction (272) at Hofwyl.

1 1 . State the points of similarity and difference between the work of Basedow
and Pestalozzi (271), and the points of superiority in the work of Pesta-
lozzi.

SELECTED REFERENCES

*Anderson, L. F. "The Manual-Labor-School Movement"; in Educa-
tional Review, vol. 46, pp. 369-88. (November, 1913.)
Barnard, Henry. Pestalozzi arid his Educational System.
*Compayre, G. Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
*Compayre, G. Pestalozzi and Elementary Education.
' *Guimps, Roger de. Pestalozzi: his Aim and Work.
*Krusi, Hermann, Jr. Life and Work of Pestalozzi.
*Parker S. C. History of Modern Education, chaps. 8, 9, 13-16.
*Pestalozzi, J. H. Leonard and Gertrude.
Pestalozzi, J. H. How Gertrude teaches her Children.
Pinloche, A. Pestalozzi and the Foundations of the Modern Elementary
School.

CHAPTER XXII
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA

I. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Early German progress in school organization. The first mod-
ern nation to take over the school from the Church, and to make
of it an instrument for promoting the interests of the State was
Prussia, and the example of Prussia was soon followed by the
other German States. The reasons for this early action by the
German States will be clear if we remember the marked progress
made in establishing state control of the churches (p. 318) which
followed the Protestant Revolts in German lands. Figure 96,
page 319, reexamined now, will make the reason for the earlier
evolution of state education in Germany plain. Wiirtemberg,
as early as 1559, had organized the first German state-church
school system, and had made attendance at the rehgious instruc-
tion, compulsory on the parents of all children. The example
of Wiirtemberg was followed by Brunswick (1569), Saxony
(1580), Weimar (1619), and Gotha (1642). In Weimar and
Gotha the compulsory-attendance idea had even been adopted
for elementary-school instruction to all children up to the age
of twelve.

By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German
States, even including Cathohc Bavaria, had followed the example
of Wiirtemberg, and had created a state-church school system
which involved at least elementary and secondary schools and the
beginnings of compulsory school attendance. Notwithstanding
the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), the state-church
schools of German lands contained, more definitely than had been
worked out elsewhere, the germs of a separate "state school organi-
zation. Only in the American Colonies (p. 364) had an equal de-
velopment in state-church organization and control been made.
As state-church schools, with the religious purpose dominant, the
German schools remained until near the middle of the eighteenth
century. Then a new movement for state control began, and
within fifty years thereafter they had been transformed into in-
stitutions of the State, with the state purpose their most essential
characteristic. How this transformation was effected in Prussia,

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 553

the leader among the German States, and the forces which
brought about the transformation, it will be the purpose of this
chapter to relate.

The new University of Halle. The turning-point in the history
of German educational progress was the founding of the Univer-
sity of Halle, in 1694. This institution, due to its entirely new
methods of work, has usually been designated as the first modern
university. A few forward-looking men, men who had been ex-
pelled from Leipzig because of their critical attitude and modem
ways of thinking, were made professors here. Its creation was
due to the sympathy for these men felt by the Elector Friedrich
III of Brandenburg, later the first King of Prussia. The King
clearly intended that the new institution should be representative
of modern tendencies in education. To this end he installed as
professors men who could and would reform the instruction in
theology, law, medicine, and philosophy.

In consequence Aristotle was displaced for the new scientific
philosophy of Descartes and Bacon, and Latin in the classrooms
for the German speech. The sincere pietistic faith of Francke (p.
418) was substituted for the Lutheran dogmatism which had sup-
planted the earlier Catholic. The instruction in law was reformed
to accord with the modern needs and theory of the State. Medi-
cal instruction, based on observation, experimentation, and de-
duction, superseded instruction based on the reading of Hip-
pocrates and Galen. The new sciences, esp'ecially mathematics
and physics, found a congenial home in the philosophical or arts
faculty. Free scientific investigation and research, without in-
terference from the theological faculty, were soon established as
features of the institution, and in place of the fixed scientific
knowledge taught for so long from the texts of Aristotle (Rs. 113-
15) and other ancients, a new and changing science, that must
prove its laws and axioms, and which might at any time be
changed by the investigation of any teacher or student, here now
found a home. Under the leadership of Christian Wolff, who
was Professor of Philosophy from 1707 to 1723, when he was ban-
ished by a new King at the instigation of the Pietists for his too
great liberalism in religion, and again from 1740 to 1754, after his
recall by Frederick the Great, ^ philosophy was ^'rnade to speak
German" and the Aristotelian philosophy was permanently dis-

^ One of the first acts of the reign of Frederick the Great was to recall Wolfif from
banishment. In doing so he said: "A man that seeks truth, and loves it, must be
reckoned precious in any human society."

554 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

placed. ''Nothing without sufficient cause" was the ruHng prin-
ciple of Wolff's teaching.

Changes wrought in old established procedure. The introduc-
tion of the new scientific and mathematical and philosophical
studies soon changed the arts or philosophy faculty from a pre-
paratory faculty for the faculties of law, medicine, and theolog\'.
as it had been for centuries, to the equal of these three profes-
sional faculties in importance, while the elementary instruction
in Latin and Greek was now relegated to the Gymnasia below.
These were now in turn changed into preparatory schools for all
four faculties of the university. The university instruction in the
ancient languages was now placed on a much higher plane, and a
new humanistic renaissance took place (p. 462) which deeply in-
fluenced both university and gymnasial training. New standards
of taste and judgment were drawn from the ancient literatures
and applied to modern life, and students were trained to read and
enjoy the ancient classics. This reawakening of the best spirit of
the Italian Renaissance marked the first outburst of a national
feeling of a people as yet possessed of no national literature of im-
portance, but unwilling longer to depend on foreign (French) in-
fluences for the cultural elements in their intellectual life.

It was at Halle, too, that Gundling, in lyir, discussed ''the
office of a university " and laid down the modern university theory
of Lehrfreiheit und Lernfreiheit — that is, freedom from outside
interference in teaching and studying, both teachers and students
to be free to follow the truth wherever the truth might lead, and
without reference to what preconceived theories might be upset
thereby. This was a revolution in university procedure,^ and the
importance of the establishment of this new conception of uni-
versity work can scarcely be overestimated. It was a contribu-
tion to intellectual progress of large future value. It meant the
end of the old- type university, ruled by a narrow theological dog-
matism and maintained to give support to a particular religious
faith, and the ultimate transformation of the old university foun-

^ "It was a bold declaration, but one which exactly described the great change
which had taken place. The older university instruction was everywhere based
upon the assumption that the truth had already been given, that instruction had
to do with its transmission only, and that it was the duty of the controlUng authori-
ties to see to it that no false doctrines were taught. The new university instruction
began with the assumption that the truth must be discovered, and that it was the
duty of instruction to qualify and guide the student in this task. By assuming
this attitude the university was the first to accept the consequences of the condi-
tions which the Reformation had created." (Paulsen, Fr., The German Universities,
p. 46.)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 555

dations into institutions actuated by the methods and purposes of
a modern world.

In 1 734 another new university was founded at Gottingen, and
in this Johann Matthias Gesner (1691-1761) raised the new hu-
manistic learning to the place of first importance. This new uni-
versity became a nursery for the new literary humanism, ably sup-
plementing the work done at Halle. From these two universities
teachers of a new type went out, filled with the spirit of ''The En-
lightenment," as this eighteenth-century German renaissance
was called, and they in time regenerated all the German universi-
ties. Still more, they regenerated the secondary schools of Ger-
man lands as well, and gave Greek literature and life that place of
first importance in their instruction which was retained until the
latter part of the nineteenth century. Gesner at Gottingen, and
later Ernesti at Leipzig, did much to formulate the new pedagogi-
cal purpose ^ of instruction in the ancient languages and litera-
tures for the higher schools of German lands.

The earliest school laws for Prussia. In 1 7 13 there came to the
kingship of Prussia an organizing genius in the person of Frederic
William I (1713-40). Under his direction Prussia was given, for
the first time, a centralized and uniform financial administration,
and the beginnings of state school organization were made. He
freed the State from debt, provided it with a good income, devel-
oped a strong army, and began a vigorous colonization and com-
mercial policy. Though he cared nothing and did nothing for the
universities, the religious reform movement of Francke, as well as
his educational undertakings (p. 419), found in the new King a
warm supporter. Largely in consequence of this the King be-
came deeply interested in attempts to improve and advance the
education of the masses of his people.

The first year of his reign he issued a Regulatory Code for the
Reformed Evangelical and Latin schools of Prussia, and in 171 7
he issued the so-called "Advisory Order," relating to the people's
schools. In this latter parents were urged, under penalty of
''vigorous punishment," to send their children to school to learn

^ "He who reads the works of the ancients will enjoy the acquaintance of the
greatest men and the noblest souls who ever lived, and will get in this way, as it
happens in all refined conversation, beautiful thoughts and expressive words.

" We thus receive, in early childhood, doctrines and philosophy and wisdom of
life from the wisest and best educated men of all ages; we thus learn to recognize
and understand clearness, dignity, charm, ingenuity, delicacy, and elegance in
language and action, and gradually accustom ourselves to them." (Gesner, Johann
Matthias.)

556

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

religion, reading, writing, to calculate, and ''all that could serve
to promote their happiness and welfare." The tuition fees of
poor children he ordered paid out of the community poor-box (R.
273) . The following year he directed the authorities of Lithuania
to reHeve the existing ignorance there, and sent commissioners to
provide the villages with schoolmasters. From time to time he

Fig. 168. The School or a Handworker

Conducted in his home. A gentleman visiting the school. After a drawing in the
German School Museum in Berlin.

renewed his directions. To insure a better class of teachers for
the towns and rural schools, he, in 1722, directed that no one be
admitted to the office of sacristan-schoolmaster ^ except tailors,
weavers, smiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1738 he
further restricted the position of teacher in the town and rural
schools to tailors.

Becoming especially interested in providing schools for the pre-
viously neglected province of East Prussia, he gave the sum of

1 The sacristan or custodian of the church was frequently also the teacher of the
elementary school, the two offices being combined in one person. Out of this com-
bination the elementary teacher was later evolved. (See p. 446.)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 557

fifty thousand thalers as an endowment fund, the interest to be
used in assisting communities to build schoolhouses and maintain
schools, and he also set aside large tracts of land for school uses.
Within a few years over a thousand elementary schools had been
established, and some eighteen hundred new schools in Prussia
owed their origin to the interest of this King. He also took a
similar interest in the establishment of schools in Pomerania
(R. 273), a part of which had but recently been wrested from
Sweden.

In 1737 the King issued his celebrated Principia Regulative,
which henceforth became the fundamental School Law for the
province of East Prussia. This prescribed conditions for the
building of schoolhouses, the support of the schoolmaster, tuition
fees, and government aid. The following digest of the section of
the Principia relating to these matters gives a good idea as to the
nature of the school regulations the King sought to enforce:

1 . The parishes forming school societies were obliged to build school-
houses and to keep them in repair.

2. The State was to furnish the necessary timber and firewood.

3. The expenses for doors, windows, and stoves to be obtained from
collections.

4. Every church to pay four thalers a year toward the support of the
schoolmaster.

5. Tuition fees for each child, from four to twelve years of age, to be
four groschen per year.

6. Government to pay the fee when a peasant sends more than one
child to school.

7. The peasants to furnish the teacher with certain provisions.

8. The teacher to have the right of free pasture for his small stock
and some fees from every child confirmed.

9. Government to give the teacher one acre of land, which villagers
were to till for him.

In 1738 the King further regulated the private schools and
teachers in and about Berlin, in particular dealing with their
qualifications and fees. The King showed, for the time, an inter-
est in and solicitude for the education of his people heretofore al-
most unknown. That his decrees were in advance of the possibili-
ties of the people in the matter of school support is not to be won-
dered at. Still, they rendered useful service in preparing the way
for further organizing work by his successors, and in particular in
accustoming the people to the ideas of state oversight and local
school support. Under his successor and son, Frederick the
Great, the preparatory work of the father bore important fruit.

558 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The organizing work of Frederick the Great. In 1 740 Freder-
ick 11, sumamed the Great, succeeded his father, and in turn
guided the destinies of Prussia for forty-six years. His benevo-
lently despotic rule has been described on a preceding page (p.
474). Here we will consider only his work for education. In
1740, 1 741, and again in 1743 he issued "regulations concerning
the support of schools in the villages of Prussia," in which he di-
rected that new schools should be established, teachers provided
for them, and that *'the existing school regulations and the ar-
rangements made in pursuance thereto should be permanent, and
that no change should be made under any pretext whatever."

In 1750 he effected a centralization of all the provincial church
consistories, except that of Catholic Silesia, under the Berlin Con-
sistory. This was a centralizing measure of large future impor-
tance, as it centralized the administration of the schools, as well as
that of the churches, and transformed the Berlin Consistory into
an important administrative agent of the central government.
To this new centraHzed administrative organization the King is-
sued instructions to pay special attention to schools, in order that
they might be furnished with able schoolmasters and the young be
well educated. One of the results of this centralization was the
gradual evolution of the modern German Gymnasien, with uni-
form standards and improved instruction, out of the old and
weakened Latin schools of various types within the kingdom.

From 1756 to 1763 Frederick was engaged in a struggle for
existence, known as the Seven Years' War, but as soon as peace
was at hand the King issued new regulations ''concerning the
maintenance of schools," and began employing competent school-
masters for his royal estates. In April, 1763, he issued instruc-
tions to have a series of general school regulations prepared for all
Prussia. These were drawn up by Julius Hecker, a former pupil
and teacher in Francke's Institution (p. 418) and now a pastor in
Berlin and counselor for the Berlin Consistory. After approval
by the King, these were issued, September 23, 1763, under the
title of General Land-Schule Reglement (general school regulations
for the rural and village schools) of all Prussia (R. 274). These
new regulations constituted the first general School Code for the
whole kingdom, and mark the real foundation of the Prussian
elementary-school system. Two years later (1765) a similar but
stronger set of regulations or Code was drawn up and promul-
gated for the government of the Cathohc elementary schools in

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 559

Fig. 169. The Kingdom of Prussia, 1740-86

the province of Silesia (R. 275). This was a new province which
Frederick had wrested by force a few years previously (1748)
from Maria Theresa of Austria, and the addition of a large number
of Catholics to Prussia caused Frederick to issue specific regula-
tions for schools among them.

These two School Codes did not so much bring already existing
schools into a state system, but rather set up standards and obli-
gations for an elementary-school systern in part to be created in
the future. The schools were still left under the supervision and
direction of the Church, but the State now undertook to tell the
Church what it must do. To enforce the obligation the State
Inspectors of Prussia were directed to make an annual inspection
(R. 274, § 26) of all schools, and to forward a report on their in-
spection to the Berlin Consistory, and for Catholic Silesia the
following significant injunction was placed in the Code:

§ 51. In order to render as permanent as possible this reform of
schools, which lies near our heart, we cannot be satisfied with commit-
ting the care of the schools to the clergy alone. We find it necessary
that our bureau of War and Domain, the bureau of the Episcopal
Vicariate, and the dioceses in our Silesian and Glatz districts, as well as
our special school inspectors, give all due attention to this subject, so
important to the State.

The Prussian School Codes of 1763 and 1765. The regulations
of 1763 were issued, so the introduction reads (R. 274), because

56o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

"the instruction of youth" in the country had "come to be
greatly neglected" and "the young people were growing up in
stupidity and ignorance." The King, therefore, issued the new
regulations "to the end that ignorance, so injurious and unbe-
coming to Christianity, may be prevented and lessened, and the
coming time may train and educate in the schools more enlight-
ened and virtuous subjects."

To this end the King ordered compulsory education for the
children of all subjects from the ages of five to thirteen or four-
teen, all apprentices to be taught, and leaving certificates to be
issued on completion of the course (R. 274, §§ 1-4). The school
hours were fixed, Sunday and summer instruction regulated, tui-
tion fees standardized, and the fees of the children of the poor
were ordered paid (R. 274, §§ 5-8). A school census, and fines on
parents not sending their children to school were provided for (R.
274, §§ lo-ii). The requirements for a teacher, his habits, his
quahfications and examination, the license to teach, and the ex-
tent to which he might ply his trade or business, were all laid
down in some detail (R. 274 §§ 12-17). The organization, in-
struction, textbooks, order of exercises, and discipline for all
schools were prescribed at some length (R. 274, §§ 19-21). The
Code closed with a series of regulations covering the relations of
the schoolmaster and clergyman, and the supervision of the in-
struction by the clergyman and clerical superintendents (R. 274,
§§ 25-26). Incapable teachers were ordered suspended or de-
posed. As a final injunction relative to school attendance the
Code closed with the following sentence:

In general we here confirm and renew all wholesome laws, published
in former times, especially, that no clergyman shall admit to confirma-
tion and the sacrament, any children not of his parish, nor those unable
to read, or who are ignorant of the fundamental principles of evangeli-
cal religion.

The Code of 1765 for the Catholic schools of Silesia followed
much the same line as the Code of 1763, though in it the King
placed special emphasis on the training of schoolmasters, a sub-
ject in which he had become much interested (R. 275 a) ; the regu-
lation of the conditions under which teachers lived and worked
(R. 275 b) ; and the supervision of instruction by the clergyman
of the parish (R. 275 e). These directions throw much light on
the conditions surrounding teaching near the middle of the eight-
eenth century. The nature of instruction in the CathoHc schools,

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 561

and the compulsion to attend, were also definitely stated (R.
275 c-d).

These new Codes met with resistance everywhere. The money
for the execution of such a comprehensive project was not as yet
generally available; parents and churches objected to taxation
and to the loss of their children from work; the wealthy landlords
objected to the financial burden; the standards for teachers later
on (1779) had to be lowered, and veterans from Frederick's wars
installed; and the examinations of teachers had to be made easy \
to secure teachers at all for the schools. While there continued
for some decades to be a vast difference between the actual condi-
tions in the schools and the requirements of these Codes, and while
the real establishment of a 'state school system awaited the first
decade of the nineteenth century for its accomplishment, much
valuable progress in organization nevertheless was made. In
principle, at least, Frederick the Great, by the Codes of 1763 and
1765, effected for elementary education a transition from the
church school of the Protestant Reformation, and for CathoHc
Silesia from the parish school of the Church, to the state school of
the nineteenth century. It remained only for his successors to
realize in practice what he had made substantial beginnings of in
law. Nowhere else in Europe that early had such progress in
educational organization been made.

The Prussian example followed in other German States. The
example qf Prussia was in time followed by the other larger Ger-
man States. Wiirtemberg issued a new School Code in 1792,
which remained the ruling law for the church schools throughout
the eighteenth century. The Saxon King, Augustus the Just, in-
spired by the example of Frederick, issued a mandate, in 1766,
reminding parents as to their duty to send children to school,
and in 1773 issued a new Regulation, filled with ''generous
enthusiasm fpr the cause." A teachers' training-school was
founded at Dresden, in 1788, and four others before the close of
the century. In 1805 a comprehensive Code was issued. This
required that every child must be able to read, write, count, and
know the truths of rehgion to receive the sacrament; clergymen
were ordered to supervise the schools; school attendance was re-

^ "When the schoolmaster had to pass an examination before the clergyman of
the place by order of the inspector, the local authorities, owi-ng to the lamentable
life of a schoolmaster, were glad to find persons at all who were willing to accept an
engagement for such a position. In consequence an otherwise intolerable indulgence
in examining and employing teachers took place, especially in districts where large
landholders had patriarchal sway." (Schmid, K. A., Encyclopadje, vol. vi, p. 287.)

562 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

quired from six to fourteen; the pay of teachers and the govern-
ment appropriations for schools were increased; and a series of
fines were imposed for violations of the Code. Bavaria issued
new school Codes in 1770 and 1778, and additional schoolhouses
were built and new textbooks written. After the suppression of
the Jesuits (1773) a new progressive spirit animated' the Catholic
States, and Austria in particular, under the leadership of Maria
Theresa and Joseph II (p. 475), made marked progress in school
organization and educational reform.

In 1770 Maria Theresa appointed a School Commission to have
charge of education in Lower Austria; in 1771 established the
first Austrian normal school in Vienna; and in 1774 promulgated
a General School Code (R. 276), drawn up by the Abbot Felbiger,
who had been most prominent in school organization in Silesia.
This Code provided for School Commissions in all provinces;^
ordered the establishment of an elementary school in all villages
and parishes, a "principal" or higher elementary school in the
principal city of every canton, and a normal school in every prov-
ince; laid down the course of study for each; and gave details as to
teachers, instruction, compulsory attendance, support, and in-
spection similar to Frederick's Silesian Code (R. 275). Continua-
tion instruction up to twenty years of age also was ordered. That
such demands were much in advance of what was possible is evi-
dent, and it is not surprising that, in the reaction under Francis I,
following the outburst of the French Revolution, we find a de-
cree (1805) that the elementary school shall be curtailed to "ab-
solutely necessary limits," and that

the common people shall get in elementary school only such ideas as
will not trouble them in their work, and which will not make them dis-
contented with their condition; their intelligence shall be directed
toward the fulfillment of their moral duties, and prudent and diligent
fulfillment of their domestic and communal obligations.

The beginnings of teacher-training. The beginning of teacher-
training in German lands was the Seminar ium Prceceptorum of
Francke, estabHshed at Halle (p. 419), in 1697. In 1738 Johann
Julius Hecker (1707-68), one of Francke's former students and
teachers, and the author of the Prussian Code of 1763, estabHshed
the first regular seminary for teachers in Prussia, to train intend-

1 Austria at that time included not only the Austro-Hungarian Empire of 19 14,
but extended further into the German Empire and Italy, and included Belgium and
Luxemburg as well.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 563

ing theological students for the temporary or parallel occupation
of teaching in the Latin schools. In 1747 he estabhshed a private
Lehrerseminar in Berlin, in connection with his celebrated Real-
schule (p. 420), and there demonstrated the possibiHties of teacher-
training, Frederick the Great was so pleased with the result
that, in 1753^ he gave the school a subsidy and changed it into
a royal institution, and one very fitting occasion recommended
school authorities to it for teachers. Similar institutions were
opened in Hanover, in 1751 ; Wolfenbuttel, in 1753; in the county
of Glatz in Silesia, in 1764 (R. 275); in Breslau, in 1765 and 1767;
and in Carlsruhe, in 1768. In the Silesian Code of 1765 Frederick
specified (R. 275 a, § 2) six institutions which he had designated
as teacher- training schools.

These early Prussian institutions laid the foundations upon
which the normal-school system of the nineteenth century has
been built. In Prussia first, but soon thereafter in other German
States (Austria, at Vienna, 1771; Saxe-Weimar, at Eisenach, in
1783; and Saxony, at Dresden, 1788) the Teachers' Seminary was
erected into an important institution of the State, and the idea
has since been copied by almost all modern nations. This early
development in Prussia was influential in both France and the
United States, as we shall point out further on.

Despite these many important educational efforts, though, the
type and the work of teachers remained low throughout the whole
of the eighteenth century. In the rural and village schools the
teachers continued to be deficient in number and lacking in prepa-
ration. Often the pastors had first to give to invalids, cripples,
shoemakers, tailors, watchmen, and herdsmen the rudimentary
knowledge they in turn imparted to the children. In the towns
of fair size the conditions were not much better than in the vil-
lages. The elementary school of the middle-sized towns generally
had but one class, common for boys and girls, and the magis-
trates did little to improve the condition of the schools or the
teachers. In the larger cities, and even in Berlin, the number of
elementary schools was insufficient, the schools were crowded,
and many children had no opportunity to attend schools.^ In
Leipzig there was no public school until 1792, in which year the
city free school was established. Even Sunday schools, supported
by subscription, had been resorted to by Berlin, after 1798, to
provide journeymen and apprentices with some of the rudiments

^ Bassewitz, M. Fr. von, Die Kurmark Brandenburg, p. 342. (Leipzig, 1847.)

5^4

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 170. A German late Eighteenth- Century School
(After a picture in the German School Museum in BerUn)

of an education. The creation of a state school system out of the
insufficient and inefficient reHgious schools proved a task of large
dimensions, in Prussia as in other lands. Even as late as 18 19
Dinter found discouraging conditions (R. 279) among the teachers
of East Prussia.

Further late eighteenth-century progress. Frederick the
Great died in 1786. In the reign of his successors his work bore
fruit in a complete transfer of all schools from church to state con-
trol, and in the organization of the strongest system of state
schools the world had ever known. The year following the death
of Frederick the Great (1787), and largely as an outgrowth of the
preceding centralizing work with reference to elementary educa-
tion, the Superior School (Oberschulcollegium) Board was estab-
lished to exercise a similar centralized control over the older sec-
ondary and higher schools of Prussia. Secondary and higher edu-
cation were now severed from church control, in principle at least,
as elementary education had been by the ''Regulations" of 1763
and 1765. The year following (1788) "Leaving Examinations"

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 565

{Maturitatsprujung) were instituted to determine the completion
of the gymnasial course. These, for a time, were largely ineffec-
tive, due to clerical opposition, but the centralizing work of this
Superior School Board for the supervision of higher education,
and the state examinations for testing the instruction of the sec-
ondary schools, were from the first important contributing influ-
ences.

In 1794 came the culmination of all the preceding work in the
publication of the General Civil Code {Allgemeine Landrecht) for
the State, in which, in the section relating to schools, the following
important declaration was made :

Schools and universities are state institutions, charged with the
instruction of youth in useful information and scientific knowledge.
Such institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and con-
sent of the State. All public schools and educational institutions are
under the supervision of the State, and are at all times subject to its
examination and inspection.

The secular authority and the clergy were still to share jointly in
the control of the schools, but both according to rules laid down
by the State. In all cases of conflict or dispute, the secular
authority was to decide. This important document forms the
Magna Charta for secular education in Prussia.

During the decade which followed the promulgation of this
declaration of state control but little additional progress of im-
portance was accomplished, though the Minister of Justice, to
whom (1798) the administration of Lutheran church and school
affairs had been given, maintained a correspondence for some
years with the King regarding "provisions for a better education
and instruction of the children of citizens and peasants," and
stated to the King that "the object of reform is national educa-
tion, and its field of operation, therefore, all provinces of the
monarchy." The King, though, a weak, deeply religious, and
unimaginative man (Frederick William III, 1 797-1 840), who
lacked the energy and foresight of his predecessors, did little or
nothing. Under Frederick William III the State lacked vigor
and drifted; the Church regained something of its former power;
and the army and the civil service became corrupt. In 1806 a
blow fell which brought matters to an immediate crisis and forced
important action.

566 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

11. A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM AT LAST CREATED

The humiliation of Prussia. At the close of 1804 France, by
vote, changed from the Republic to an Empire, with Napoleon
Bonaparte as first Emperor of the French, and for some years he
took pains that Frenchmen should forget ''Liberty and Equal-
ity" amid the surfeit of "Glory" he heaped upon France. The
great nations outside France, fearful of Napoleon's ambition and
power, did not take his accession to the throne of France so com-
placently, and, in 1805, England, Sweden, Austria, and Russia
formed the "Third Coahtion" against Napoleon in an effort to
restore the balance of power in Europe. Of the great powers of
Europe only Prussia held aloof, refused to take sides, and in con-
sequence enjoyed a temporary prosperity and freedom from in-
vasion. For this, though, she was soon to pay a terrible price.
Having humiliated the Austrians and vanquished the Russians,
Napoleon now goaded the Prussians into attacking him, and then
utterly humihated them in turn. At the battle of Jena (October
14, 1806) the Prussian army was utterly routed, and forced back
ahnost to the Russiari frontier. Officered by old generals and
political favorites who were no longer efficient, and backed by a
state service honeycombed with inefficiency and corruption, the
Prussian army that had won such victories under Frederick the
Great was all but annihilated by the new and efficient fighting
machine created by the Corsican who now controlled the destinies
of France. By the Treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) Prussia lost all
her lands west of the Elbe and nearly all her stealings from Poland
— in all about one half her territory and population — and was
ahnost stricken from the Hst of important powers in Europe. In
all its history Prussia had experienced no such humiliation as this.
In a few months the constructive work of a century had been un-
done.

The regeneration of Prussia. The new national German feel-
ing, which had been slowly rising for half a century, now burst
forth and soon worked a regeneration of the State. In the school
of adversity the King and the people learned much, and the task
of national reorganization was entrusted to a series of able minis-
ters whom the King and his capable Queen, Louise, now called
into service. His chief minister. Stein, created a free people by
abolishing serfdom and feudal land tenure (1807); eliminated
feudal distinctions in business; granted local government to the

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 567

cities; and broke the hold of the clergy on the educational system.
His successor, Hardenburg, extended the rights of citizenship,
and laid the foundations of government by legislative assemblies.
Another minister, Scharnhorst, reorganized the Prussian army
(1807-13) by dismissing nearly all the old generals, and introduc-
ing the principle of compulsory mihtary service. In all branches
of the government service there were reorganizations, the one
thought of the leaders being to so reorganize and revitalize the
State as to enable it in time to overthrow the rule of Napoleon
and regain its national independence.

Though the abolition of serfdom, the reform of the civil service,
and the beginnings of local and representative government were
important gains, nothing was of secondary importance to the
complete reorganization of education which now took place. The
education of the people was turned to in earnest for the regenera-
tion of the national spirit, and education was, in a decade, made
the great constructive agent of the State. Said the King:

Though we have lost many square miles of land, though the country
has been robbed of its external power and splendor, yet we shall and
will gain in intrinsic power and splendor, and therefore it is my earnest
wish that the greatest attention be paid to public instruction. . . . The
State must regain in mental force what it has lost in physical force.

His minister Stein said:

We proceed from the fundamental principle, to elevate the moral,
religious, and patriotic spirit in the nation, to instil into it again cour-
age, self-reliance, and readiness to sacrifice everything for national
honor and for independence from the foreigner. . . . To attain this end,
we must mainly rely on the education and instruction of the young. If
by a method founded on the true nature of man, every faculty of the
mind can be developed, every noble principle of life be animated and
nourished, all one-sided education avoided, and those tendencies on
which the power and dignity of men rest, hitherto neglected with the
greatest indifference, carefully fostered — then we may hope to see
grow up a generation, physically and morally vigorous, and the begin-
nings of a better time.

Fichte appeals to the leaders. Still more did the philosopher
Fichte (i 762-1814), in a series of "Addresses to the German Na-
tion," delivered in Berlin during the winter ^ of 1807-08, appeal
to the leaders to turn to education to rescue the State from the
miseries which had overwhelmed it. Unable forcibly to resist,

^ These lectures were listened to by Napoleon's police and passed to print by his
censor, not being regarded as containing anything seditious or dangerous.

568 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and with every phase of the government determined by a foreign
conqueror, only education had been overlooked, he said, and to
this the leaders should turn for national redemption (R. 277) . He
held that it rested with them to determine

whether you will be the end and last of a race ... or the beginnings
and germ of a new time, glorious beyond all your imaginings, and those
from whom posterity will reckon the years of their welfare. ... A na-
tion that is capable, if it were only in its highest representation and
leaders, of fixing its eyes firmly on the vision from the spiritual world,
Independence, and being possessed with a love of it, will surely prevail
over a nation that is only used as a tool of foreign aggressiveness and
for the subjugation of independent nations.

With a fervor of emotion that was characteristic of a romantic
age, impelled by a conviction that the distinctive character of the
German people was indispensable to the world, and holding that
what was necessary also was possible, Fichte made the German
leaders feel, with him, that

to reshape reality by means of ideas is the business of man, his proper
earthly task ; and nothing can be impossible to a will confident of itself
and of its aim. ^

Fichte's Addresses stirred the thinkers among the German peo-
ple as they had not been stirred since the days of the Reforma-
tion,^ and a national reorganization of education, with national
ends in view, now took place. As Duke Ernest remade Gotha,
after the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, by means of education
(p. 317), so the leaders of Prussia now created a new national
spirit by taking over the school from the Church and forging it
into one of the greatest constructive instruments of the State.
The result showed itself in the "Uprising of Prussia," in the win-
ter of 181 2-13; the "War of Liberation," of 18 13-15; the utter
defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Leipzig by Russia, Prussia,
and Austria, in 18 13; and again at the battle of Waterloo by Eng-

^ "He set all his hopes for Germany on a new national system of education. One
German State was to lead the way in establishing it, making use of the same right
of coercion to which it resorted in compelling its subjects to serve in the army, and
for the exercise of which certainly no better justification could be found than the
common good aimed at in national education." (Paulsen, Fr., German Education,
Past and Present, p. 240.)

2 "Never have the souls of men been so deeply stirred by the idea of raising the
whole existence of mankind to a higher level. Something like the enthusiasm which
had taken hold of the minds at the outbreak of the French Revolution was again at
work, the only difference being that the strong current of national feeling directed
it toward an aim which, if more limited, was, for that very reason, more practicable
and more defined." (Paulsen, Fr., German Education, Past and Present, p. 183.)

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NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 569

land and Prussia/ in 181 5. Still more clearly was the result
shown in the humiliating defeat of France, in 1870, when it was
commonly remarked that the schoolmaster of Prussia had at last
triumphed. The regeneration of Prussia in the early part of the
nineteenth century, as well as its more recent humiliation, stand
as eloquent testimonials to the tremendous influence of education
on national destiny, when rightly and when wrongly directed.

The reorganization of elementary education. The first step in
the process of educational reorganization was the abolition (1807)
of the Oherschulcollegium Board, established (p. 564) in 1787 to
supervise secondary and higher education, in order to get rid of
clerical influence and control. The next step was the creation in-
stead (1808) of a Department of Public Instruction, organized as
a branch of the Interior Department of the State.

One of the first steps of the acting head of the new department
was to send seventeen Prussian teachers (1808) to Switzerland to
spend three years, at the expense of the Government, in studying
Pestalozzi's ideas and methods, and they were particularly en-
joined that they were not sent primarily to get the mechanical
side of the method, but to

warm yourselves at the sacred fire which burns in the heart of this
man, so full of strength and love, whose work has remained so far
below what he originally desired, below the essential ideas of his life,
of which the method is only a feeble product.

You will have reached perfection when you have clearly seen that
education is an art, and the most sublime and holy of all, and in what
connection it is with the great art of the education of nations.

In 1809 Carl August Zeller (i 774-1847), a pupil of Pestalozzi,
who had established two Pestalozzian training-colleges in Switzer-
land and had just begun to hold Pestalozzian institutes in Wiir-
temberg (p. 545), was called to Prussia to organize a Teachers'
Seminary (normal school) to train teachers in the Pestalozzian
methods. The seventeen Prussian teachers, on their return from
study with Pestalozzi, were also made directors of training insti-
tutions, or provincial superintendents of instruction. In this
way Pestalozzian ideas were soon in use in the elementary school
rooms of Prussia, and so effective was this work, and so readily
did the Prussian teachers catch the spirit of Pestalozzi's endeav-

^ As a result of the overthrow of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna restored to
Prussia and France substantially the boundaries they had at the opening of the
Napoleonic Wars. Still more important for the future was the consolidation of
some four hundred States and petty German kingdoms into thirty-eight States.

570

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 171. DiNTER (i 760-1831)

Director of Teachers' Seminaries in
Saxony; Superintendent of Educa-
tion in East Prussia.

ors, that at the Berhn celebration of the centennial of his birth,
in 1846, the German educator Diesterweg ^ said:

By these men and these means, men trained in the Institution al
Yverdon under Pestalozzi, the study of his publications, and the appli-
cations of his methods in the model and normal schools of Prussia,

after 1808, was the present Prussian, or
rather Prussian-Pestalozzian school sys-
tem established, for he is entitled to at
least one half the fame of the German
popular schools.

Similarly Gustavus Friedrich Din-
ter, who early distinguished himself
as principal of a Teachers' Seminary
in Saxony, was called to Prussia and
made School Counselor (Superin-
tendent) for the province of East
Prussia. Wherever Prussia could
find men, in other States, who knew
Pestalozzian methods and possessed
the new conception of education,
they were called to Prussia and put

to work, and the statement of Dinter was characteristic of the

spirit which animated their work. He said: ^

I promised God, that I would look upon every Prussian peasant
child as a being who could complain of me before God, if I did not pro-
vide him with the best education, as a man and a Christian, which it
was possible for me to provide.

Work of the Teachers^ Seminaries. Napoleon had imposed
heavy financial indemnities on Prussia, as well as loss of territory,
and the material means with which to establish schools were
scanty indeed. With a keen conception of the practical difficul-
ties, the leaders saw that the key to the problem lay in the crea-
tion of a new type of teaching force, and to this end they began
from the first to establish Teachers' Seminaries. Those who de-
sired to enter these institutions were carefully selected, and out
of them a steady stream of what Horace Mann described (R. 278)
as a "beneficent order of men" were sent to the schools, *'mould-

^ Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm Diesterweg became a pupil in one of the earliest
normal schools in Prussia, that at Frankfort; then a teacher; and in 1820 became a
director of a Teachers' Seminary at Moers. From 1833 to 1849 he was head of the
normal school at Berlin. He has often been called "der deutsche Pestalozzi."

^ Made in a letter to Baron von Altenstein, Prussian Minister for Education.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 571

ing the character of the people, and carrying them forward in
a career of civiUzation more rapidly than any other people in
the world are now advancing." Mann described, with marked
approval, both the teacher and the
training he received.

So successful were these institutions
that within a decade, under the glow
of the new national spirit animating
the people, the elementary schools were
largely transformed in spirit and pur-
pose, and the position of the element-
ary-school teacher was elevated from
the rank of a trade (R. 279) to that of
a profession (R. 278). By 1840, when
the earlier fervor had died out and a
reaction had clearly set in, there were
in Prussia alone thirty-eight Teachers'
Seminaries for elementary teachers, ap-
proximately thirty thousand element-
ary schools, and every sixth person in
Prussia was in school. In the other
German States, and in Holland, Swe-
den, and France, analogous but less

extensive progress in providing normal schools and elementary
schools had been made; but in Austria, which did not for long
follow the Prussian example, the schools remained largely sta-
tionary for more than half a century to come.

Nationalizing the elementary instruction. That the system of
elementary vernacular or people's schools (the term Volksschule
now began to be applied) now created should be permeated by a
strong nationalistic tone was, the times and circumstances con-
sidered, only natural. Though the Pestalozzian theories as to
the development of the mental faculties, training through the
senses, and the power of education to regenerate society were
accepted, along with the new Pestalozzian subject-matter and
methods in instruction (p. 543,) all that could be rendered useful
to the Prussian State in its extremity naturally was given special
emphasis. Thus all that related to the home country — geogra-
phy, history, and the German speech — was taught as much
from the patriotic as from the pedagogical point of view. Music
was given special emphasis as preparatory for participation in the

Fig. 172. DiESTERWEG

(i 790-1866)

Director of Teachers' Semina-
ries at Maurs (1820-33) and Ber-
lin (1833-49). "Der deutsche
Pestalozzi"

572 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

patriotic singing-societies and festivals, which were organized
at the time of the ''Uprising of Prussia" (1813). Drawing and
arithmetic were emphasized for their practical values. Physical
exercises were given an emphasis before unknown, because of
their hygienic and military values. Finally religion was given an
importance beyond that of Pestalozzi's school, but with the em-
phasis now placed on moral earnestness, humiHty, self-sacrifice,
and obedience to authority, rather than the earher stress on the
Catechism and church doctrine.

Clearly perceiving, decades ahead of other nations, the power
of such training to nationalize a people and thus strengthen the
State, the Prussian leaders, in the first two decades of the nine-
teenth century, laid the foundations of that training of the
masses, and of teachers for the masses (R. 280), which, more than
any other single item, paved the way for the development of a na-
tional German spirit, the unification of German lands into an Im-
perial German Empire, and that bHnd trust in and obedience to
authority which has recently led to a second national humiliation.

The reorganization of secondary education. Alongside this
elementary-school system for the masses of the people, the older
secondary and higher school system for a directing class (p. 553)
also was largely reorganized and redirected. The first step in this
direction was the appointment, in 1809, of Wilhelm von Hum-
boldt (i 767-1835), "ei philosopher, scholar, philologist, and
statesman" of the first rank, to the headship of the new Prussian
Department of Public Instruction. During the two and a half
years he remained in charge important work in the reorganization
of secondary and higher education was accomplished. In 18 17
the Department of Public Instruction was changed from a bureau
to an independent Ministry for Spiritual and Instructional Af-
fairs. By 1825, when governing school boards were ordered es-
tablished in each province, and made responsible to the Ministr}'
for Education at Berlin, the organization of the state school sys-
tem was virtually complete. For the next half-century the
changes made were in the nature of the perfection of bureaucratic
organization, rather than any fundamental organizing change.
During the early years improvements of great future importance
for secondary education were effected in the creation of a well-
educated, professional teaching body, and in the standardization
of courses and of work.

In 1 810 the examination of all secondary- school teachers, ac-

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 573

cording to a uniform state plan, was ordered. The examinations
were to be conducted for the State by the university authorities;
to be based on university training in the gymnasia! subjects, with
an opportunity to reveal special preparation in any subject or sub-
jects; and no one in the future could even be nominated for a posi-
tion as a gymnasial teacher who had not passed this examination.
This meant the erection of the work of teaching in the secondary
schools into a distinct profession; the elimination from the schools
of the theological student who taught for a time as a stepping-
stone to a church living; and the end of easy local examination
and approval by town authorities or the patrons of a school. To
insure still better preparation of candidates. Pedagogical Seminars
were begun in the universities ^ for imparting to future gymnasial
teachers some pedagogical knowledge and insight, while Philo-
logical Seminars also appeared, about the same time,- to give ad-
ditional training in understanding the spirit of instruction in the
chief subjects of the gymnasial course — the classics. In 1826 a
year of trial teaching before appointment (Probejahr) was added
for all candidates, and in 1831 new and more stringent regulations
for the examination of teachers were ordered.^ At least two gen-
erations ahead of other nations, Prussia thus developed a body of
professional teachers for its secondary schools.

Unification of the secondary schools. In 181 2 the Leaving
Examinations {Maturitdtsprilfung), instituted in 1788, but in-
effective through clerical opposition, were revived and strictly
enforced. In 1834 the passing of such an examination was made
necessary to entering nearly all branches of the state civil service,
thus securing an educated body of minor public officials. This
same year the universities gave up their entrance examinations,
and have since depended entirely on the Leaving Examinations of
the State.

^ "Herbart's seminar at the university of Konigsberg was officially recognized,
in 1810; Gedike's seminar in Berlin was formally taken over by the university, in
1812; the seminar in Stettin, founded in 1804, was reorganized in 1816; Breslau
began pedagogical work, in 1813; and in 1817 it was stated that the purpose of the
reorganized seminar in Halle was ' the training of skilled teachers for the Gymnasien.' "
(Russell, James E., German Higher Schools, p. 97.)

2 Gesner at Gottingen and Wolff at Halle laid down the lines for these in the late
eighteenth century. The early nineteenth-century foundations were at Konigsberg,
1810; Berlin, 1812; Breslau, 1812; Bonn, 1819; Griefswald, 1820; and Miinster, 1825.

* AH prospective gymnasial teachers, whether graduates of the universities or
not, were now required to take examinations in philosophy, pedagogy, theology,
and the main gymnasial subjects, showing marked proficiency in one of the following
groups, and a reasonable knowledge of the other two: namely, (i) Greek, Latin,
German: (2) Mathematics and the Natural Sciences; (3) History and Geography.

574 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The immediate effect of the reinstitution of the Leaving Ex-
aminations was to unify the work of all the different surviving
types of classical secondary schools — Gymnasium, Lyceum,
Pddagogium, Collegium, Lateinische Schule, Akademie — all
standard nine-year schools henceforth taking the name of Gym-
nasien. Those institutions which could not meet the standards
of a nine-year classical school were either permitted to do the first
six years of the work, being known as Pro-Gymnasien, or the mod-
ern languages were substituted for the ancient, and they became
middle-class institutions under the name of Burger schulen. A
few Realschulen also were in existence, and these were permitted
to continue, as middle-class institutions, but without any state
recognition. Thus, without the destruction of institutions, the
accumulated foundations of the centuries were transformed into
a series of organized state schools to serve the needs of the State.

The next step was the promulgation of a uniform course of in-
struction for all Gymnasien and Pro-Gymnasien. This was done
in 1816. The studies were Latin, Greek, German, mathematics,
history, geography, religion, and science, the amount of time to
be devoted to each ranging, in the order listed, from a maximum
for Latin to a minimum for science. Up to 1824 Greek was not
absolutely required; from 1824 to 1837 it was required, unless the
substitution of a modern language was permitted; but after 1837,
when the type of German secondary school had become fairly
well fixed, and the devotion to humanistic studies had reached a
climax, Greek became a fixed and unvarying requirement.^

Founding of the University of Berlin. One result of the Treaty
of Tilsit (p. 566) was that Prussia had lost all her universities,
except three along the Baltic coast. Both Halle and Gottingen
were lost, and the loss of Halle was a severe blow. Li 1807
Fichte, who had been a professor at Jena, drew up a plan and sub-
mitted it to the King for the organization of a new university at
Berlin. When Humboldt came to the head of the Department of
Public Instruction the idea at once won his enthusiastic approval.
In May, 1809, he reported favorably on the project to the King,
and three months later a Cabinet Order was issued creating the
new university, giving it an annual money grant, and assigning a
royal palace to it for a home. The spirit with which the new in-
stitution was founded may be inferred from the following extract

' See Russell, Jas. E., German Higher Schools, p. loi, for ihc detailed "Gymna-
sial Program" promulgated in 1837.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 575

from a memorial, published by Humboldt, in 18 10. In this he
said :

The State should not treat the universities as if they were higher
classical schools or schools of special sciences. On the whole the State
should not look to them at all for anything that directly concerns its
own interests, but should rather cherish a conviction that, in fulfilling
their real destination, they will not only serve its own purposes, but
serve them on an infinitely higher plane, commanding a much wider
field of operation, and affording room to set in motion much more
efficient springs and forces than are at the disposal of the State itself.

This university was indeed a new creation, and of far more sig-
nificance for the future of university work than even the founding
of Halle had been. To the selection of its first faculty Humboldt
devoted almost all his energies during the period he remained in
office. From the first, high attainment in some branch of knowl-
edge, and the ability to advance that knowledge, was placed ahead
of mere teaching skill. The most eminent scholars in all lines
were invited to the new '' chairs," and when it opened (18 10) its
first faculty represented the highest attainment of scholarship in
German lands. From the first the instruction divested itself of
almost all that characterized the school. The lecture replaced the
classroom recitation, and the seminar, in which small groups of
advanced students investigate a problem under the direction of a
professor, was given a place of large importance in the institution.
Original research and contributions to knowledge marked the
work of both students and professors, the object being, not to
train teachers for the schools, but to produce scholars capable of
advancing knowledge by personal research. Even more than at
Halle, the institution was a place where professors and students
worked to discover truth, uninfluenced by any preconceived no-
tions and unmindful of what older ideas might be upset in the
process. The value of such pioneer work for university scholars
everywhere is not likely to be overestimated.

Specialization in university instruction emphasized. Speciali-
zation in some field of knowledge soon came to be the ruling idea,
and this proved exceedingly fruitful in the years which followed.
There Bopp developed the study of comparative grammar on the
basis of the Sanskrit. There Dietz founded Romance philology.
Ritschl turned his students to the study of Latin inscriptions to
reconstruct the past. Lepsius began the study of Egyptology
with a spade. Niebuhr's Roman History (181 1) was the institu-
tion's first fruit, and his successor, Ranke, showed his students

576 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

how to study history from the sources. Hegel, Schopenhauer,
and Lotze made over philosophy. Fechner and Wundt began
there the study of experimental psychology. Stahl and von
Savigny created new standards in the study of law. Miiller in-
troduced the microscope into the study of pathological anatomy.
Schultze systematized zoology. Liebig, who had opened at
Giessen (1824) what was probably the first chemical laboratory in
the world open to students, was drawn to Berlin and created there
a new chemistry. Still later, Helmholtz created there a new
physics.

The effect of all this on the expansion of the work of the philo-
sophical faculty was marked. The new philological and historical
sciences, the biological sciences, and the mathematical sciences,
were all greatly expanded in scope, and the new philosophical
faculty, evolved out of the old arts faculty (p. 554), now attained
to the place of first importance in the university — a position it
has ever since retained. Law and medicine were also given a new
direction and emphasis, and even the teaching of theology was
greatly improved under the specialization in instruction and the
freedom in teaching which now became the rule.

The effect on the other ' German universities was marked-
Some of the older institutions (Erfurt, Wittenberg, Cologne,,
Mainz) died out, while new foundations (Breslau, 181 1; Bonn,,
1818; Munich, 1826) after the new model, took their place. Those
that continued were changed in character,^ and a new unity
was established throughout the German university world. By
1850 exact scientific research, in both libraries and laboratories,,
a,nd a sober search for truth, had become the watchword of all the
German universities. In consequence they naturally assumed a.
world leadership, and were frequented by students from many
lands. Especially has the United States been influenced in its',
university development by the large number of university teach-
ers who received their specialized training in the German univer-
sities ^ during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The lec-

1 In 1840 there were six Prussian universities; by 1900 the number had increased
to eleven, and three technical universities in addition. In the other German States
eleven additional universities and six technical universities were in existence, in
1900.

2 Benjamin Franklin visited Gottingen, as early as 1766, but the first American
student to take a degree at a German university was Benjamin S. Barton, of Phila-
delphia, who took his doctor's degree at Gottingen, in 1799. By 1825 ten American
students had studied one or more semesters at Gottingen. That year the first
American student registered at Berlin, and in 1827 the first at Leipzig. (See Hins-
dale, B. A., in Report, U.S. Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, vol. i, pp. 603-16.)-

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 577

ture, the seminar, laboratory investigation, research, the doctor-
ate, and academic freedom in study and teaching are distinctive
contributions to our university development drawn from German
lands, and superimposed on our earlier English-type college.
The founding of Johns Hopkins University, at Baltimore, in
1876, on the German model, marked the erection of the first dis-
tinctively research university in America.

A two-class state school system created. We thus see that
Prussia by 181 5, clearly by 1825, had taken over education from
the Church and made of it an instru-
ment of the State to serve State ends.
For the masses there was the Volks-
schule, superseding the old religious
vernacular school and clearly designed
to create an intelligent but obedient
and patriotic citizenship for the Father-
land, and in this school the great ma-
jority of the children of the State re-
ceived their education for citizenship
and for life. This was for both sexes,
and was entirely a German school. At-
tendance upon this school was made
compulsory, and beyond this some con-
tinuation education early began to be
provided (Rs. 274, §6; 275 d; 276,
§ 15). Within the past half-century
continuation education, especially along
vocational lines, as we shall point
out in a subsequent chapter, has re-
ceived in German lands a very re-
markable development. To insure that
this school should serve the State in
the way desired. Teachers' Seminaries,
for the training of Volksschule teachers, were from the first
made a feature of the new state system.

For those who were to form the official and directing class of
society — a closely limited, almost entirely male, intellectual
aristocracy — education in separate classical schools, with uni-
versity or professional training superimposed, was provided, and
this type of training offered a very thorough preparation for a
small and a carefully selected class. Out of this class the leaders

Educates
about 92 "J

Educates
about 8 *

Fig. 173. The Prussian

State School System

Created

Compare with Fig. 208 and
note the difference between a
European two-class school sys-
tem and the American demo-
cratic educational ladder.

578 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of Germany for a century have been drawn. ^ For this classical
school also the universities were early directed to prepare a well-
educated body of teachers. The Prussian plan was followed in
all its essentials in the other German States, so that the drawing
given (Fig. 173) was true for Germany as a whole, as well as for
Prussia, up at least to 19 14.

New nineteenth-century tendencies manifested. In this early
evolution of the Prussian state school systems we find two promi-
nent nineteenth-century ideas expressing themselves. The first
is the new conception of the State as not merely a government
organized to secure national safety and protection from invasion,
but rather an organization of the people to promote public wel-
fare and realize a moral and political ideal. To this end state
control of the whole range of education, to enable the State to
promote intellectual and moral and social progress along lines use-
ful to the State, became a necessity, and some form of this educa-
tion, in the interests of the public welfare, must now be extended
to all. Though France and the new American nation gave earlier
political expression to this new conception of the State, it was in
Prussia that the idea attained its earliest concrete and for long its
most complete realization. Seeing further and more clearly than
other nations the possibilities of education, the practical workers
of Prussia, and after them the other German States, took over
education as a function of the State for the propagation of the na-
tional ideas and the promotion of the national culture. Of this
development Paulsen says:

In the nineteenth century Germany took the lead in the educational
movement among the nations of Europe. The German universities
have become acknowledged centers of scientific research for the whole
world. ... In the domain of primary and technical education Ger-
many has also become the universal teacher of Europe.

But it must not be forgotten, in this connection, that the German
people had been the pupils of their neighbors during a greater length
of time and with greater assiduity than any other European nation.
Thus, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Germany imported the
culture of Humanism from Italy. During the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries she introduced the modern courtly culture and lan-
guage of the French people, besides giving admission, since the middle

^ The remark attributed to Bismarck is interesting in this connection. "Of
the students who attend the German universities," he said, "one-third die prema-
turely as the result of disease arising from too great poverty and under-nourishment
while students; another one-third die prematurely or amount to little due to bad
habits and drinking and disease contracted while students; the remaining third rule
Europe."

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 579

of the eighteenth century, to the philosophy, science, and hterature of
P2nghsh middle-class society. Lastly, since the end of the eighteenth
century, the Germans have yielded themselves to the influence of the
Hellenic spirit with greater fervor than any other nation.

The second nineteenth-century idea which early found expres-
sion in the Prussian State, and one which became a dominant fac-
tor during the latter half of the century, was the idea of utilizing
the schools, as state institutions, to promote national ends — to
unify and nationalize peoples. National self-consciousness here
first found concrete expression, and with wonderful practical re-
sults. From a geographical expression, consisting of nearly four
hundred petty self-governing cities, principalities, and states, and
some fourteen hundred independent noblemen and prelates, be-
fore the Napoleonic wars, their close found the German people free
from serfdom, united in spirit, and organized politically into thirty-
eight modern-type States. In 1870, largely as a result of the na-
tionalizing efforts of government and education, working hand in
hand, an Imperial Empire of twenty-two States and three Free
Cities was formed. The struggle for national realization, begun
by Prussia after 1807, and with education as the important con-
structive tool of the State, has since been copied by nation after
nation and has become the dominant force of modern history.
To awaken a national self-consciousness, to acquire national
unity, and to infuse into all a common culture has supplanted
the humanistic cosmopolitanism of the eighteenth century and
become the dominant characteristic of nineteenth-century polit-
ical history. In this Prussia led the way.

The period of reaction. Through the period preceding the
Wars of Liberation (18 13-15), and afterward for a few years, an
educational zeal animated the Government. The schools dur-
ing this period were free on the one hand from politics and on
the other from minute official regulation. As one writer well
stated: ^

It was difficult to decide whether the schools derived their impor-
tance from the life which surged around them, or whether their impor-
tance was due to their intrinsic power, very carefully fostered by the
state authorities. . . . There was spirit and life in Prussia; there was
much activity and liberty in contriving, with little outward parade.
Any foreigner, visiting Prussia, might observe that the vitalizing
breath of government, like the spirit of God, was acting upon the
whole people.

^ Barnard, Henry, American Journal of Education, vol. xx, p. 365.

58o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Napoleon was finally vanquished at Waterloo (1815) and sent
to Saint Helena, and the Congress of Vienna (181 5) remade the
map of Europe. In doing so it forgot that the people wanted
constitutional government, instead of a return to absolute rulers.
It restored old thrones, rights, and territories, and inaugurated a
policy of political reaction which increased in intensity with time
and dominated the governments of continental Europe until after
the middle of the century. Under the lead of the Austrian minis-
ter, Metternich, and by "third-degree" methods, the so-called
Holy AlHance ^ of continental Europe suppressed free speech,
democratic movements, political liberties, university freedom,
and liberalism in government and religion. The governments in
this Alliance redirected and restricted the people's schools, as
much as could be done, to make them conform in purpose to their
reactionary ideas. In consequence, the development of popular
education in Germany, as well as in France and other continental
lands, was for a time checked. The great start obtained by
Prussia and the German States before 1820, though, was such
that what had been done there could not be wholly undone. In
France, Spain, the Itahan Kingdoms, the Austrian States, and
Russia, on the other hand, what had not been developed to an}-
extent could be prevented from developing, and in these lands
popular education was given back to the Church to control and
direct. In England, also, though for other reasons there, the
Church retained its control over elementary education for half a
century longer.

Change in the spirit of the schools. The King of Prussia,
Frederick WiUiam III (i 797-1840), though he had given full ad-
herence to the movement for general education during the dark
period of Prussian history, was after all never fully in sympathy
with the liberal aspect of the movement. After Austria, by the
settlement at Vienna, became the leader of the German States,
and Metternich the dominating political personality of Europe,
the King came more and more to favor a restriction of liberties
and the holding of education to certain rather limited lines, fearful
that too much education of the people might prove harmful to the
Government. Accordingly, under the influence of the King and

^ This was proposed by Czar Alexander I of Russia in 181 5, and became a per-
sonal alliance of the Czar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of
Prussia, " to promote religion, peace, and order." Other princes were asked to join
this continental League to enforce peace and, under the rule of Prince Metternich,
chief minister of Austria, it dominated Europe until after the political revolutions
of 1848.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 581

against the desires of the Uberal leaders, Prussia now changed di-
rection and embarked on a poHcy of reaction which checked nor-
mal educational progress; led to the unsuccessful revolution of
1848 and the subsequent almost fanatical governmental opposi-
tion to reforms ; and was in large part responsible for the disaster
of 1 91 8. It is an interesting speculation as to how different the
future German and world history might have been had Prussia
and the German States held to the liberal ideas of the earlier pe-
riod, and drawn their poHtical conceptions from England and the
new American nation, rather than from Austria and Russia.

Accordingly, in November, 181 7, the Department of Public
Instruction was replaced by a Ministry for Spiritual, Educa-
tional, and Medical Affairs, and Karl, Baron von Altenstein, was
made Minister. He continued in ofhce until his death, ^ in 1840,
and his administration was marked by an increasing state cen-
tralization and limitation of the earlier plans. In 1819 he codi-
fied all previous practices into a general school law for the king-
dom. While the King never really approved and issued it, it
nevertheless became a basis for future work and is the law so en-
thusiastically described by Cousin, in 1830 (R. 280). Under his
administration the earlier creative enthusiasm and the energy for
the execution of great ideas disappeared, and the earlier ^'stimu-
lating and encouraging attitude 6n the part of the authorities was
now replaced by the timid policy of the drag and the brake."
The earlier preparatory work in the development of Teachers'
Seminaries and the establishment of elementary schools was al-
lowed to continue; Pestalozzian ideas were for a time not seri-
ously restricted; compulsory attendance was more definitely or-
dered enforced, in 1825; the abolition of tuition fees for Volks-
schule education was begun in 1833, but not completed until
1888; and a more careful supervision of schools was instituted, in
1834. The great change was rather in the spirit and direction of
the instruction. The early tendency to emphasize nationalism
and religious instruction (p. 571) was now stressed, and the lib-
eral aspects of Pestalozzianism were increasingly subordinated to
the more formal instruction and to nationalistic ends. The sol-
dier and the priest joined hands in diverting the schools to the

^ As a young man Altenstein had been in charge of a subordinate division of the
Department of Public Instruction under Humboldt, and was a man of somewhat
liberal ideas. Now he v/as compelled to fall in with the ideas of the political leaders
and the wishes of the king, though he still did something to hold back the reactionary
forces and preserve much of what had been gained.

582 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

creation of intelligent, devout, patriotic, and, above all else, obedi-
ent Germans, while the universal mihtary idea, brought in by the
successful work of Scharnhorst (p. 567), and retained after the
War of Liberation as a survival of the old dynastic and predatory
conception of the State, was more and more emphasized in the
work of the schools and the life of the citizen. When Horace
Mann reported on his visit to the schools of the German States, in
1843, he called attention to this element of weakness (R. 281), as
well as to their many elements of strength.

Further intolerance and reaction. The reactionary tendencies
which set in after the settlement of Vienna had, by 1840, produced
stagnation in the life of the Governments of Europe, and the revo-
lutions of 1848, which broke out in France, Italy, Switzerland,
and the different German and Austrian States, were revolts
against the reactionary governmental rule and an expression of
disappointment at the failure to secure constitutional govern-
ment. The revolutions were both successful and unsuccessful —
successful in that the greater liberty they sought came later on,
but unsuccessful at the time. In consequence, immediately fol-
lowing 1848, an even more reactionary educational policy was
instituted. University freedom was markedly restricted; the in-
stitutions lost their earlier vigor; and the number of students suf-
fered a marked decline in consequence. The secondary schools
also felt the new influences. Latin and Greek were made com-
pulsory; uniform programs for work were insisted upon; and
Latin in particular was reduced to a grammatical drill that de-
stroyed the spirit of the earlier instruction and put gymnasial
teaching back almost to the type made so popular by Sturm.
The few Realschulen, which had continued to exist and were tol-
erated before, were now treated with positive dislike. In 1859
they were able to force their first official recognition, but only
when changed from practical schools for the middle classes to
secondary schools, on the same basis as the Gymnasien, and for
parallel ends.

It was upon the elementary schools {V olksschulen) and the
Teachers' Seminaries that the most severe offfcial displeasure
now fell. A number of Volksschule teachers had been connected
with the revolutions of 1848, and "over-education" was regarded
as responsible. The Teachers' Seminary at Preslau, which had
for long given a high grade of training, was closed, and the head of
the Seminary at Berlin, Diesterweg, was dismissed because of his

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 583

strong advocacy of Pestalozzian ideas. Anything savoring of
individualism was especially under the ban. Bitter reproaches
were heaped upon the elementary-school teachers, and the new
King, Frederick William IV (1840-61) considered their work as
the very root of the political evils of the State. To a conference
of Seminary teachers, held in 1849 i^ Berlin, he said: ^

You and you alone are to blame for all the misery which the last
year has brought upon Prussia! The irreligious pseudo-education of
the masses is to be blamed for it, which you have been spreading under
the name of true wisdom, and by which you have eradicated religious
belief and loyalty from the hearts of my subjects and alienated their
affections from my person. This sham education, strutting about like
a peacock, has always been odious to me. I hated it already from the
bottom of my soul before I came to the throne, and, since my accession,
I have done everything I could to suppress it. I mean to proceed on
this path, without taking heed of any one, and, indeed, no power on
earth shall divert me from it.

Thus easily did an autocratic Hohenzollern cast upon the shoul-
ders of others the burden of his own failure to grasp the evolution
in political thinking - which had taken place in Europe, since
1789. Unfortunately
for the future of the
German people he was
able to force his will
upon them.

In 1854 new "Reg-
ulations" were issued
which put the course
of instruction for ele-
mentary schools back
to the days of Freder-
ick the Great. The
one-class rural ele-
mentary school was ~

made the standard. Everything beyond reading, writing, a little
arithmetic, and religious instruction in strict accordance with the
creeds of the Church, was considered as superfluous, and was to
be allowed only by special permit. The elimination of illiteracy,

1 Paulsen, Fr., German Education, Past and Present, p. 246.

2 It was this same Frederick William IV who had for a time refused to grant con-
stitutional government to Prussia, saying: "No written sheet of paper shall ever
thrust Itself like a second providence between the Lord God in heaven and this
land." In 1850, however, he was forced to grant a limited form of constitutional
government to his people.

Progress of Elementary Education as shown
BY THE Decrease in Illiteracy in Prussia,
BY Provinces

(From Rep. U.S. Com. Educ, 1899-1900, i, p. 781)

Provinces

East Prussia . . . .
West Prussia . . . .
Brandenburg . . . .

Pomerania

Posen

Silesia

Saxony

Westphalia

Rhenish Prussia..
Hohenzollern . . . .

The State.

1841

Per cent.
1 15-33

47
23
00

9 30

1864-65

Per cent.
16.54

.96

1.47

16.90

3.78

•49
1.03
113

.00

5-52

Per cent.

■ 05

• 79

• 32
■43
•97
•33
.28
.60

• 23
.00

.38

1894-95

Per cent.
90
23
06
12
98
43
09
02
OS
00

584 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the creation of obedient citizens, and the nationalizing of new
elements became the aim of the schools.

The instruction in the Teachers' Seminaries was reduced to the
merest necessities, and 'they were given clearly to understand that
they were to train teachers, and not to prepare educated men.
All theory of education, all didactics, all psychology were elimi-
nated. A return was made to the subject-matter theory of educa-
tion, and a limited subject-matter at that, and it once more be-
came the business of the teacher to see that this was carefully
learned. Religious instruction naturally once more came to hold
a place of first importance. Similar reactionary movements
took place in other German States, all being sensitive to the re-
actionary spirit of the time and the leadership of Austria and
Prussia.

The modern German educational purpose. After about i860,
largely in response to modern scientific and industrial forces
among a people turning from agriculture toward industrialism, a
slight relaxation of the reactionary legislation began to be evident.
This expressed itself chiefly in a diminution of the time given to
memoriter work in religion, and the introduction in its place of
work in German history and geography, with some work in natu-
ral science. In the Teachers' Seminaries instruction in German
literature, formerly rigidly excluded, was now added. It was
not, however, until after the unification of Germany, following
the Franco-Prussian War, and the creation of Imperial Germany
under the directive guidance of Bismarck, that any real change
took place. Then the changes were due to new political, religious,
social, industrial, and economic forces which belong to the later
period of German history.

In 1872 a new law gave to the Prussian elementary schools a
new course of study; reasserted the authority of the State in edu-
cation; extended the control of the public authorities; and made
the State instead of the Church the authority even for their reli-
gious instruction. 1 The schools were now to be used as of old to
build up and strengthen the nation, but particularly to support
the new Prussian idea as to the work and function of the State.

^ "The motive which dictated the law of 1872 on school supervision (namely,
placing the State in complete control of the supervision of religious as well as other
instruction) was, as is well understood, to strengthen the hands of the government
in its struggle with the Catholic hierarchy, which was then prominently before the
public. The law affirmed again the sovereign right of the State over the whole school
system, including the elementary or people's schools." (Nohle, Dr. E., History of
the German School System, p. 79,)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 585

Realien were given a new prominence, because of new industrial
needs, and the instruction in religion was revamped. The old
memoriter work was greatly reduced, and in its place an emotional
and political emphasis was given to the religious instruction. To
make the school of the people an instrument for fighting the
growth of social democracy, and a support for the throne and
government, instruction in religion was ''placed in the center of
the teacher's work," and teachers were given to understand that
they were "members of an educational army and expected loy-
ally to follow the flag." The secondary schools also were redi-
rected. A new emphasis on scientific subjects and modern lan-
guages replaced the earlier emphasis on Greek. The Emperor
interfered (R. 368) to force a revision of the gymnasial programs
better to adapt them to modern needs. In particular were the
universities of all the States unified and nationalized, and great
technical universities created. Science, commerce, technical work,
modern languages, and government were stressed in the in-
struction of the leaders.

Deciding clearly where the nation was to go and the route it
was to follow, and that education for national ends was one of the
important means to be employed, the different parts of the edu-
cational systems in the States — elementary schools, secondary
schools, universities, normal schools, professional schools, techni-
cal schools, continuation schools — were carefully integrated into
a unified state system, thoroughly national in spirit, and given a
definite function to perform in the work which the Nation set
itself to carry through. Nowhere have teachers been so well
trained to play their part in a national plan, and nowhere have
teachers acquitted themselves more worthily, from the point of
view of the Government. As Alexander ^ has well said :

During the nineteenth century the leaders of Germany decided that
Germany should assume leadership in the world in every line of en-
deavor, particularly in commerce and world power. They set this as
the very definite goal of their national ambition. The next question
was how that aim could be accomplished. It was to be done through
education. Accordingly school systems were organized with this aim
in view. In a State such as the Germans proposed building there were
to be leaders and followers. The followers were to be trained for a
docile, efficient German citizenship; that is, the lower classes were to
be made into God-fearing, patriotic, economically-independent Ger-
mans. This was the task of the Volksschule, and it has been wonder-

^ Alexander, Thomas, The Prussian Elementary Schools, pp. 537-38.

586 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

fully well accomplished. This type of German is created to do the
manual labor of the State.

The leaders were to be trained in middle and higher schools and in
the universities. There were to be different grades of leaders; leaders
in the lower walks of life, leaders in the middle walks of life, and leaders
of the nation. The higher schools and the universities were employed
to produce these types of leaders. . . . The leaders think and do; the
followers merely do. The schools were organized for the express pur-
pose of producing just these types.

So well was this system and plan working that, had the Imperial
Government not been so impatient of that slower but surer prog-
ress by peaceful means, and staked all on a gambler's throw, in
another half-century the German nation might have held the
world largely in fee. As it is, the results which the Germans at-
tained by reason of definite aims and definite methods are both an
encouragement and a warning to other nations.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Point out the extent of the educational reorganization which resulted
from the reform work begun at Halle.

2. How do you explain the very early German interest in compulsory school
attendance, when such was unknown elsewhere in Europe?

3. Compare the Prussian Regulations of 1737 with what was common
at that time in practice in the parishes of the American Colonies.

4. Show the wisdom of the early Prussian kings in working at school reform
through the Church. Could they well have worked otherwise? Why?

5. How do you explain such a slow development of a professional teaching
body in Prussia, when all the state influences had for so long been favor-
able to educational development?

6. Show that the Oberschulcollegium Board marked the beginnings of a
State Ministry for Education for Prussia.

7. Show that the spirit of the Prussian leaders, after 1806, was a further
expansion of the German national feeling which arose in the Period of
Enlightenment.

8. Show that the reorganization of elementary education, and the creation
of the University of Berlin, were almost equally important events for the
future of German lands.

9. Show that the work of Prussia, in using the schools for national ends,
was: (a) in keeping with the work of the French Revolutionary leaders,
and (h) only a further extension of the organizing work done by
Frederick the Great.

10. Show how the universities of Germany early took the lead of the univer-
sities of the world, and the influence of this fact on national progress.

11. Enumerate the new nineteenth-century tendencies observable in the
early educational organization in Prussia.

12. Explain the marked mid-nineteenth-century reaction to educational
development which set in.

13. Explain the early and marked welcome accorded science-study in Ger-
man lands.

14. Explain in what ways Prussia attained an educational leadership, ahead
of other nations.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA 587

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections, illustrative
of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced:

273. Barnard: The Organizing Work of Frederick WiUiam I.

274. Prussia: The School Code of 1763.

275. Prussia: The Silesian School Code of 1765.

276. Austria: The School Code of 1774.

277. Fichte: Addresses to the German Nation.

278. Mann: The Prussian Elementary Teacher and his Training.

279. Dinter: Prussian Schools and Teachers as he found them.

280. Cousin: Report on Education in Prussia.

281. Mann: The Military Aspect of Prussian Education.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain the interest of Frederick William I (273) in elementary educa-
tion.

2. Characterize, from the Codes of 1763 (274) and 1765 (275), and cite
paragraph to show: {a) The type of instruction ordered provided; {h)
the type of teacher expected; (c) the character of the attendance re-
quired; and (d) the character of the continuation training ordered.

3. Show the similarity in their main lines of the Prussian (274) and Aus-
trian (276) Codes.

4. Would the reasoning of Fichte (277) apply to any crushed nation?
Illustrate.

5. Do we select teachers for training as carefully in the United States to-
day ^s they did in Prussia eighty years ago (278)? Could we?

6. Did such conditions as Dinter describes (279) exist, even later, with us?

7. Was the Prussian school system, as described by Cousin (280), a cen-
tralized or a decentralized system?

8. Show that Mann's reasoning as to the strength of the Prussian school
system (281) was thoroughly sound.

SELECTED REFERENCES

*Alexander, Thomas. The Prussian Elementary Schools.
*Barnard, Henry. "Public Instruction in Prussia"; in American Journal
of Education, vol. xx, pp. 333-434.
Barnard, Henry. German Teachers and Educators.
*Cassell, Henry. "Adolph Diesterweg"; in Educational Review, vol. i,
PP- 345-56. (April, 1891.)
Friedel, V. H. The German School as a War Nursery.
Lexis, W. A General View of the History and Organization of Public Edu-
cation in the German Empire.
*Nohle, E. "History of the German School System"; in Report U.S.
Commissioner of Education, 1897-98, vol. i, pp. 3-82. Translated from
Rein's Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Pddagogik.
*Paulsen, Fr. German Education, Past and Present.
*Paulsen, Fr. The German Universities.
*Russell, James. German Higher Schools.
Seeley, J. R. Life and Times of Stein, vol. i.

CHAPTER XXIII
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE AND ITALY

I. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE

Lines of development marked out by the Revolution. The

Revolution proved very disastrous to the old forms of education
in France. The old educational foundations, accumulated
through the ages, were swept away, and the teaching congrega-
tions, which had provided the people with whatever education
they had enjoyed, were driven from the soil. The ruin of educa-
tional and religious institutions in Russia under the recent rule
of the Bolshevists is perhaps comparable to what happened in
France. Many plans were proposed by the Revolutionary philos-
ophers and enthusiasts, as we have seen (chapter xx), to replace
what had once been and to provide better than had once been
done for the educational needs of the masses of the people, but
with results that were small in comparison with the expectations
of the legislative assemblies which considered or approved them.
Nevertheless, the directions of future progress in educational
organization were clearly marked out before Napoleon came to
power, and the work which he did was largely an extension, and a
reduction to working order, of what had been proposed or estab-
lished by the enthusiasts of the pre-revolutionary and revolution-
ary periods. At the time of the Revolution the State definitely
took over the control of education from the Church, and the work
of Napoleon and those who came after him was to organize public
instruction into a practical state-controlled system.

In effecting this organization, the preceding discussions of edu-
cation as a function of the State and the desirable forms of organi-
zation to follow all bore important fruit, and the forms finally
adopted embodied not only the ideas contained in the legislation
of the revolutionary assemblies, but the earlier theoretical discus-
sion of the subject by Rolland (p. 510), Diderot (p. 511), and
Talleyrand (p. 513) as well. They embodied also the peculiar
administrative genius of France — that desire for uniformity in
organization and administration — and hence stand in contrast to
the state educational organizations worked out about the same
time in German lands. The German States, as we have seen, had

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 589

for long been working toward state control of education, but
when this was finally attained they still permitted a large degree
of local initiative and control. The French, on the contrary,
made the transition in a few years, and the system of state control
which they established provided for uniformity, and for central-
ized supervision and inspection in the hands of the State. The

Fig. 174. An Old Foundatiox transformed

This was an ancient chateau in France. In 1604 Henry IV gave it to
the Jesuits for a school. In 1791 it became national property, and was
transformed into a Military College

forms for state control and education adopted in the two coun-
tries were also expressive of age-long tendencies in each. For
three centuries German political organization, as we have seen,
had been extremely decentralized on the one hand, and had been
slowly evolving a system of education under the Joint control of
the small States and the Church on the other. In France, on the
contrary, centralization of authority and subordination to a cen-
tral government had been the tendency for an even longer period.
When the time arrived for the State to take over education from
the Church, it was but natural that France should tend toward a
much more highly centralized control than did the German
States, and the differing political situations of the two countries,
at the opening of the nineteenth century, gave added emphasis to
these differing tendencies.

In consequence, Prussia and the other German States early
achieved a form of state educational organization which empha-

590

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

sized local interest and the spirit of the instruction, whereas
France created an administrative organization which emphasized
central control and, for the time, the form rather than the spirit of
instruction. This was well pointed out by Victor Cousin (R.
280), in contrasting conditions in Prussia with those existing in
France.

Napoleon begins the organization of education. In 1799 Na-
poleon became First Consul and master of France, and in 1804
France, by vote, changed from a Republic to an Empire, with
Napoleon. as first Emperor. Until his banishment to Saint He-
lena (181 5) he was master of France. A man of large executive
capacity and an organizing genius of great ability, whether he
turned to army organization, governmental organization, the
codification of the laws, or the organization of education. Napo-
leon's practical and constructive mind quickly reduced parts to
their proper places in a well-regulated scheme. Shortly after he
became Consul he took up, among other things, the matter of
educational organization.

His first effort was in 1800, when he transformed the old hu-
manistic College Louis le Grand (founded 1567) and created four
military colleges from its endowment. One of these colleges he
later, in characteristic fashion, transformed into a School of Arts

and Trades (R. 282). In 1802 he signed
the famous Concordat with the Pope.
This restored the priests to the churches,
with state aid for their stipends, and
virtually turned over primary education
again to the Church for care and control.
The ''Brothers of the Christian Schools"
(P- 515) were recalled the next year and
especially favored, and soon established
themselves more firmly than before the
Revolution.

In 1802 Napoleon first turned his atten-
tion to a general organization of public in-
struction by directing Count de Fourcroy,
a distinguished chemist who had been a
teacher in the Polytechnic School, and whom he appointed Di-
rector of Public Instruction, to draw up, according to his ideas,
an organizing law on the subject. This became the Law of 1802.
It was divided into nine chapters, as follows:

Fig. 175.

Count de Fourcroy

(1755-1809)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 591

I. Degrees of Instruction. VI. The Military School.

II. Primary Schools. VII. The National Pupils.

III. Secondary Schools. VIII. The nationales pensions

IV. Lycees. IX. General regulations.
V. Special Schools.

1. Primary schools. The chapter on primary schools virtually
reenacted the Law of 1795 (R. 258 b>. Each commune ^ was re-
quired to furnish a schoolhouse and a home for the teacher. The
teacher was to be responsible to local authorities, while the super-
vision of the school was placed under the prefect of the Depart-
ment. The instruction was to be limited to reading, writing, and
arithmetic, and the legal authorities were enjoined '' to watch that
the teachers did not carry their instructions beyond these limits."
The teacher was to be paid entirely from tuition fees, though one
fifth of the pupils were to be provided with free schooling. The
State gave nothing toward the support of the primary schools.

The interest of Napoleon was not in primary or general educa-
tion, but rather in training pupils for scientific and technical effi-
ciency, and youths of superior ability for the professions and for
executive work in the kind of government he had imposed upon
France. To this end secondary and special education were made
particular functions of the State, while primary education was
left to the communes to provide as they saw fit. They could pro-
vide schools and the parents could pay for the teacher, or not, as
they might decide. There was no compulsion to enforce the re-
quirement of a primary school, and no state aid to stimulate local
effort to create one. In consequence not many state primary
schools were estabhshed, and primary education remained, for an-
other generation, in the hands of private teachers and the Church.

2. Secondary schools. Chapters in and iv of the Law of 1802
made full provision for two types of secondary schools — the
Communal Colleges and the Lycees ^ — to replace the Central
Higher Schools estabhshed in 1795 (p. 518). These latter had
lacked sadly in internal organization. They were merely day
schools, lacking the dormitory and boarding arrangements which
for over three centuries had characterized the French colleges. As

^ The commune in France was the smallest unit for local government, and corre-
sponded to the district, town, or township with us, or with the Church parish under
the old regime. There were approximately 37,000 communes in France. The
Department was a much larger unit, France being divided, for administrative pur-
poses, into 82 Departments, these corresponding to a rather large county.

2 By this term what is known elsewhere as secondary school must be understood.
See footnote, page 272, for explanation of the term.

592 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

a result they had not prospered. The Law of 1802 now replaced
them with two types of residential secondary schools, in which the
youth of the country, under careful supervision and discipline,
might prepare for entrance to the higher special schools. These
fixed the lines of future French development in secondary schools.

The standard secondary school now became known as the
Lycee. These institutions corresponded to the Colleges under the
old regime, of which the College of Guyenne (R. 136) was a type.
The instruction was to include the ancient languages, rhetoric,
logic, ethics, belles-lettres, mathematics, and physical science,
with some provision for additional instruction in modern lan-
guages and drawing. Each was to have at least eight "profes-
sors," an administrative head, a supervisor of studies, and a
steward to manage the business affairs of the institution. The
State usually provided the building, often using some former
church school which had been suppressed, and the cities in which
the Lycees were located were required to provide them with
furniture and teaching equipment. The funds for maintenance
came from tuition fees, boarding and rooming income, and state
scholarships, of which six thousand four hundred were provided.

Besides the Lycees, every school established by a municipality,
or kept by an individual, which gave instruction in Latin, French,
geography, history, and mathematics was designated as a sec-
ondary school, or Communal College. These institutions usually
offered but a partial Lycee course, and were tuition schools, being
patronized by many parents whose tastes forbade the sending of
their children to the lower-class primary schools. A license from
the Government to operate was necessary before masters could be
employed. They were to be maintained by the municipality,
without any state encouragement beyond some grants for capable
teachers and scholarships in the Lycees for meritorious pupils.

Within two years after the enactment of the Law of 1802 there
had been created in France 46 Lycees, 378 secondary schools of
various degrees of completeness, and 361 private schools of sec-
ondary grade had been opened. A number of these disappeared
later, in the reorganization of 1808. For the supervision of all
these institutions the Director General of Public Instruction ap-
pointed three Superintendents of Secondary Studies; and for the
work of the schools he outlined the courses of instruction in detail,
laid down the rules of administration, prepared and selected the
textbooks, and appointed the ''professors."

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 593

Special or Higher Schools. The chapter of the Law of 1802
on Special Schools made provision for the creation of the follow-
ing special "faculties" or schools for higher education for France:

3 medical schools, to replace the Schools of Health of 1794 (p. 518).
10 law schools; increased to 12 in 1804 (Date of Code Napoleon,

p. 518).

4 schools of natural history, natural philosophy, and chemistry.
2 schools of mechanical and chemical arts.

I mathematical school.

I school of geography, history, and political economy.

A fourth school of art and design.

Professors of astronomy for the observatories.

In 1803 the School of Arts and Trades was added (R. 282), and in
1804, after Napoleon had signed the Concordat with the Pope,
thus restoring the Catholic religion (abolished 1791), schools of
theology were added to the above list.

We have here, clearly outlined, the main paths along which
French state educational organization had been tending and was
in future to follow. The State had definitely dispossessed the
Church as the controlling agency in education, and had definitely
taken over the school as an instrument for its own ends. Though
primary education had been temporarily left to the communes,
and was soon to be turned over in large part to be handled by the
Church for a generation longer, the supervision was to remain
with the State. The middle-class elements were well provided
for in the new secondary schools, and these were now subject to
complete supervision by the State. For higher education groups
of Special Schools, or Teaching Faculties, replaced the older uni-
versities, which were not re-created until after the coming of the
Third Republic (187 1). The dominant characteristics of the
state educational system thus created, aside from its emphasis on
secondary and higher education, were its uniformity and central-
ized control. These characteristics were further stressed in the
reorganization of 1808, and have remained prominent in French
educational organization ever since.

Creation of the University of France. By 1806 Napoleon was
ready for a further and more complete organization of the public
instruction of the State, and to this end the following law was
now enacted (May 10, 1806):

Sec. I. There will be formed, under the name of Imperial Univer-
sity, a body exclusively commissioned with teaching and public educa-
tion throughout the Empire.

594 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Sec. 2. The members of this corporation can contract civil, special,
and temporary obligations.

Sec. 3. The organization of this corps will be given in the form of a
law to the legislative body in the session of 18 10. '^

In 1808, without the formality of further legislation. Napoleon
issued an Imperial Decree creating the University of France.
This was not only Napoleon's most remarkable educational crea-
tion, but it was an administrative and governing organization for
education so in harmony with French spirit and French govern-
mental ideas that it has persisted ever since, though changed
somewhat in form with time.

The Decree began by declaring that ''public instruction, in the
whole Empire, is confined exclusively to the University," and
that "no school, nor establishment for instruction, can be formed
independent of the Imperial University, and without the author-
ity of its chief." Unlike the University of Berlin (p. 574), created
a year later, this was not a teaching university at all, but instead
a governing, examining, and disbursing corporation,^ presided
over by a Grand Master and a Council of twenty- six members, all
appointed by the Emperor. This Council decided all matters of
importance, and exercised supervision and control over education
of all kinds, from the lowest to the highest, throughout France.^
To assist the Council, general inspectors for medicine, law, the-
ology, letters, and science were provided for, to visit and "exam-
ine the condition of instruction and discipline in the faculties,
lycees, and colleges; to inform themselves in regard to the fidelity
and ability of professors, regents, and ushers; to examine the
students; and to make a complete survey of those institutions, in
their whole administration." Beneath the Grand Master and
Council the State was divided into, twenty-seven "Academies"
(administrative districts), each of which had a Rector, a Council
of ten, and Inspectors, all appointed by the Grand Master. These

1 The University had at its disposal approximately 2,500,000 francs a year. This
was derived from a state grant of 400,000 francs, the income from the property still
remaining from the old confiscated universities, and the remainder largely from
examination fees. In 1850 its property was taken over by the State, and the
University was changed into a state department.

2 This type of administrative organization is at first not easy for the American
student to understand. The University of the State of New York — virtually the
department of pubHc instruction for the State — is our closest American analogy.
On the banishment of Napoleon and the restoration of the monarchy, in 181 5, the
Grand Master and Council were replaced by a Commissioner of Public Instruction,
with Assistant Commissioners for the different divisions, and in 1820 this was further
changed into a Royal Council of Public Instruction.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 595

exercised jurisdiction over teachers and pupils in all schools, and
decided all local matters, subject to appeal to the Grand Master
and Council.

Under this new administrative organization but little change
was made in the schools from that provided for in the law of 1802.
Primary education remained as before, private schools and
Church schools supplying most of the need. All were under the
supervision of the University, and all were instructed to

make as a basis of their instruction: (i) the precepts of the Catholic
religion; (2) fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperial monarchy, the
depository of the happiness of the people, and to the Napoleonic
dynasty, the conservator of the unity of France, and of all the ideas
proclaimed by the Constitution.

The Lycees and Communal Colleges continued, much as be-
fore,^ and during the half-century which followed, experienced a
steady and substantial growth.

Development of the Lycees

Year i8og 1811 1813 182Q 1847 1866

Lycees 35 36 36 36 54 74

Pupils 9,068 10.926 14,492 15,087 23,207 34,442

Free pupils.. . 4,199 4,008 3,500 1,600

Development of the Communal Colleges

Year 1809 1815 1830 1849 1855 1866

Colleges. 273 323 332 306 244 251

Pupils 18,507 19-320 27,308 31,706 32,500 33-038

The Special Higher Schools were also continued, and to the Hst
given (p. 593) Napoleon added (1808) a Superior Normal School
(R. 283) to train graduates of the Lycees for teaching. This
opened in 18 10, with thirty-seven students and a two-year course
of instruction, and in 181 5 a third year of method and practice
work was added. With some varying fortunes, this institution
has continued to the present.

The new interest in primary education. The period from 181 5
to 1830 in France is known as the Restoration. Louis XVIII was
made King and ruled until his death in 1824, and his brother
Charles X who followed until deposed by the Revolution of 1830.
Though a representative of the old regime was recalled on the
abdication of Napoleon, the great social gains of the Revolution
were retained. There was no odious restoration of privilege and
absolute monarchy. Frenchmen continued to be equal before

^ In 1909 a decree restored Greek and Latin to their old place of first importance
in the Lycees, thus destroying the strong interest in scientific instruction, in so far
as the higher secondary schools were concerned, which had characterized the
Revolution.

596 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the law; a form of constitutional government was provided; the
right of petition was recognized; and the system of pubHc instruc-
tion as Napoleon had organized it continued almost unchanged.
For a decade at least there was less political reaction in France
than in other continental States.

In matters of education, what had been provided was retained,
and there seems (R. 285) to have been an increasing demand for
additions and improvements, particularly in the matter of pri-
mary and middle-class schools, and a willingness on the part of
the communes to provide such advantages. Some small progress
had been made in meeting these demands, before 1830.

In 18 1 6 a small treasury grant (50,000 francs) was made for
school books, model schools, and deserving teachers in the pri-
mary schools, and in 1829 this sum was increased to 300,000
francs. In 1818 the ^' Brothers of the Christian Schools "were
permitted to be certificated for teaching on merely presenting their
Letter of Obedience from the head of their Order, and in 1824
the cantonal school committees were remodeled so as to give the
bishops and clergy entire control of all Catholic primary schools.
Monitorial instruction was introduced from England by private
teachers, in an effort to supply the beginnings of education at
small expense, and for a time this had some vogue, but never
proved very successful. In 181 5 the Lycees were renamed Royal
Colleges, but in 1848 the old name was restored, and has since
been retained. In 181 7 there were thirty-six Lycees, receiving an
annual state subsidy of 812,000 francs; thirty years later the fifty-
four in existence were receiving 1,500,000 francs. From 1822 to
1829 the Higher Normal School was suppressed, and twelve ele-
mentary normal schools were created in its stead.

Early work under the Monarchy of 1830. In July, 1830,
Charles X attempted to suppress constitutional liberty, and the
people rose in revolt and deposed him, and gave the crown to a
new King, Louis-Philippe. He ruled until deposed by the crea-
tion of the Second Republic, in 1848. The ^'Monarchy of 1830"
was supported by the leading thinkers of the time, prominent
among whom were Thiers and Guizot, and one of the first affairs
of State to which they turned their attention was the extension
downward of the system of public instruction. The first steps
were an increase of the state grant for primary schools (1830) to a
million francs a year; the overthrow of the control by the priests
of the cantonal school committees (1830); the aboHtion (1831) of

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 597

the exemption of the religious orders from the examinations for
teaching certificates; and the creation (1830-31) of thirty new
normal schools.

The next step was to send (1831) M. Victor Cousin — Director
of the restored Higher Normal School of France — on a mission
to the German States, and in particular to Prussia, to study and
report on the system of elementary education, teacher training, and
educational organization and administra-
tion which had done so much for its regen-
eration. So convincing was Cousin's Report ^
that, despite bitter national antipathies, it
carried conviction throughout France. ''It
demonstrated to the government and the
people the immense superiority of all the
German States, even the most insignificant
duchy, over any and every Department of
France, in all that concerned institutions of
primary and secondary education." Cousin
pronounced the school law of Prussia (R.
280) "the most comprehensive and perfect ,, ^^' l^

VICTOR (_-OUSIN

legislative measure regarding primary edu- (1702-1867)

cation" with which he was acquainted,

and declared his conviction that "in the present state of things, a
law concerning primary education is indispensable in France."
The chief question, he continued, was "how to procure a good one
in a country where there is a total absence of all precedents and
experience in so grave a matter." Cousin then pointed out the
bases, derived from Prussian experience and French historical de-
velopment, on which a satisfactory law could be framed (R. 284
a-c); the desirabihty of local control and liberty in instruction
(R. 284 f-g); and strongly recommended the organization of
higher primary schools (a new creation; first recommended (1792)
by Condorcet, p. 514) as well as primary schools (R. 284 e) to
meet the educational needs of the middle classes of the population
of France.

The Law of 1833. On the basis of Cousin's 7?e/?cr/ a bill, mak-
ing the maintenance of primary schools obligatory on every com-
mune; providing for higher primary schools in the towns and cit-
ies; additional normal schools to train teachers for these schools; a

^ Report on the Condition of Public Instruction in Germany, and Particularly in
Prussia. Paris, 1831. Reprinted in London, 1834; New York City, 1835.

598

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

corps of primary -school inspectors, to represent the State; and
normal training and state certification required to teach in am
primary school, was prepared. In an address to the Chamber of
Deputies, in introducing the bill (1832), M. Guizot,^ the newly
appointed Minister for Public Instruction, set forth the history of
primary instruction in France up to 1832 (R. 285 a) ; described the
two grades of primary instruction to be created (R. 285 b) ; and,
emphasizing Cousin's maxim that ''the schoolmaster makes the-
school," dwelt on the necessity for normal training and state cer
tification for all primary teachers (R. 285 c). In preparing thi
bill it was decided not to follow the revolutionary ideas of free
instruction, by lay and state teachers, or to enforce compulsion

to attend, and for these omis-
sions M. Guizot, in his Me-
moires (R. 286), gives some
very interesting reasons.

The bill became a law the
following year, and is known
officially as the Law of 1833.
This Law forms the founda-
tions upon which the French
system of national elemen-
tary education has been de-
veloped, as the Napoleonic
Law of 1802 and the Decree
of 1808 have formed the basis
for secondary education and
French state administrative
organization. A primar}
school was to be established
in every commune, which was
to provide the building, pay a
fixed minimum salary to the
teacher, and where able main-
tain the school. The State re-
served the right to fix the pay
of the teacher, and even to approve his appointment. A tuition fee
was to be paid for attendance, but those who could not pay were to

^ Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot was Minister for Public Instruction from
1832 to 1837, and head of the French government from 1840 to 1848. He was
throughout his entire poh"tical career a conservative, anxious to preserve constitu-
tional government under a monarchy and stem the tide of republicanism.

Secondary

Fig. 177. Outline of the Main

Features op the French

State School System

Plate 14. Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (i 787-1874)
Creator of the French primary school system

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 599

be provided with free places. The primary schools were to give in-
struction in reading, writing, arithmetic, the weights and meas-
ures, the French language, and morals and religion. The higher
primary schools were to build on these subjects, and to offer in-
struction in geometry and its applications, Hnear drawing, sur-
veying, physical science, natural history, history, geography, and
music, and were to emphasize instruction in "the history and
geography of France, and in the elements of science, as they apply
it every day in the office, the workshop, and the field. '^ ^ These
latter were the Biirgerschulen, recommended by Cousin (R. 284 e)
on the basis of his study of Prussian education.^

The primary schools were to follow a uniform plan, and as
a guide a Manual of Primary Instruction was issued, giving de-
tailed directions as to what was to be done. In sending out a
copy of the Law to the primary teachers of France, M. Guizot en-
closed a personal letter to each, informing him as to what the
government expected of him in the new work (R. 287). During
the four years that M. Guizot remained Minister of Public In-
struction he rendered a remarkable service, well described by
Matthew Arnold (R. 288), in awakening his countrymen to the
new problem of popular education then before them.

The results under the Law of 1833 were large, ^ and the subse-
quent legislation under the monarchy of 1830 was important.
For the first time in French history an earnest effort was made to
provide education suited to the needs of the great mass of the peo-
ple, and the marked development of schools which ensued showed
how eagerly they embraced the opportunities offered their chil-

1 We see here the beginnings of education in agriculture, in which the French
were pioneers.

2 The schools, though, were not very successful, because of social reasons. Par-
ents who could afford to do so sent their children to the much higher-priced Com-
munal Colleges or Lycees, where Latin was the main study, in preference to sending
them to a scientific, modern-type, middle-class school, as conferring a better social
distinction on both pupils and parents.

' By 1838 there were 14,873 public schools the property of the communes; by
1847 there were 23,761; and by 1851 but 2500 out of approximately 37,000 com-
munes were without schools. There were also over six thousand religious schools
by 1850. By 1834 the number of boys in the communal schools was 1,656,828, and
a decade later over two millions. The thirteen normal schools of 1830 had grown to
seventy-six by 1838, with over 2500 young men then in training for teaching. In
1836 the Law of 1833 was extended to include, where possible, schools for girls as
well, and the creation of a new set of normal schools to train schoolmistresses was
begun. By 1848 over three and a half millions of children, of both sexes, were re-
ceiving instruction in the primary schools. In 1835 primary inspectors, those
"sinews of pubHc instruction," as Guizot termed them, were estabHshed, one for
every Department, by royal decree. By 1847 there were two inspectors-general,
and 13 inspectors and sub-inspectors at work in France.

6oo HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Development of Infant Schools

Year 1827 1837 1840 1843 1846 1850 ^ 1863 1886 1897

Schools.. I 251 555 1489 1861 1735 ' 3308 6696 5683

dren, though the schooUng was neither compulsory nor gratui-
tous. In 1837 Infant Schools, for still younger children, were au-
thorized, and in 1840 state aid for these was begun. In 1836
classes for adults, first begun in Paris in 1820, were authorized
generally, but it was not until 1867 that these were formally in-
corporated into the state school system. In 1845 state aid for the
Communal Colleges, as well as for the Lycees, was begun.

Reaction after 1848. In France, as in Europe generally, the
people were steadily becoming more liberal, as they became better
educated, while the rulers were becoming more autocratic. The
result was the series of revolutions of 1848, which broke out first
in France, and finally extended to most of the countries of conti-
nental Europe. In France the King, Louis-Philippe, was forced
to abdicate; a Republic, based on universal manhood suffrage,
was proclaimed; and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Napoleon I,
was elected President. In 1851 Napoleon estabhshed himself as
Dictator; prepared a new constitution providing for an Empire;
and, in 1852, dissolved the Second RepubHc and assumed the
title of Emperor Napoleon III. This Second Empire lasted until
1870, when France was humiliated by the Prussians as the latter
had been by Napoleon I in 1806. The Emperor and his armies
were taken prisoners (1870) and, in 187 1, the Prussians occupied
Paris and crowned the new Emperor of united and Imperial Ger-
many in the palace of the French Kings at Versailles. A Third
Republic now succeeded, and this has lasted to the present time.

The period from 1848 to 1870 in France was a period of middle-
class rule, and reaction in education as in government. In 1848
a Sub-Commission on Primary Education reported in opposition
to the state primary schools. The troubles of 1848 had brought
to view the political restlessness which had taken possession of the
teachers, as well as other classes in society. The new schools were
naturally suspected of being the source of the popular discontent.
Many teachers had sympathized with, and some had taken part
in the disturbances, and teachers generally were now placed under
close surveillance. Some of the leaders were forced into exile un-
til after 1870. Religious schools, regarded as more favorable to
monarchical needs and purposes, were now encouraged, and the
number of religious schools increased from 6464 in 1850, to 11,391

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE 6oi

by 1864. Private schools, too, were given full freedom to com-
pete with the state schools, and the pay of the primary teachers
was reduced. The course in the normal schools was condemned
as too ambitious, and, in 185 1, was cut down. The course of in-
struction in the primary schools, on the other hand, was, unlike in
Prussia, broadened instead of restricted, and in particular empha-
sis was placed, in keeping with nearly a century of French tradi-
tion, on scientific and practical subjects.^ The law of 1850 stated
the requirements for primary schools as follows:

Art. 23. Primary instruction comprises moral and religious instruc-
tion, reading, writing, the elements of the French language, computa-
tion, and the legal system of weights and measures. It may comprise,
in addition, arithmetic applied to practical operations, the elements of
history (a required subject after 1867) and geography, notions of the
physical sciences and of natural history applicable to the ordinary pur-
poses of life, elementary instruction in agriculture, trade, and hygiene;
and surveying, leveling, linear drawing, singing, and gymnastics.

Religious instruction prospered under the Second Empire, and
the state primary schools lost in importance. The Lycees con-
tinued largely as classical institutions, though after 1865 the
crowding of the rising sciences began to dispute the supremacy of
classical studies. There were, however, many voices of discon-
tent, particularly from exiled teachers (R. 289), and the way was
rapidly being prepared for the creation of a stronger and better
state school system as soon as political conditions were propitious.

Revolutionary ideals at last realized. With the creation of the
Third Republic, in 1870, a change from the old conditions and old
attitudes took place. Up to about 1879 the new government was
in the control of those who were at heart sympathetic with the
old conditions, but were forced to accept the new; from 1879 to
1890 was a transition period; and since 1890 the Republic has
grown steadily in strength and regained its position among the
great powers of the world. The first few years of the new Repub-
lic were devoted to paying the Prussian indemnity and clearing
the soil of France of German armies, but, after about 1875, edu-
cation became a great national interest among the leaders of
France.- France saw, somewhat as did Prussia after 1806, the

^ This was in large part due to manufacturing and business needs, as France was
rapidly forging ahead during the period as a manufacturing and commercial nation.

2 Prominent among these, perhaps most prominent, was Jules Ferry, Mayor of
Paris during the trying period of 1870-71, then member of the French legislature,
and Minister of PubHc Instruction in a number of cabinets between 1879 and 1885.
Drawing his inspiration from Condorcet's Plan of Education (p. 514; R. 256) and

602

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Progress of Primary Education in
France, during the Nineteenth Cen-
tury, AS SHOWN BY THE REDUCTION
IN THE Percentage or Illiteracy
AMONG Army Conscripts, and among
Persons signing the Marriage Rec-
ords

Marriage records

Years

Men Women

1790
1827
1833
1840
1845
1850
1855
i860
186s
1870
1875
1880
188s
1890
1896
1901

S3 0%

32.0

30.4

27-5

26.8

20.0

16. 1

130

8.7

5.8

4.4

73.0%

47-

44.

39-

24.

necessity for creating a strong state system of primary, secondary,
and higher schools to train the youth of the land in the principles
of the RepubHc, strengthen the national spirit, advance the wel-
fare of the State, and protect
it from dangers both within
and without.

MilHons were put into the
building of schoolhouses (1878-
88); new normal schools were
established; a normal school
for women was created in each
of the eighty-seven depart-
ments of France; the academic
and superior councils of public
instruction were reorganized to
eliminate clerical influences
(1881); religious instruction
was replaced by moral and civic
instruction (R. 290) ; and cleri-
cal "Letters of Obedience"
were no longer accepted, and all
teachers were required to be
certificated by the State. The Law of 1881, eliminating instruc-
tion in religion from the elementary schools, was followed, in
1886, by a law providing for the gradual replacement of clerical
by lay teachers. In 1904, the teaching congregations of France
were suppressed. All elementary education now became public,
free, compulsory, and secular, ^ and teachers were required to be
neutral in religious matters.^

Edgar Quinet's Instruction of the People (R. 289) , he brought about the enactment
of a series of reform school laws commonly known as the "Ferry Laws." These
provided for free, compulsory, elementary education, to be given by laymen ; sec-
ondary education for girls; the extension of normal schools; and enlarged aid by
the State in the building up of popular education.

1 "The non-sectarian school is not the work of a few advanced thinkers imposed
upon a docile country. They would not have been able to create anything enduring
if the French conscience had not been ready to follow them. This is what the
adversaries of our schools do not wish to understand, cannot understand, or are
anxious to conceal from those whom they direct. Certainly they have the right to

2 "To each man his proper sphere; to the minister of religion the liberty of
preaching the doctrine of the different churches, to teachers who teach in the name
of the State, that is, of society, the right of limiting themselves to the field of univer-
sal human morals, together with the duty of refraining from any attack on religious
beliefs. Neutrality is guaranteed by the secularization of the teaching body, and
it must be strictly observed." (Compayr6, Gabriel.)

Army

conscripts

s8.o%

6.3

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY 603

Since 187 1, also, technical and scientific education has been
emphasized; the primary and superior-primary schools have been
made free (1881) and compulsory (1882); classes for adults have
been begun generally; the state aid for schools has been very
greatly increased; lycees and colleges for women have been created
(1880); the lycees modernized in their instruction;^ and the re-
organization and reestabHshment of a series of fifteen state uni-
versities of a modern type, begun in 1885, was completed in 1896.
The reorganization and expansion of education in France since
1875 is a wonderful example of republican interest and energy,
and is along entirely different lines from those followed, since the
same date, in German lands.

After the lapse of nearly a century we now see the French
Revolutionary ideas of gratuity, obligation, and secularization
finally put into effect, and the state system of public instruction
outlined by Condorcet (p. 514), in 1792, at last an accompHshed
fact.

II. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY

Importance of the work of Napoleon. So much has been writ-
ten about the deluge of blood that took place in Paris in the days
of the Commune and the time of the National Conventions, and of
the military victories and autocratic rule of Napoleon Bonaparte,
that it is difficult to appraise the importance of either, from the
point of view of the progress of civilization and of the organiza-
tion of modern political institutions, at its true worth. The faults

attempt a reaction according to their own preferences. They have no right to
believe, nor even to allow it to be believed, that the creation of the non-sectarian
school was the coup de force of an audacious minority. The non-sectarian school
has come because the nation wished it. The program of moral instruction, long
prophesied, conceived, and hoped for, was in the traditions of France as she marched
forward toward her republican aspirations. This program is not only the conscious
effort of the men who gave the school a new mission — that of laying the foundation
of social peace through elementary instruction ; it is the expression of the republican
conscience of 1882." (Moulet, Alfred, D'urie education morale democratique.)

1 "The most striking feature is that, in place of the one single and uniform course
for all pupils, several are provided for their selection. Here is obvious the influence
of the elective courses common in the United States, whose existence and success
were reported on to the Minister of Public Instruction by the Commission to the
World Exposition at Chicago, in 1893. The courses last seven years. The school
period is divided into two cycles, first one of four years, and then one of three. In
the first cycle, the pupils have a choice of two sections, one emphasizing the ancient
and modem languages, the other the modern languages and science. In the second
cycle there are four sections, viz., Graeco-Latin; Latin-modem languages; Latin-
scientific; and scientific-modern languages." (Compayre, Gabriel, Education in
France.)

6o4

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of both are prominent and outstanding, but it nevertheless was
the merit of the Revolution that it enabled France, and along
with France a good portion of western Europe, to rid itself of the
worst survivals of the Middle Ages, while to Napoleon much of
western Europe is indebted for the foundation of its civil institu-

FiG. 178. Europe in 1810
Showing the control of France when Napoleon was at the height of his power

tions, unified legal procedure, beginnings of state educational
organization, and modern governmental forms. Writing on this
subject, Matthew Arnold ^ well said :

With all his faults, his [Napoleon's] reason was so clear and strong
that he saw, in its general outlines at least, the just and rational type
of civil organization which modern society needs, and wherever his
armies went he instituted it.

^ Arnold, Matthew, Schools and Universities on the Continent, p. 115, (London,
i868.)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY 605

That the French Revolution's merit and service was a real one is
shown by all the world, as it improves, getting rid more and more of
the Middle Ages. That Napoleon's merit and service was a real one is
shown by the bad governments which succeeded him having always
got rid, when they could, of his work, and by the progress of improve-
ment, when these governments became intolerable, and are themselves
got rid of, always bringing it back. Where governments were not
wholly bad, and did not get rid of Napoleon's good work, this work
turns out to have the future on its side, and to be more likely to assim-
ilate the institutions round it to its pattern than to be itself assimilated
by them.

In the Italian States, the Netherlands, some of the French can-
tons of Switzerland, the Rhine countries, and the Danish penin-
sula, in particular, the rule of Napoleon, imposed by his armies,
carried out by rulers of his selection, and maintained for a long
enough period that the legal organization, civil order, unified gov-
ernment, and taste of educational opportunities of a new type
which his rule brought became attractive to the people, in time
proved deeply influential in their political development.^ All
these nations still show traces of the French influence in their
state educational organization. We shall take the Italian States
as a type, and examine briefly the influence on the development
of state educational organization there which resulted from con-
tact with the forward-looking rule of "The Great Emperor."

Decline in importance of education in Italy. In a preceding
chapter (p. 503), we mentioned that the rule of Napoleon in
northern Italy awakened the national spirit from its long leth-
argy, and caused Italian liberals to look forward, for the first time
since the days of the Revival of Learning, to the time when the
Italian States might be united into one Italian nation, with Rome
as its capital. This became the work of the mid-nineteenth cen-
tury (see dates, Fig. 179), though not fully completed until the
World War of 191 4-1 8. Italy stands to-day a great united na-
tion, with a large future ahead of it, but as such it is entirely a
nineteenth-century creation. From the time of its intellectual
decline following the Renaissance, to the middle of the nineteenth
century, Italy remained ''a geographical expression" and split up
into a number of little independent States; up to the time of Napo-
leon it was a part of the German-ruled "Holy Roman Empire."

^ For example, by the Peace of Luneville (1801), by which Napoleon took from
the Germans all territory west of the Rhine and consolidated it, he extinguished 118
free cities, principalities, and petty states. In addition, he extinguished the sepa-
rate existence of 160 others east of the Rhine. The importance of such consolida-
tions for the future of Germany has been large.

6o6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

After the great patriotic effort of the period of the Revival of
Learning (p. 264) in Italy, and the rather feeble and unsuccessful
attempts at a reform of religion which followed, the intellectual
development of Italy was checked and turned aside for centuries
by the triumph of an unprogressive and anti-intellectual atti-
tude on the part of the dominant Church. The persecution of
Galileo (p. 388) was but a phase of the reaction in religion which
had by that time set in. Education was turned over to the re-
ligious orders, such as the Jesuits and the Barnabites, and in-
struction was turned aside from liberal culture and the promo-
tion of learning to the support of a religion and the stamping out
of heresy. Though a number of educational foundations were
made, and some important undertakings begun after the days
when her universities were crowded and Florence and Venice
vied with one another for the intellectual supremacy of the west-
ern world, the spirit nevertheless was gone, and both education
and government settled down to a tenacious preservation of the
existing order. Scholars ceased to frequent the schools of Italy;
the universities changed from seats of learning to degree-confer-
ring institutions; ^ the intellectual capitals came to be found north
of the Alps; and the history of educational progress ceased to be
traced in this ancient land. In the early part of the eighteenth
century the schools there reached perhaps their lowest intellectual
level.

The beginnings of reform in Savoy. The first and almost the
only attempt to change this condition, before Napoleon's armies
went crashing through the valley of the Po, was m_ade in the sev-
enteenth century by two Dukes of Savoy. By decrees of 1729
and 1772 they took the control of the secondary (Latin) schools in
their little duchy from the religious orders, and established a
Council of PubHc Instruction to reform the university examina-
tions, see that teachers were prepared for the Latin schools, and
take over in the name of the authorities of the duchy the control
of education. Though inspired by a political interest, the two
dukes brought into their little kingdom the much-needed ideas of
honest work, effective administration, and public spirit, and laid
the foundations for the control of education by the public au-
thorities later on. The only other attempt to improve conditions

^ Bologna, for example, had 166 professors in the early seventeenth century, but
by 1737 it had but 62. The universities came chiefly to be places where young men
obtained degrees but not learning. At Naples a noble family by the name of Avel-
lino came to have the power of virtually sellin<: dcLrrecs in law and medicine.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY 607

came in Lombardy, in 1774, which then was a part of the Austrian
dominions and felt the short-Hved reforms of Maria Theresa (p.
562 ; R. 276). Elsewhere in Italy conditions remained unchanged
until the time of Napoleon. •

Napoleon revives the national spirit. In 1 796 Napoleon's ar-
mies invaded Sardinia, Lombardy, and the valley of the Po, and he
soon extended his control to ahnost all the ItaHan peninsula. For
nearly two decades thereafter this collection of Httle States felt
the unifying, regenerating influence of the organizing French.
Monasteries and convents and religious schools were transformed
into modern teaching institutions, brigandage was put down, and
efficient and honest government was established. The ideas of
the French Law of 1802 as to education were applied. Every
town was ordered to establish a school for boys, to teach the read-
ing and writing of Italian and the elements of French and Latin;
the secondary schools were modernized; and the universities
were completely reorganized. Some of the universities were re-
duced to licei (lycees; secondary schools), while others were
strengthened and their revenues turned to better purposes. The
universities at Naples and Turin in particular were transformed
into strong institutions, with a decided emphasis on scientific
studies. A normal school was founded at Pisa, on the model of
the one at Paris. New standards in education were set up, the
study of the sciences was introduced into the secondary schools,
and the study of medicine and law was regenerated.

With the fall of Napoleon his work was largely undone. The
firm, just, and intelligent government which he had given Italy —
something the land had not known for ages — came to an end.
The little States were "handed back to the reactionary dynasts
whose rule was neither benevolent nor intelligent, while the ever-
ready Austrian army crushed out any local movement for liberal
institutions." The laws regarding education were repealed, and
the schools the French had established were closed as revolution-
ary and dangerous. The normal school at Pisa ceased to exist;
the university at Naples was dismantled; the one at Turin was
closed ; and the Jesuits were allowed to return and reorganize in-
struction. The result was that a common discontent with ensu-
ing conditions made Italians conscious of their racial and histori-
cal unity, and this finally expressed itself in the revolutions of
1848. These failed at the time, and the heel of the Austrian op-
pressor came down harder than before. Liberty of the press

6o8

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

practically ceased. The national leaders went into exile for
safety. The prisons were filled with political offenders. The
schools were closed or ceased to influence. The Pope, fearing the

Fig. 179. The Unification of Italy, since 1848

end of his earthly kingship approaching, united firmly with the
Austrians to resist liberal movements. Finally, under the leader-
ship of the enlightened King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel (1849-
78) and his Prime Minister, Count of Cavour, the Austrians were
driven out (1859-66) and all Italy was united (1870) under the
rule of one king interested in promoting the welfare of his people.
Sardinia leads to national organization and control. The
movement to free Italy was essentially a liberal movement. Many
hoped to create a republic, but chose a liberal constitutional mon-
archy under Victor Emmanuel as the most feasible plan. Cavour
understood the importance of public instruction, and from the

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY 609

Fig. 180

Count of Cavour

(1810-61)

first began to build up schools ^ and put them under state control.
In 1844, a normal school was opened in Turin. In 1847, ^ Minis-
ter of Public Instruction was appointed and a Coiuicil of Public
Instruction created, after the plan of
France. In 1848, a General School Law
v/as enacted, and the organization and
improvement of schools was begun with
a will. In 1850, a commission was sent
to study the school systems of Europe,
and in particular those of France and of
the German States. A Supreme Council
of Public Instruction was now formed for
Sardinia, and the process of creating
primary schools, higher-primary schools,
classical and technical secondary schools,
colleges, and the reorganization of the
universities was begun. In 1859, when
the growth of Italian unity was rapidly
extending the rule of Victor Emmanuel,- a new law, providing
a still better state organization of public instruction, was
enacted. A Minister of Public Instruction appointed by the
King, a Supreme Council of Public Instruction, and a Depart-
ment of Public Instruction as a branch of the government, were
all provided for, after the French plan.

This Law of 1859 was later extended to cover all Italy, and has
formed the basis for all subsequent legislation. It clearly estab-
lished a state system of education, though the religious schools
were allowed to remain. It also established control after the
French plan, with a high degree of centralization and uniformity.
The schools established, too, were much after the French type,
though much less extensive in scope. The primary and superior-
primary at first were but two years each, though since extended in
all the larger communities to a six-year combined course. The
two-class school system was established, as in France and German
lands. The secondary- school system consisted of a five-year
ginnasio, established in many places (218 in Italy by 1865; 458 by

^ Not only were schools built up, but commerce, roads, and in particular scientific
agriculture were subjects of deep interest to Cavour. He saw, very clearly, that if
Sardinia was to be the nucleus of a future Italy, Sardinia must show unmistakably
her worthiness to lead.

2 By 1859 Sardinia had come to include Savoy and Lombardy, and was the
largest State in northern Italy. A year later all but Venetia and the States of the
Church had been added.

6io

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1916) with a three-year liceo following, but found in a smaller
number of places. Parallel with this a seven-year non-classical
scientific and technical secondary school was also created, and
these institutions have made marked headway (461 by 19 16) in

central and northern
Italy . Pupils may pass
to either of these on the
completion of the ordi-
nary four-year primary
course, at the age of
ten. Above the second-
ary schools are numer-
ous universities. The
normal-school system
created prepared for
teaching in the primary
schools, while the uni-
versity system followed
the completion of the
liceo course.

The influence of
French ideas in Italian
educational organiza-
tion is clearly evident.
Before the French ar-
mies brought French
governmental ideas and organization to Italy almost nothing
had been done. Then, during the first six decades of the nine-
teenth century, the transition from the church-school idea to
the conception of education as an important function of the State
was made, and the resulting system is largely French in organiza-
tion and form.

Subsequent progress. From this point on educational progress
has been chiefly a problem of increased finances and the slow but
gradual extension of educational opportunities to more and more
of the children of the people. The church schools have been al-
lowed to continue side by side with the state schools, and the
problem of securing satisfactory working relations has not always
been easy of solution.
In 1877 primary education ^ was ordered made compulsor/,

^ The Law of 1877 fixed the instruction in the primary schools, for the three com-

Elementary
Schools

Secondary
Schools

Fig. 181. Outline of the Main Features
OF the Italian State School System

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY 6ii

and religious instruction was dropped from the state schools, but
the slow progress of the nation in extending Hteracy indicates that
but little had been accompHshed in enforcing the compulsion pre-
vious to the new compulsory law of 1904. This made more strin-
gent provisions regarding schooling, and provided for three thou-
sand evening and Sunday schools for ilhterate adults. In 1906, an
earnest effort was begun to extend educational advantages in the
southern provinces, where ilHteracy has always been highest. In
191 1, the state aid for elementary education was materially in-
creased. In 191 2, a new and more modern plan of studies for the
secondary schools was promulgated. Since 191 2 many important
advances have been inaugurated, such as elementary schools of
agriculture, vocational schools, continuation schools, the middle-
class industrial and commercial schools. The World War di-
rected new attention to the educational needs of the nation. Italy,
at last thoroughly awakened, seems destined to be a great world
power politically and commercially, and we may look forward to
seeing education used by the Italian State as a great constructive
force for the advancement of its national interests.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show how the Revolution marked out the lines of future educational
evolution for France.

2. Explain why France and Italy evolved a school system so much more
centralized than did other European nations.

3. Explain Napoleon's lack of interest in primary education, in view of
the needs of France in his day.

4. Show that Napoleon was right, time and circumstances considered, in
placing the state emphasis on the types of education he favored.

5. Explain why middle-class education should have received such special
attention in Cousin's Report, and in the Law of 1833.

6. Was the course of instruction provided for the primary schools in 1833,
times and needs considered, a liberal one, or otherwise? Why?

7. Compare the 1833 and the 1850 courses.

8. Explain why all forms of education in France should have experienced
such a marked expansion and development after 1875.

9. Explain why great military disasters, for the past 150 years, have nearly
always resulted in national educational reorganization.

10. Appraise the work and the permanent influence of Napoleon.

11. Explain Napoleon's interest in establishing schools and universities,
when the Austrian and Church authorities were so interested in abolish-
ing what he had created.

12. What did the dropping of rehgious instruction from the primary schools
of both France and Italy, both strong Catholic countries, indicate as to
national development?

pulsory years, as reading, writing, the Italian language, elements of civics, arith-
metic, and the metric system. The omission of religious instruction excited much
opposition from church authorities, but without effect.

6i2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are re-
produced:

282. Le Brun: Founding of the School of Arts and Trades.

283. Jourdain: Refounding of the Superior Normal School.

284. Cousin: Recommendations for Education in France.

285. Guizot: Address on the Law of 1833.

286. Guizot: Principles underlying the Law of 1833.

287. Guizot: Letter to the Primary Teachers of France.

288. Arnold: Guizot's Work as Minister of Public Instruction.

289. Quinet: A Lay School for a Lay Society.

290. Ferry: Moral and Civic Instruction replaces the Religious.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Just what attitude toward education did the action of Napoleon in
changing the character of the school at Compiegne (282) express?

2. What type of school (283) was the re-created Superior Normal?

3. Just what did Victor Cousin recommend (284) as to {a) schools to be
created; {b) control and administration; (<:) compulsor}^ attendance:
{d) schools for the middle classes; and (e) education and control of
teachers?

4. Was Guizot's Law of 1833 (285) in harmony with the recommendations
of Cousin (284)?

5. Why have public opinion and legislative action, in France and elsewhere,
so completely reversed the positions taken by Guizot and his advisers
(286) in framing the Law of 1833?

6. From Guizot's letter to the teachers of France (287), and Arnold's
description of his work (288), just what do you infer to have been the
nature of his interest in advancing primary education in France?

7. Contrast the reasoning of Guizot (286) and Quinet (289) on lay instruc-
tion. Of the reasoning of the two men, which is now accepted in France
and the United States?

8. Contrast the letters of Guizot (287) and Ferry (290) to the primary
teachers of France.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Arnold, Matthew. Popular Education in France.
*Arnold, Matthew. Schools and Universities on the Continent.
*Barnard, Henry. National Education in Europe.

Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, vol. xx.

Compayre, G. History of Pedagogy, chapter xxi.
*Farrington, Fr. E. The Public Primary School System of France.
*Farrington, Fr. E. French Secondary Schools.

Guizot, F. P. G. Memoires, Extracts from, covering work as Minister
of Public Instruction, 1832-37, in Barnard's American Journal of
Education, vol. xi, pp. 254-81, 357-99.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN

ENGLAND

I. THE CHARITABLE-VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS

English progress a slow but peaceful evolution. The begin-
nings of national educational organization in England were
neither so simple nor so easy as in the other lands we have de-
scribed. So far this was in part due to the long-estabHshed idea,
on the part of the small ruling class, that education was no busi-
ness of the State; in part to the deeply ingrained conception as to
the religious purpose of all instruction; in part to the fact that the
controlling upper classes had for long been in possession of an
educational system which rendered satisfactory service in prepar-
ing leaders for both Church and State; and in part — probably
in large part — to the fact that national evolution in England,
since the time of the Civil War (1642-49) has been a slow and
peaceful growth, though accompanied by much hard thinking and
vigorous parliamentary fighting. Since the Reformation (1534-
39) and the Puritan uprising led by Cromwell (1642-49), no civil
strife has convulsed the land, destroyed old institutions, and
forced rapid changes in old established practices. Neither has
the country been in danger from foreign invasion since that mem-
orable week in July, 1588, when Drake destroyed the Spanish
Armada and made the future of England as a world power
secure.

English educational evolution has in consequence been slow,
and changes and progress have come only in response to much
pressure, and usually as a reluctant concession to avoid more seri-
ous trouble. A strong English characteristic has been the ability
to argue rather than fight out questions of national policy; to ex-
hibit marked tolerance of the opinions of others during the dis-
cussion; and finally to recognize enough of the proponents' point
of view to be willing to make concessions sufficient to arrive at
an agreement. This has resulted in a slow but a peaceful evo-
lution, and this slpw and peaceful evolution has for long been
the dominant characteristic of the political, social, and educa-
tional progress of the English people. The whole history of

6i4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the two centuries of evolution toward a national system of edu-
cation is a splendid illustration of this essentially English cnar-
acteristic.

Eighteenth-century educational efforts. England, it will be
remembered (chapter xix, § iii) , had early made marked progress
in both political and religious liberty. Ahead of any other people
we find there the beginnings of democratic liberty, popular en-
lightenment, freedom of the press, religious toleration,^ social re-
form, and scientific and industrial progress. All these influences
awakened in England, earlier than in any other European nation,
a rather general desire to be able to read (R. 170), and by the
opening of the eighteenth century we find the beginnings of a char-
itable and philanthropic movement on the part of the churches
and the upper classes to extend a knowledge of the elements of
learning to the poorer classes of the population.

As a result, as we have seen (chapter xviii), the eighteenth
century in England, educationally, was characterized by a new
attitude toward the educational problem and a marked extension
of educational opportunity. Even before the beginning of the
century the courts had taken a new attitude toward church con-
trol of teaching,^ and in 1700 had freed the teacher of the ele-
mentary school from control by the bishops through license.'^ In
1 7 14 an Act of Parliament (13 Anne, c. 7) exempted elementary
schools from the penalties of conformity legislation, and they
were thereafter free to multiply and their teachers to teach. ^ The
dame school (R. 235) now became an estabhshed EngHsh institu-
tion (p. 447). Private-adventure schools of a number of types
arose (p. 451). The churches here and there began to provide
elementary parish-schools for the children of their poorer mem-

^ Prussia possibly forms an exception in the matter of religious toleration. Fred-
crick the Great (p. 474) was noted for his liberality in religious matters. There
different varieties of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews were all tolerated, and there
they mingled and intermarried. So well were the Jews received that the type —
German-Jew — is to-day familiar to the world.

2 As early as 1670, in the celebrated Bates case, the English court held that a
teacher could not be dispossessed from his school for teaching without the Bishop's
license, if he were the nominee of the founder or patron. This led (p. 438) to a
great increase in endowed schools.

^ In the Cox case (1700), another important legal decision, the English court held
that there was not and never had been any ecclesiastical control over any schools
other than grammar schools, and that teachers in elementary schools did not need
to have a license from the Bishop. The year following, in the case of Rex v. Douse,
the same principle was affirmed in even clearer language. ,

* It was not until 1799 that an Act (19 Geo. Ill, c. 44) granted full freedom to
Dissenters to teach. In 1791 a supplemental Act (31 Geo. Ill, c. 32, s. 13-14)
granted similar liberty to Roman Catholics.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 615

bers (p. 449), or training-schools for other children who were to go
out to service (R. 241). Workhouse schools and '' schools of in-
dustry" also were used to provide for orphans and the children of
paupers (p. 453).

The Charity-School system. Most important of all was the
organization, by groups of individuals (R. 237) and by Societies
(S.P.C.K.; p. 449) formed for the purpose, and maintained by
subscription (R. 240), collections (R. 291), and foundation in-
comes, of an extensive and well-organized system of Charity-
Schools (p. 449). The "Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge" dates from the year 1699, and the "Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" from 1701. The
first worked at home, and the second in the overseas colonies.^
Both did much to provide schools for poor boys and girls, furnish-
ing them with clothing and instruction (R. 292), and training
them in reading, writing, spelling, counting, cleanliness, proper
behavior, sewing and knitting (girls), and in "the Rules and
Principles of the Christian Religion as professed and taught in
the Church of England ' ' (R. 238 b) . The Charity-School idea was
in a sense an application of the joint-stock-company principle to
the organization and maintenance of an extensive system of
schools for the education of the children of the poor, the stock be-
ing subscribed for by humanitarian-minded people. The upper
classes had for long been well provided, through tutors in the
home and grammar schools and colleges, with those means for
education which have for centuries produced an able succession of
gentlemen, statesmen, governors, and scholars for England, and
many of the commercial middle-class had, by the eighteenth cen-
tury, become able to purchase similar advantages for their sons.
These now united to provide, as part of a great organized charity
and under carefully selected teachers (R. 238 a), for the more
promising children of their poorer neighbors, the elements of that
education which they themselves had enjoyed.

The movement spread rapidly over England (p. 451), and soon
developed into a great national effort to raise the level of intelli-
gence of the masses of the English people. Thousands of persons
gave their services as directors, organizers, and teachers. Trav-
eling superintendents were employed. A rudimentary form of
teacher- training was begun. The preaching of a Charity Sermon

' It was this second Society that did notable work in the Anglican Colonies of
America, and particularly in and about New York City (p. 369). See Kemp, W. W.,
Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the S.P.G. (New York, 1913.)

6i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

each year/ with a special collection, became a general English
practice.

The Voluntary System. The rise of the Methodist move-
ment,^ after 1730 (p. 489); the earthquake shocks of 1750; the
rise of the popular novel and newspaper; the printing of political
news, and cheap scientific pamphlets (p. 492); and the growing
tendency to debate questions and to apply reason to their solu-
tion — all tended to give emphasis in England to these eight-
eenth-century charitable means for extending education to the
children of those who could not afford to pay for it. Unlike the
German States, where the State and the Church and the school
had all worked together from the days of the Reformation on,
the English had never known such a conception. The efforts,
though, of the educated few, in the eighteenth and early nine-
teenth centuries, to extend the elements of learning, order, piety,
cleanliness, and proper behavior to the children of the masses,
formed an important substitute for the action by the Church-
State which was so characteristic a feature of Teutonic lands.

We see in these eighteenth-century efforts the origin of what
became known in England as "the voluntary system," and upon
this voluntary support of education — private, parochial, charit-
able — the English people for long rehed. Of action by the State
there was none during the eighteenth century, aside from an Act of
1767 (7 Geo. Ill, c. 39) relating to the education of pauper children.
This established the important principle — unfortunately not
followed up — of providing that poor parish children of London
might be maintained and educated "at the cost of the rates."

The Sunday-School movement. One other voluntary eight-
eenth-century movement of importance in the history of English
educational development should be mentioned here, as it formed
the connecting link between the parochial-charity-school move-

^ Begun, in 1704, in London, these were continued yearly there until 1877. They
were also preached for more than a century in many other places. To these sermons
the children marched in procession, wearing their uniforms, and a collection for the
support of the schools was taken. Of the first of these occasions in London, Strype,
in his edition of Stow, says: " It was a wondrous surprising, as well as a pleasing sight,
that happened June the 8th, 1704, when all the boys and girls maintained at these
schools, in their habits, walked two and two, with their Masters and Mistresses,
some from Westminster, and some through London; with many of the Parish min-
isters going before them; and all meeting at Saint Andrews', Holburn, Church,
where a seasonable sermon was preached . . . upon Genesis xviii, 19, / know him that
he will command his children, etc., the children (about 2000) being placed in the gal-
leries."

2 "The religious revival under Wesley owed, perhaps, more than is generally
suspected to the Christian teaching in these new and himible elementary schools."
(Montmorency, J. E. G. de, The Progress of Education in England, p. 54.)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 617

ment of the eighteenth century and the philanthropic period of
the educational reformers of the early nineteenth. This was the
Sunday-School movement, first tried by John Wesley in Savan-
nah, in 1737, but not introduced into England until 1763. The
idea amounted to little, though, until practically worked out anew
(1780) by Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, and described
by him (1783) in his Gloucester Journal (R. 293), after he had ex-
perimented with it for three years. ^ His printed description of
the Sunday-School idea gave a national impulse to the move-
ment, and Sunday Schools were soon established all over England
to take children off the streets on Sunday and provide them with
some form of secular and religious instruction.'^

The movement coincided with new religious, social, and eco-
nomic forces which were at work, and which awakened an interest
not only in the education of the children of the poorer working-
classes, but caused the upper and middle classes in society to feel
a new sense of responsibility for social and educational reform.
The cold and unemotional religion of the English Church in the
early eighteenth century had created an indifference to the simple
truths and duties of the Gospels. The great religious revival un-
der Wesley and Whitefield had challenged such an attitude, and
had done much to infuse a new spirit into religion and awaken a
new sense of responsibility for social welfare. The rapid growth
of population in the towns, following the beginnings of factory
life (p. 493), had created new social and economic problems, and
the neglect of children in the manufacturing towns had shocked
many thinking persons. The way in which parents and children,
freed from hard labor in the factories on Sundays, abandoned
themselves to vice, drunkenness, ^and profanity caused many,
among them Raikes himself (R. 293), to inquire if "something
could not be done" to turn into respectable men and women " the
little heathen of the neighborhood." The Sunday School was his
answer, and the answer of many all over England.^

^ He gathered together the children (90 at first) employed in the pin factories of
Gloucester, and paid four women a shilling each to spend their Sundays in instruct-
ing these poor children "in reading and the Church Catechism."

- Sunday being a day of rest and the mills and factories closed, the children ran
the streets and spent the day in mischief and vice. In the agricultural districts of
England farmers were forced to take special precautions on Sundays to protect their
places and crops from the depredations of juvenile offenders.

^ " In a very special way they met the sentiment of the times. They were cheap
— many were conducted by purely voluntary teachers — they did not teach too
much, and they had the further merit of not interfering with the work of the week."
(Birchenough, C, History oj Elementary Education in England and WaXes^ p. 40.)

6i8

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

In 1785 ''The Society for the Support and Encouragement of
Sunday Schools in the different Counties of England" was formed
with a view to estabHshing a Sunday School in every parish in the
kingdom, and the Queen headed a subscription list, following a
general appeal for funds. By 1787 it was estimated that 234,000
children in England and Wales were attending a Sunday School,
and by 1792 the number had increased to half a million. The
ParHamentary return for 18 18 showed 5463 Sunday Schools in
existence, and 477,225 scholars; in 1835 the returns showed 1,548,-
890 scholars, half of whom attended no other school, and approxi-
mately 160,000 voluntary teachers.^ In Manchester, then a city

scourged with almost universal child-labor,
the schools (1834) were in session five and
a half hours on Sunday and two evenings a
week. The moral and religious influence of
these schools was important, and the instruc-
tion in reading and writing, meager as it was,
filled a real need of the time.

Other voluntary schools; ** Ragged
Schools." The Charity Schools and the
Sunday Schools were the two most conspic-
uous of the voluntary-organization type of
undertakings for providing the poor children
of England with the elements of secular and
religious education. Many other organiza-
tions of an educational and charitable na-
ture, aided also by many individual efforts,
too numerous to rnention, were formed with
the same charitable and humanitarian end
in view. Others, similar in type, charged
a small fee, and hence were of the priv-
ate-adventure type. Sunday Schools, day
schools, evening schools, children's churches,
bands of hope, clothing clubs, messenger bri-
gades, shoeblack brigades, orphans' schools, reformatory schools,
industrial schools, ragged schools — these were some of the types
that arose. Only one of these — ''Ragged Schools" — will be
described.

^ In a Manchester Sunday School, in 1834, there were 2700 scholars and 120 un-
salaried teachers, all but two or three of whom were former pupils in the Sunday
Schools, now teaching others, tree of charge, in return for the advantages once given
them.

Fig. 182. a Ragged-
School Pupil

(From a photograph of
a boy on entering the
school; later changed
into a respectable trades-
man. From Guthrie)

Plate 15. John Pounds 's Ragged School at Portsmouth

Plate 16. An English Village Voluntary School

(Reproduced from an early nineteenth-century engraving, through the
courtesy of William G. Bruce)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 619

The originator of the ''Ragged Schools" — schools for the edu-
cation of destitute children, waifs and strays not reached by other
agencies — was a large-hearted cobbler of Portsmouth, by the
name of John Pounds (i 766-1839), who divided his time between
cobbling and rescue work among the poorest and most degraded
children of his neighborhood. His school is shown in the picture
facing this page. (Plate 15.) In his shoeshop he taught such chil-
dren, free of charge, to read, write, count, cook their food, and
mend their shoes. He was a schoolmaster, doctor, nurse, and play-
fellow to them all in one. His workshop was a room of only six by
eighteen feet, yet in it he often had forty children under his in-
struction. His work set an example, and "Ragged Schools," or
"Schools for the Destitute," began to be formed in many places
by humanitarians. These took the form of day schools, night
schools, Sunday Schools, and the so-called industrial schools (R.
294). The instruction in most of them was entirely free,^ but
some charged a small fee, in a few cases as high as a shilling a
month. It was one of these schools that Crabbe described when
he wrote: ^

Poor Reuben Dixon has the noisiest school

Of ragged lads, who ever bowed to rule;

Low in his price — the men who heave our coals,

And clean our causeways, send him boys in shoals.

To see poor Reuben, with his fry beside —

Their half-check'd rudeness and his half-scorned pride —

Their room, the sty in which th' assembly meet,

In the close lane behind the Northgate street ;

T' observe his vain attempts to keep the peace,

Till tolls the bell, and strife and trouble cease.

Calls for our praise; his labours praise deserves,

But not our pity; Reuben has no nerves.

'Mid noise and dirt, and stench, and play, and prate,

He calmly cuts the pen or views the slate.

In 1844 "The Ragged School Union" was formed in London,
and maintained there many of the types of schools mentioned
above. The "Constitution and Rules of the Association for the
EstabHshment of Ragged Industrial Schools for Destitute Chil-
dren in Edinburgh" (R. 294) gives a good idea as to the nature,

^ "The amount of instruction rarely, if ever, exceeds the first four rules of arith-
metic, with reading and writing. The class of children instructed is presumed to be
of the very poorest, living in the most crowded districts. No doubt a large number
come under this designation, but not a few better-to-do persons are found ready to
take advantage for their children of the free instruction thus held out to them, and
even at times almost pressed upon them." (Bartley, George C. T., The Schools for
the People, p. 385.)

2 The Reverend George Crabbe (1754-1832). "The schools of the Borough."

620 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

support, and instruction in such schools. As late as 1870, when
national education was first begun in England, there were about
two hundred of these Ragged Schools in London alone, with about
23,000 children in them. Upon many such forms of irregular
schools England depended before the days of national organization.

Other eighteenth-century influences. During the latter half of
the eighteenth century French Revolutionary thought ^ and
American political action began to exert some influence on public
opinion in England. The small upper ruling class, alarmed at the
developments in France, became confirmed in its opposition to
any general popular education aside from a Httle reading, writing,
counting, and careful rehgious training, while on the other hand
men of more liberal outlook felt that popular enlightenment was a
necessity to prevent the masses from becoming stirred by inflam-
matory writings and speeches. The increasing distress in the
agricultural regions, due to the rapid change of England from an
agricultural to a manufacturing nation; the crowding of great
numbers of working people into the manufacturing towns; and
the social misery and political unrest following the Napoleonic
wars all alike contributed to a feeling of need for any form of phil-
anthropic effort that gave promise of alleviating the ills of society.
There now grew up a small but influential body of thinkers who
favored the maintenance of a system of general and compulsory
education by the State, and the separation of the school from the
Church. The most notable proponents of this new theory were
Adam Smith, the Reverend T. R. Malthus, and the Anglo-Ameri-
can Thomas Paine. The first approached the question from an
economic point of view, the second from an economic and bio-
logic, and the third from the political.

In 1776 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations appeared. This was
one of the great books of all time. Among other matters he dealt
with the question of education. He pointed out that EngHsh so-
ciety was now becoming highly organized; that the new manu-
facturing life had completely changed the simple conditions of an
earlier agricultural society; that in the narrow round of manufac-

1 French Revolutionary thought "represented an attack on over-interference,
vested interests, superstition, and tyranny of every form. It showed a marked
propensity to ignore history, and to judge everything by its immediate reasonable-
ness. It pictured a society free from all laws and coercion, freed from all clerical
influence and ruled by benevolence, a society in which all men had equal rights and
were able to attain the fullest self-realization. In its strictly educational aspects,
it demanded the withdrawal of education from the Church and the setting up of a
state system of secular instruction." (Birchenough, C, History of Elementary
Education in England and Wales, p. 20.)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 621

turing duties and town life people tended to lose their inventive

ness and to stagnate; and that the individual degeneracy which

set in in a more highly organized type of

society became a social danger of large

magnitude. Hence, he argued (R. 295),

it was a matter of state interest that "the

inferior ranks of the people" be instructed

to make them socially useful and to render

them " less apt to be misled into any wanton

or unnecessary opposition to measures of

government." Accordingly, he held, the

State had every right, not only to take

over elementary education as a state func-
tion and a public charge, but also to make

it free and compulsory.

In 1798 the Reverend T. R. Malthus's

Essay on Population appeared. This was

a precursor of the work of Darwin, and another of the great books

of all time. He pointed out that population everywhere tended

to outrun the means of subsistence, and that it was only prevented

from doing so by preventive checks which involved much misery

and vice and pauperism. To prevent
pauperism each individual must exercise
moral restraint and foresight, and to en-
able all to do this a widespread system of
public instruction was a necessity (R. 296).
The money England had spent in poor-
relief he regarded as largely wasted, be-
cause it afforded no cure. In the general
education of a people the real solution lay.
He said:

Fig. 183. Adam Smith
(1723-90)

We have lavished immense sums on the
poor, which we have every reason to think
have constantly tended to aggravate their
misery, ... It is surely a great national dis-
grace that the education of the lowest classes in
England should be left to a few Sunday Schools,
supported by a subscription from individuals, who can give to the course
of instruction in them any kind of bias which they may please. (R 296.)

Fig. 184

Rev. T. R. Malthus

(1766-1834)

Agreeing thoroughly with Adam Smith that a general diffusion of
knowledge was a safeguard to society, he urged the teaching of the

622 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

elements of political economy in the common schools to enable
people to live better in the new type of competitive society.^

In 1791-92 Thomas Paine published his widely read Rights of
Man. He expressed the French Revolutionary political theory,
holding that government, while capable of great good were its
powers only properly exercised, was, as organized, an evil. In a
well -governed nation none would be permitted to go unin-
structed, he held, and he would cut off poor-relief and make a
state grant of £4 a year for every child under fourteen for its edu-
cation, and would compel parents to send all children to school
to learn reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Each of these three books had a long and a slowly cumulative
influence, and a small number of young and powerful champions
of the idea of popular education as a public charge began, early in
the nineteenth century, to urge action and to influence public
opinion.

II. THE PERIOD OF PHILANTHROPIC EFFORT (1800-33)

Conditions at the beginning of the nineteenth century. This
second period in the history of the organization of English educa-
tion begins with the publication, in 1797, of Dr. Andrew Bell's An
Experiment in Education, describing his work in educating large
numbers of children by means of the so-called mutual system, at
the Male Asylum at Madras, India. The period properly ends
with the first Parliamentary grant for education, in 1833. In its
main characteristics it belongs to the eighteenth rather than to
the nineteenth century, as the prominent educational movements
of the eighteenth (charity-schools, Sunday Schools, schools of in-
dustry) continue strong throughout the period, and many new
undertakings of a similar charitable nature (''Ragged Schools";
associations for the improvement of the condition of the poor, etc.)
were begun.

The period — during and after the Napoleonic wars — was one
of marked social and political unrest, and of corresponding em-
phasis on social and philanthropic service. The masses were dis-
contented with their lot, and were beginning to be with their lack

^ The ideas of Malthus were especially offensive to his brother clergymen, and
created quite a furor. Many regarded him as an insane and unorthodox fanatic.
A prevailing idea of the time was that of a " beautiful order Providentially arranged,"
and it was the custom to give everything a rose-colored hue. The poor were thought
to be contented in their poverty, and the rich and the aristocratic considered them-
selves divinely appointed to rule over them. Malthus saw the fallacy of such
thinking, and stated matters in the light of biologic and political truths.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 623

of political privileges. Numerous plans to quiet the unrest and
improve conditions were proposed, of which schemes to increase
employment (industrial schools; evening schools), to encourage
thrift (savings banks; children's brigades), and to spread an ele-
mentary and religious education (mutual schools; infant schools)
that would train the poor in self-help were the most prominent.
''The Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing the
Comforts of the Poor," founded in 1796, became a very important
early-nineteenth-century institution. Branches were established
all over England. Soup-kitchens, clothing-stations, savings
banks, and schools were among the chief lines of activity. In
particular it extended and improved Sunday Schools, encouraged
the formation of charity-schools and schools of industry, and later
gave much aid in establishing the new monitorial schools. Edu-
cational interest steadily strengthened during the period, though
as yet along lines that were deemed relatively l;armless, were in-
expensive, and were largely religious in character.

The eighteenth-century conception of education as a charity,
designed where given to train the poor to ''an honest, upright,
grateful, and industrious poverty," still prevailed; there was as
yet little thought of education as designed to train the poor to
think for and help themselves. The eighteenth-century concep-
tion of the educational process, too, which regarded education as
something external and determined by adult standards and
needs, and to be imposed on the child from without, also contin-
ued. The purpose of the school was to manufacture the standard
man, and the business of the teacher was to so organize and meth-
odize instruction that the necessary knowledge could be acquired
as economically, from a financial point of view, as possible. The
Pestalozzian conception of education as a development of the in-
dividual, according to the law of his own nature, found but slow
acceptance in England. Mental development, scientific instruc-
tion, the habit of thinking, the exercise of judgment, and free and
enlightened opinion were ideas that found Httle favor there, and
hence had to be handled carefully by those who had caught the
new conception of the educational process.

In the political reaction following the end of Napoleon's rule
the upper and ruling classes of England, in common with those of
continental lands, became exceedingly suspicious of much educa-
tion for the masses. To secure contributions for schools it be-
came necessary " to avow and plead how little it was that the

624

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

schools pretended or presumed to teach.'.' ^ England now experi-
enced a great development of manufacturing and commerce, a
great material prosperity ensued, and the growing demand for
education was met by a counter-demand that the education pro-
vided should be systematized, economical, and should not teach
too much. Such a system of training was now discovered and ap-
plied, in the form of mutual or monitorial instruction, and was
hailed as "a new expedient, parallel and rival to the modern in-
ventions in the mechanical departments."

Origin of mutual or monitorial instruction. In 1797 Dr. An-
drew Bell, a clergyman in the EstabHshed Church, pubHshed the

Rev. Andrew Bell (1753-1832) Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838)
Fig. 185. The Creators of the Monitorial System

results of his experiment in the use of monitors in India." The
idea attracted attention, and the plan was successfully introduced
into a number of charity-schools. About the same time (1798) a
young Quaker schoolmaster, Joseph Lancaster by name, was led
independently to a similar discovery of the advantages of using
monitors, by reason of his needing assistance in his school and be-
ing too poor to pay for additional teachers. In 1803 he pub-
lished an account of his plan.*^ The two plans were quite similar,

^ Foster, John, An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, p. 259.

- Bell, Reverend Dr. Andrew, An Experiment in Education made at the Male
Asylum at Madras, Suggesting a System by which a School or a Family may teach
itself under the Super intoidence of the Master or Parent. London, 1797.

' Lancaster, Joseph, Improvements in Education as it Respects the Industrial
Classes of the Community. London, 1803; New York, 1807.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 625

attracted attention from the first, and schools formed after one or
the other of the plans were soon organized all over England.

Increased attention was attracted to the new plans by a bitter
church quarrel which broke out as to who was the real originator
of the idea/ Bell being upheld by Church-of-England supporters,
and Lancaster by the Dissenters. In 1808 ''The Royal Lancas-
trian Institution" was formed, which in 1814 became "The Brit-
ish and Foreign School Society," to promote Lancastrian schools.
This society had the close support of King George III, the Whigs,
and the Edinburgh Review, while such liberals as Brougham,
Whi thread, and James Mill were on its board of directors. This
Society sent out Lancaster to expound his ''truly British" sys-
tem, and by 1810 as many as ninety-five Lancastrian schools had
been established in England. His model school in Borough Road,
Southwark, which became a training-school for teachers, is shown
on the following page. Lancaster was a poor manager; became
involved in financial difficulties; and in 1818 left for the United
States, where he spent the remainder of his life in organizing such
schools and expounding his system. For a time this attracted
wide attention, as we shall point out in the following chapter.

Lancaster's work stimulated the Church of England into activ-
ity, and in 181 1 ''The National Society for Promoting the Educa-
tion of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church
throughout England and Wales" was formed by prominent
S.P.C.K. (p. 449) members and Churchmen, with the Archbishop
of Canterbury as president. This Society was supported by the
Tories, the Established Church, and the Quarterly Review, and
was formed to promote the Bell system,^ "which made religious
instruction an essential and necessary part of the plan." Within
a month £15,000 had been subscribed to establish schools.
Among many other contributions were £500 each from the uni-
versities of Oxford and Cambridge. A training-school for teach-
ers was organized; district societies were formed over England to
estabhsh schools ; and a system of organized aid was extended for
both buildings and maintenance. By 183 1 there were 900,412

^ Both Bell and Lancaster worked with great energy to organize schools after
their respective plans, and quarreled with equal energy as to who originated the
idea. While both probably did, the idea nevertheless is older than either. In 1790
Chevalier Paulet organized a monitorial school in Paris; while the English school-
master, John Brinsley (1587-1665), in his Ludus Literarius, or the Grammar Schooles
(1612), laid down the monitorial principle in explicit language.

2 This Society adopted, as a fundamental principle, "that the national religion
should be made the foundation of national education, and according to the excellent
liturgy and catechism adopted by our Church for that purpose."

626

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

children receiving instruction in the monitorial schools of the
National Society alone.

The mutual instruction idea spread to other lands — France,
Belgium, Holland, Denmark — and seems to have been tried

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 627

even in German lands. In France and Belgium it was experi-
mented with for a time because of its cheapness, but was soon
discarded because of its defects. In Teutonic lands, where the
much better Pestalozzian ideas had become established, the
monitorial system made practically no headway. It was in the
United States, of all countries outside of England, that the idea
met with most ready acceptance.

The system of mutual or monitorial instruction. The great
merit, aside from being cheap, of the mutual or monitorial system
of instruction lay in that it represented a marked advance in
school organization over the older individual method of instruc-
tion, with its accompanying waste of time and schoolroom dis-
order. Under the individual method only a small number of
pupils could be placed under the control of one teacher, and the
expense for such instruction made general education almost pro-
hibitive. Pestalozzi, to be sure, had worked out in Switzerland
the modern class-system of instruction, and following develop-
mental lines in teaching, but of this the English were not only
ignorant, but it called for a degree of pedagogical skill which their
teachers did not then possess. Bell and Lancaster now evolved
a plan whereby one teacher, assisted by a number of the brighter

Fig. 187. Monitors xEAcmNG Reading at "Stations"

Three "drafts" of ten each, with their toes to the semicircles painted on
the floor, are being taught by monitors from lessons suspended on the wall.

pupils whom they designated as monitors, could teach from two
hundred to a. thousand pupils in one school (R. 297). The pic-
ture of Lancaster's London school (Figure 186) shows 365 pupils
seated.^ The pupils were sorted into rows, and to each row was

1 "When Lancaster had his famous interview with King George III, that mon-
arch was impressed, as he naturally might be, by the statement that one master
'could teach live hundred children at the same time.' 'Good,' said the King;
'Good,' echoed a number of wealth}^ subscribers to Lancaster's projects." (Binns,
H. B., A Century of Education, p. 299.)

628

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

assigned a clever boy (monitor) to act as an assistant teacher.
A common number for each monitor to look after was ten. The
teacher first taught these monitors a lesson from a printed card,
and then each monitor took his row to a " station " about the wall
and proceeded to teach the other boys what he had just learned.
At first used only for teaching reading and the Catechism, the plan
was soon extended to the teaching of writing, arithmetic, and
spelling, and later on to instruction in higher branches. The sys-
tem was very popular from about 1810 to 1830, but by 1840 its
popularity had waned.

Such schools were naturally highly organized, the organization
being largely mechanical (R. 298). Lancaster, in particular, was

Fig. 188. Proper Monitorial-School Positions

(From an engraved plate of 30 positions, in a Manual of the British
and Foreign School Society, London, 1831)

an organizing genius. The Manuals of Instruction gave complete
directions for the organization and management of monitorial
schools, the details of recitation work, use of apparatus, order,
position of pupils at their work, and classification being minutely
laid down. By carefully studying and following these directions
any reasonably intelligent person could soon learn to become a
successful teacher in a monitorial school.

The schools, mechanical as they now seem, marked a great im-
provement over the individual method upon which schoolmasters
for centuries had wasted so much of their own and their pupils'
time. In place of earlier idleness, inattention, and disorder, Bell
and Lancaster introduced activity, emulation, order, and a kind
of military discipline which was of much value to the type of

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 629

children attending these, schools. Lancaster's biographer, Sal-
mon, has written of the system that so thoroughly was the instruc-
tion worked out that the teacher had only to organize, oversee,
reward, punish, and inspire:

When a child was admitted a monitor assigned him his class; while
he remained, a monitor taught him (with nine other pupils) ; when he
was absent, one monitor ascertained the fact, and another found out
the reason; a monitor examined him periodically, and, when he made
progress, a monitor promoted him; a monitor ruled the writing paper;
a monitor had charge of slates and books ; and a monitor-general looked
after all the other monitors. Every monitor wore a leather ticket,
gilded and lettered, " Monitor of the First Class," " Reading Monitor
of the Second Class," etc.

Value of the system in awakening interest. The monitorial
system of instruction, coming at the time it did, exerted a very
important influence in awakening interest in and a sentiment for
schools. It increased the number of people who possessed the
elements of an education; made schools much more talked about;
and aroused thought and provoked discussion on the question of
education. It did much toward making people see the advan-
tages of a certain amount of schooling, and be willing to contrib-
ute to its support. Under the plans previously in use education
had been a slow and an expensive process, because it had to be
carried on by the individual method of instruction, and in quite
small groups. Under this new plan it was now possible for one
teacher to instruct 300, 400, 500, or more pupils in a single room,
and to do it with much better results in both learning and disci-
pline than the old type of schoolmaster had achieved.

All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced
which not only improved and popularized, but tremendously
cheapened education.^ Lancaster, in his Improvements in Educa-
tion, gave the annual cost of schooling under his system as only
seven shillings sixpence ($1.80) per pupil, and this was later de-
creased to four shiUings fivepence ($1.06) as the school was in-
creased to accommodate a thousand pupils. Under the Bell sys-
tem the yearly cost per pupil, in a school of five hundred, was only
four shillings twopence ($1.00), in 1814. In the United States,

1 In 1807 Mr. Whitbread, an ardent supporter of schools, said, in an address
before the House of Commons: "I cannot help noticing that this is a period particu-
larly favorable for the institution of a national system of education, because within
a few years there has been discovered a plan for the instruction of youth which is
now brought to a state of great perfection, happily combining rules by which the
object of learning must be infallibly attained with expedition and cheapness, and
holding out the fairest prospect of utility to mankind."

630

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Lancastrian schools cost from $1.22 per pupil in New York, in
1822, up to $3.00 and $4.00 later on. At first begun as free
schools/ the expansion of effort was more rapid than the income
from contributions, and a small tuition fee was in time charged.
Pupils were admitted at about the age of seven, and might remain
until thirteen or fourteen, though an attendance of two years was
considered "abundantly sufficient for any boy." To prepare
skilled masters and mistresses for the schools — girls were pro-
vided for in many places — training or model schools were organ-
ized by both the national societies, and these represent the begin-
nings of normal- school training in England.

Infant Schools. Another type of school which became of much
importance in England, and spread to other lands, was the Infant

School. This owed its origin to Robert
Owen, proprietor of the cotton mills at
New Lanark, Scotland. Being of a phil-
anthropic turn of mind, and believing that
man was entirely the product of circum-
stance and environment, he held that it
was not possible to begin too early in im-
planting right habits and forming char-
acter. Poverty and crime, he believed,
were results, of errors in the various sys-
tems of education and government. So
plastic was child nature, that society would
be able to mould itself ''into the very
image of rational wishes and desires."
That "the infants of any one class in the
world may be readily formed into men of any other class," was
a fundamental belief of his.

When he took charge of the mills at New Lanark (1799) he
found the usual wretched social conditions of the time. Children
of five, six, and seven years were bound out to the factory as
apprentices (R. 242) for a period of nine years. They worked as
apprentices and helpers in the factories twelve to thirteen hours
a day, and at early manhood were turned free to join the ignorant
mass of the population. Owen sought to remedy this condition.

^ When Lancaster first hired the large hall in Borough Road which later became
an important training-college, and opened it as a mutual-instruction school, he
announced: "All that will may send their children, and have them educated freely,
and those who do not wish to have education for nothing, may pay for it if they
please."

Fig. 189

Robert Owen

(1771-1858)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 631

He accordingly opened schools which children might enter at
three years of age, receiving them into the schools almost as soon
as they were able to walk, and caring for them while their parents
were at work. Children under ten he forbade to work in the mills,
and for these he provided schools. The instruction for the chil-
dren younger than six was to be ''whatever might be supposed
useful that they could understand," and much was made of sing-
ing, dancing, and play. Moral instruction was made a prominent
feature. By 1814 his work and his schools had become famous.
In 181 7 he pubHshed a plan for the organization of such industrial
communities as he conducted. In 18 18 he visited Switzerland,
and saw Pestalozzi and Fellenberg.

In 1818 a number of Liberals — Brougham, James Mill, and
others — ■ combined to establish an Infant School in London, im-
porting a teacher from New Lanark. The idea took root, was
popularized, and the Infant School was soon adopted as an inte-
gral part of their schools by both the British and Foreign School
Society (Lancastrians) and the National Society (Bell). In
1836 the " Home and Colonial Infant School Society " was formed
to train teachers for and to establish Infant Schools. One of
the organizers of this society was Charles Mayo who had
worked with Pestalozzi at Yverdon (R. 270), and through his in-
fluence much of the bookishness which had crept in was removed
and the better Pestalozzian procedure put in its place.

Unlike the monitorial schools, the Infant Schools were based
on the idea of small-group work, and were usually conducted in
harmony with the new psychological conceptions of instruction
which had been worked out by Pestalozzi, and had by that time
begun to be introduced into England. The Infant-School idea
came at an opportune time, as the defects of the mechanical Lan-
castrian instruction were becoming evident and its popularity
was waning. It gave a new and a somewhat deeper philosophical
interpretation of the educational process, created a stronger de-
mand than had before been known for trained teachers, estab-
lished a preference for women teachers for primary work, and
tended to give a new dignity to teaching and school work by
reveaHng something of a psychological basis for the instruction
of little children. It also contributed its share toward awakening
a sentiment for national action.

Work of the educational societies. The work of the voluntary
and philanthropic educational societies in establishing schools and

632

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

providing teachers and instruction before the days of national
schools was enormous.^ Though the State did nothing before
1833, and little before 1870, the work of the educational societies
was large and important. What was done by the church societies
alone may be seen from the following table:

Statistics as to 10,595 Elementary Schools founded by the Religious
Societies (British Census Returns, 185 i)

Date

Total num-
ber of
schools

The

National
Society, or
Church of
England,

schools

British
and For-
eign
Schools
Society

Indepen-
dents, or
Congrega-
tionalists

Weslevan
Method-
ists

Roman
Catholics

Baptists

Other

religious

bodies

Before 1801
1801-1811
1811-1821
1821-1831
1831-1841
1841-1851

Not stated

766
410

879
1,021

2,417

4,604

498

709

350
756
897
2,002
3,448
409

16
28
77
45
191

449
46

8
:?

95
269

239

10
10

14
28
69
166
14

131

331

Totals

10,595

8,571

852 431

363

311

131

33^

After about 1820-25 the rising interest in elementary education
expressed itself in the formation of a number of additional socie-
ties, the more important of which were:

1824. "London Infant School Society" founded by Brougham.
1826. "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" founded by

Brougham. The Journal of Education begun.
1836. "Central Society of Education" founded.

1836. "Home and Colonial Infant Society" founded. Beginning of a
Pestalozzian Training College.

1837. "Educational Committee of the Wesleyan Conference estab-
lished."

1843. "Congregational Board of Education" formed.

1844. "Ragged School Union " founded.

1845. "Catholic Institute."

^ In 1820, Brougham, in introducing his "Bill for the Better Education of the
Poor in England and Wales," gave statistics as to the progress of education at that
time in England. His estimate as to the numbers being educated were:

430,000 in endowed and privately managed schools;

220,000 in monitorial schools;
50,000 being educated at home;

100,000 educated only in Sunday Schools;
53,000 being educated in dame schools.
I'rom these figures he argued that one in fifteen of the population of England and
one in twenty in Wales were attending some form of school, but with only one in
twenty-four in London. The usual period of school attendance for the poorer
classes was only one and a half to two years.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 633

1847. The ''Catholic Poor-School Committee."

1847. "Lancashire Pubhc School Association" formed.

1850. The "National Public School Association."

1867. "Birmingham Education Aid Society."

1868. The Manchester Conference.

1869. Formation of "The League."

Some of these were formed to found and support schools, and some
engaged primarily in the work of propaganda in an effort to
secure some national action.

111. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION

The parliamentary struggle. During the whole of the eight-
eenth century Parliament had enacted no legislation relating to
elementary education, aside from the one Act of 1767 for the
education of pauper children in London, and the freeing of ele-
mentary schools, Dissenters, and Catholics, from inhibitions as
to teaching. In the nineteenth century this attitude was to be
changed, though slowly, and after three quarters of a century of
struggle the beginnings of national education were finally to be
made for England, as they had by then for every other great
nation. In 1870 the " no-business-of-the-State " attitude toward
the education of the people, which had persisted from the days of
the great Elizabeth, was finally and permanently changed. The
legislative battle began with the first Factory Act ^ of 1802, Whit-
bread's Parochial Schools Bill- of 1807, and Brougham's first
Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry of 1816 (R. 291); it finally
culminated with the reform of the old endowed Grammar Schools
by the Act of 1869, the enactment of the Elementary Education
Act of 1870 (R. 304), and the Act of 1871 freeing instruction
in the universities -from religious restrictions (R. 305) . The first
of these enactments declared clearly the right of the State to
inquire into, reorganize, and redirect the age-old educational
foundations for secondary education; the second made the
definite though tardy beginnings of a national system of elemen-
tary education for England ; and the third opened up a universit}'

^ Known as the Heahh and Morals of Apprentices Act. It limited the working
hours of apprentices to twelve; forbade night work; required day instruction to be
provided in reading, writing, and arithmetic; required church attendance once a
month; and provided for the registration and inspection of factories. The Act was
very laxly enforced, and its chief value lay in the precedent of state interference
which it established.

2 Whitbread proposed a national system of rate-aided schools to provide all chil-
dren in England with two years of free schooling, between the ages of seven and
fourteen.

634

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

career to the whole nation. The agitation and conflict of ideas
was long drawn out, and need not be traced in detail. The fol-
lowing tabulated summary will give the main outlines of the
struggle, and the selection on "The Educational Traditions of
England" (R. 306) gives a good brief history of the long conflict.

The Parliamentary Struggle for National Education in England

Dates

Proposals, Reports, etc., and Results

1802
1807
1816

1818
1820

1833

1834

1835 I
1837 i

1838
1839

1841
1843
1843
1846
1846

1847
1850

First Factory Act for regulating employment of children.

Adopted.
Whitbread's Parochial Schools' Bill introduced.

Rejected by the House of Lords.
Broughman secured a Parliamentary Committee to inquire into the state
of education of the lower classes in London, Westminster, and South-
wark.

Report — 130,000 children without school accommodations [1818].
(R. 291.)
Brougham secured a Committee of Inquiry on Educational Chanties.

No report until 1837.
Bill introduced proposing a tax for schools and the granting of Government
aid in building schoolhouses.

Opposed by Dissenters and Catholics. Withdrawn. Brougham's
first Educational Bill.
Government aid for building schoolhouses re-proposed.

£20,000 a year granted. (R. 299.) Distributed through the two great
Educational Societies.
Committee of Inquiry appointed.

No result beyond statistics.
Brougham introduced bills to organize a system of elementary education.
Bills failed of passage. Educational Inquiry Committee appointed
[1837].

Committee report: the deplorable conditions existing.

Bill of 1839. Education Department created.
Bill to increase the Government grant to £30,000 and to allow all Societies
to share. Inspectors to be appointed. Committee of Privy Council on
Education established.

Bitter opposition. Carried. Much discussion as to "undenomina-
tional education."
Annual grant to establish schools of design in manufacturing districts.

Voted.
Sir Jas. Graham's Factory Bill.

Opposed by the Dissenters and defeated.
Address to the Crown on condition of the working classes.

No parliamentary action.
Yearly grant extended to the maintenance of schools.

Gradual increase in the yearly grants.
Minute and Regulations on annual grants and pupil teachers. Founda-
tion of a system laid.

Pupil-teacher system definitely established. Certificates to teach.
Annual grant extended to maintenance.
Government proposals for nationalizing education.

Carried, despite violent religious opposition.
Fox's Bill to make education free and compulsory.
Defeated.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 635

The Parliamentary Struggle for National Education in England

{continued)

Dates

1 853
1853

1855
1856

1858

1861

1864

1866

1867

1868

1869
1869

1870
1871

Proposals, Reports, etc., and Results

The Government proposed a small local rate in aid of schools.

Bill dropped after the first reading.
Department of Science and Art created, and National Art Training Schools
established.

Promotion of elementary education in art and science, particularly
after 1859.
Three educational Bills introduced. Local rate proposed.

Failure to agree. All withdrawn.
Commons asked to declare in favor of rate aid and local Boards. Two
Educational Bills introduced.

First bill tabled. Second bill withdrawn. Education Department
formed.
A Royal Commission to inquire into the state of popular education in
England asked for.

The Duke of Newcastle's Commission created. Its Report published
in 1861. (R. 303.)
No acceptable scheme reported. Code of 1861 proposed.

No advance. "Payment by results" begun [1862]. Code adopted.
Schools Inquiry Commission appointed on endowed schools.

Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission in 1867.
Report of a Select Committee of the House of Commons on Educa-
tion.
The Government introduced proposals as to education.

Voted down.
Government Bill proposing changes in distribution and larger grants.

Parliament adjourned without action.
Endowed Schools' Act passed.
Two Educational Bills introduced.

Withdrawn at the request of the Government.
The Elementary. Education Act of 1870 introduced.

Much amended and passed. (R. 304.) Beginning of a National sys-
tem of education.
Religious Tests at universities withdrawn (R. 305).

The leaders in the conflict. The main leader in the parlia-
mentary struggle to establish national education, from the death
of Whi thread, in 181 5, to about 1835, was Henry, afterwards
Lord Brougham. He was aided by such men as Blacks tone, and
Bentham and his followers, and, after about 1837, by such men
as Dickens, Carlyle, Macaulay, and John Stuart Mill. Dickens,
by his descriptions, helped materially to create a sentiment favor-
able to education, as a right of the people rather than a charity.
He stood strongly for a compulsory and non-sectarian state sys-
tem of education that would transform the children of his day
into generous, self-respecting, and intelligent men and women.
Carlyle saw in education a cure for social evils, and held that one

636

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of the first functions of government was to impart the gift of
thinking to its future citizens. Writing, in 1840, he said:

Who would suppose that education were a thing which had to be
advocated on the ground of local expediency, or any ground? As if it
stood not on the basis of everlasting duty as a prime necessity of man.

Brougham was untiring in his efforts for popular education,
and some idea as to the interest he awakened may be inferred

from the fact that his Observations on the
Education of the People, published in 1825,
went through twenty editions the first
year. He introduced bills, secured com-
mittees of inquiry, made addresses,^ and
used his pen in behalf of the education of
the people. His belief in the power of
education to improve a people was very
large. Warning the ''Lawgivers of Eng-
land" to take heed, he once said:

Let the soldier be abroad, if he will; he can
do nothing in this age. There is another per-
sonage abroad, a person less imposing — in the
eye of some insignificant. The Schoolmaster
is abroad, and I trust him, armed with his
primer, against the soldier in full uniform array.

The conqueror stalks onward with the "pride, pomp, and circum-
stance of war," banners flying, shouts rending the air, guns thundering,
and martial music pealing, to drown the shrieks of the wounded and
the lamentations for the slain. Not thus the schoolmaster in his
peaceful vocation. He meditates and prepares in secret the plans
which are to bless mankind; he slowly gathers around him those who
are to further their execution; he quietly, though firmly, advances in
his humble path laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to
the light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the
weeds of vice. His is a progress not to be compared with anything
like a march; but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to laurels
more imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the
world, ever won.

Parallel with the agitation for some state action for education
was an agitation for social and poHtical reform. The basis for the
election of members to the House of Commons was still mediae-

1 See J. E. G. de Montmorency's Stale Intervention in English Education, pp. 248-
85, for Brougham's address to the Commons in 1820 on "The Education of the
Poor"; and pp. 285-324 for his address before the House of Lords in 1835, on "The
Education of the People." Both addresses contain an abundance of data as to
existing conditions and needs.

Fig. 190
Lord Brougham

(1778-1868)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 637

Fig. 191. An English Village School in 1840

(After a drawing by Hablot K. Browne, and printed in Charles Dickens's ''Master

Humplirey's Clock ")

val. Boroughs no longer inhabited still returned members, and
sparsely settled regions returned members out of all proportion
to the newly created city populations. Few, too, could vote.
Only about 160,000 persons in a population of 10,000,000 had,
early in the century, the right of the franchise. The city popula-
tions were practically disfranchised in favor of rural landlords,
the nobility, and the clergy. In 1828 Protestant Non- Conform-
ists were relieved of their political disability, and in 1829 a similar
enfranchisement was extended to Catholics.. In 1832 came the
first real voting reform in the passage of the so-called Third
Reform Bill,^ after a most bitter parliamentary struggle. This
reapportioned the membership of the House on a more equitable
basis, and enfranchised those who owned or leased lands or
buildings of a value of £10 a year. The result of this was to en-
franchise the middle class of the population ; increase the number
of voters (1836) from about 175,000 to about 839,500 out of
6,023,000 adult males; and effectively break the power of the
House of Lords to elect the House of Commons. Progressive

^ So called because the House of Lords rejected the first two passed by the Com-
mons, and finally accepted the third only because the King had agreed to create
enough new Lords to pass the bill unless it were enacted by the upper House.

638 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

legislation now became much easier to secure, and in 1833 a Bill
making a grant of £20,000 a year to aid in building schoolhouses
for elementary schools — the first government aid for elementary
education ever voted in England — became a law (R. 299) .
During the few years following the passage of the Reform Bill
many progressive measures were enacted, among which should be
mentioned the abolition of slavery in the colonies; the beginnings
of legislation looking to a scientific treatment of poverty and non-
employment; the Municipal Reform Act (1835); the institution
of the penny post (1839) ; and the abolition of the Corn Laws
(1846) ; while after 1837 education began to take a prominent
place in the programs of the new working-class movement.

Progress after 1833. The Law of 1833, though, made but the
merest beginnings, and up to 1840 the money granted was given
to the two great national school societies, and without regulation.
Beginning in 1840, and continuing up to the beginnings of na-
tional education, in 1870, the grants were state-controlled and
distributed through the different educational societies. The
total of these grants, by years, and the proportional share of the
different educational societies are well shown in the chart (Fig. 192.)
In 1846 the grants were extended to maintenance as well, and in
1847 Catholic and Wesleyan societies were admitted to share in
the grants. Soon thereafter we note a sharp upward turn of the
curve, though the Church-of-England schools obtained the
greater proportion of the increased funds. Proposals to add local
taxation, in 1853 and 1856, were dropped almost as soon as made.
The commercial and manufacturing interests, though, secured
separate aid for art and science instruction (1841, 1853), and the
creation of national art training-schools (1853). Training-schools
for teachers also were begun, and aided by grants. In 1845 the
English ''pupil- teacher" system^ also was begun in an effort to
supply teachers of some little training. A State Department of
Education was created, in 1856, though without much power, and
the various "Minutes" which were now adopted were organized
into a system and presented to Parliament as a School Code, in
1861, and finally approved.

New Educational Commissions were created to inciuire into
educational conditions and needs in 1858 and 1864, and these
reported in 1861 and 1867, but without important results. The

^ This was a development of the monitorial system of training, and was virtually
an apprenticeship form of teacher-training.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 639

most notable of these was the Duke of Newcastle's Commission,
appointed in 1858 to review conditions, progress, and needs, and
to make recommendations for the future. This Commission re-
ported in 1861. It stated that one in every eight of the popula-
tion was then in some kind of school; gave statistics as to condi-

X
700,000

650,000
600,000
850,000
500,000
450,000

-r/

350,000

150,000

100,000

60,000

V 0/

,nnv^

.,^_____^

_--

^=— ^ ■

£_F02!

,GNS3:^^^i

WFSLEYANS__

==^

nsH^

CATHOLICS

Fig. 192. Expenditure from the Education Grants, 1839-70
Between 1833 and 1839 no Government regulation of grants. The above figures
do not include administration expenses, or grants made to Scotland (about the same
in amount as the Br. & F. S. Soc.) or to the Parochial Schools Union (very small).
The drop in the curve between 1862 and 1867 was due to the mtroduction ot the
"payment by results" plan.

tions (R. 303 a) ; and held that the plan of leaving popular educa-
tion to the voluntary initiative of communities had been justified
by the results. The report presented no plan for national organi-
zation, but recommended a number of minor changes in condi-
tions. In particular it recommended the introduction of the
system of "payment by results " — that is, of making money
grants to schools on the basis of the number of pupils passing set
examinations in reading, writing, and arithmetic (R. 303 b) . This

640

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

plan was begun in 1862, and the consequent drop in money grants
for a few years thereafter is shown in the curves of the chart.
The other Commission, appointed, known as the Taunton Schools
Inquiry Commission (1864-67), dealt with the old endowed
schools, and in particular called attention to the lack of secondary-
school facilities, especially in the cities, and recommended an ex-
tension of secondary-school facilities and a democratization of the
whole system of secondary education. The important legislation
of this period was the freeing of the old universities from Church-
of-England control (R. 305) and making them national in spirit.
Difficulties encountered. In the meantime liberal leaders,
Schools Inquiry Commissions, official reports, and educational

propagandists continued to pile up evi-
dence as to the inadequacy of the old vol-
untary system. A few examples, out of
hundreds that might be cited, will be men-
tioned here. Lord Macaulay, in an ad-
dress made in Parliament, in 1847 (R. 300),
defending a "Minute" of the "Committee
of Privy Council on Education" (created
in 1839) proposing the nationalization of
education, held it to be " the right and duty
of the State to provide for the education
of the common people," as an exercise of
self -protection, and warned the Commons
of dangers to come if the progressive ten-
dencies of the time were not listened to.
The Census Returns of 1851, as well as the
abundance of data published by the Schools
Inquiry Commissions, were effectively used to reveal the inade-
quate provisions for the education of the masses. The Reports
of the school inspectors, too, revealed conditions in need of being
remedied in all phases of educational effort. The Report on the
Apprenticing of Pauper Children (R. 301) is selected as typical
of many similar reports.

So deeply ingrained, though, was the EngHsh conception of
education as a private and voluntary and religious affair and no
business of the Stale; so self-contained were the English as a
people; and so little did they know or heed the progress made in
other lands, that the arguments for national action encountered
tremendous opposition from the Conservative elements, and often

Fig. 193

Lord T. B. Macaulay

(1800-59)

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 641

Facts revealed by the Census of 185 i

Items

1833

1851

(i) Population of England and Wales

14,400,000

2,000,000

12,400,000

420,000

2,604,000

14,897

24,074

481,728

795,219
114.6

30.5

17,927,609

2,489,945

15,437,664

522,888

(2) Middle and upper classes population

(3) Laboring class population

(4) Population 3—12 years of age of (2)

(5) Population 3—12 years of age of (3)

^,24.1,010

(6) Number of schools for children of (2)

(7) Number of schools for children of (3)

(8) Pupils of class (2) in schools

(9) Pupils of class (3) in schools.

(10) Percentage of children of class (2) at school. . .

(11) Percentage of children of class (3) at school. . .

16,324

29,718

546,396

1,597,982

104.4

49.2

were opposed even by Liberals. The reasoning of Sir James Kay-
Shuttleworth (R. 302), Secretary of the Committee of Council on
Education and one of the clearest heads in England in his day,
who held that a fee for instruction had a moral value and vindi-
cated personal freedom, and who resented the interference of the
State in the matter of a parent's relation to his child, was typical
of thousands of others. Edward Baines (17 74 -1848), proprietor
of the Leeds Mercury, the chief Liberal organ in northern Eng-
land, bitterly opposed any action looking toward nationaHzing
education. He expressed the feeling of many when he wrote:

Civil government is no fit agency for the training of families or of
souls. . . . Throw the people on their own resources in education, as
you did in industry; and be assured, that, in a nation so full of intelli-
gence and spirit. Freedom and Competition will give the same stim-
ulus to improvement in our schools, as they have done in our manu-
factures, our husbandry, our shipping, and our commerce.

The beginnings of national organization. By 1865 it had be-
come evident to a majority that the voluntary system, whatever
its merits, would never succeed in educating the nation, and from
this time forth the demand for some acceptable scheme for the
organization of national education became a part of a still more
general movement for political and social reform. Once more, as
in 1832-33, an education law was enacted following the passage
of a bill for electoral reform and the extension of the suffrage.

Though the Liberal Party was in power, it was well satisfied
with the Reform Act of 1832 because through it the middle classes
of the population, which the Liberal Party represented, had gained
control of the government. The country, though, was not — the

642 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

working-classes in particular demanding a share in the govern-
ment. Finally the demand became too strong to be resisted, and
the Second Reform Act, of 1867, became a law. This abohshed
a number of the remaining smaller boroughs, and greatly extended
the right to vote. In the country the amount of propert}^ to be
owned to vote was reduced from £10 to £5, and the leasehold
value from £50 to £1 2. In the cities and towns the vote was now
given to all householders, and to all lodgers who paid a yearly
rental of £10. This legislation gave the vote to a vastly increased
number of people, particularly city workers,^ and was a political
revolution for England of great magnitude.

From the passage of this new Reform Act to 1870, the organiza-
tion of national education only awaited the formulation of some
acceptable scheme. ''We must educate our new masters," now
became a common expression. The main question was how to
create schools to do what the voluntary schools had shown them-
selves able to do for a part, but were unable to do for all, without
at the same time destroying the vast denominational system-
that, in spite of its defects, had ''done the great service of rearing
a race of teachers, spreading schools, setting up a standard of
education, and generally making the introduction of a national
system possible." The way in which these "vested interests"
were cared for was typically English, and characteristic of the
strong sense of obligation of the English people. In 1870 a com-
promise law was proposed and carried. Mr. Gladstone, then
Prime Minister, stated the attitude of the Government in fram-
ing the new law, when he said : "

It was with us an absolute necessity — a necessity of honour and a
necessity of policy — to respect and to favour the educational estab-
lishments and machinery we found existing in the country. It was
impossible for us to join in the language or to adopt the tone which
was conscientiously and consistently taken up by some members of
the House, who look upon these voluntary schools, having generally
a denominational character, as admirable passing expedients, fit, in-

^ In 1885 the same liberty was extended to rural laborers. This added two mil-
lion more voters, and gave England almost full manhood sufifrage. Finally, in 19 18,
some five million women were added to the voting classes.

2 Nearly two million children had been provided with school accommodations,
three fourths of which had been done by those associated with the Church of Eng-
land. In doing this the-Church had spent some £6,270,000 on school buildings, and
had raised some £8,500,000 in voluntary subscriptions for maintenance. The Gov-
ernment had also paid out some £6,500,000 in grants, since 1833. In 1870 it was
estimated that 1,450,000 children were on the registers of the state-aided schools,
while 1,500,000 children, between the ages of six and twelve, were unprovided for.

^ Speech before the House of Commons, July 22, 1870.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 643

SCHOOL

POPULATION

800,000

750,000

700,000

650,000-

600,000-

560,000

500,000

400,000-

deed, to be tolerated for a time, deserving all credit on account of the
motives which led to their foundation, but wholly unsatisfactory as
to their main purpose,
and therefore to be
supplanted by some-
thing they think bet-
ter That has never

been the theory of the
Government. . . .
When we are ap-
proaching this great
work, which we de-
sire to make complete,
we ought to have a
sentiment of thankful-
ness that so much has
been done for us.

Accordingly the
Elementary Educa-
tion Bill of 1870 (R.
304) preserved the
existing Voluntary
Schools; divided the
country up into
school districts ; gave
the denominations a
short period in which
to provide schools,
with aid for build-
ings; ^ and there-
after, in any place
where a deficiency
in school accommo-
dations could be
shown to exist, School Boards were to be elected, and they should

^ "The clergy of the National Society exhibited amazing energy and succeeded,
according to their own account, in doing in twelve months what in the normal course
of events would have taken twenty years. By the end of the year they had lodged
claims for 2885 building grants, out of a total of 3342. They also set to work, with-
out any governmental assistance, to enlarge their schools and so increased denomi-
national accommodation enormously. The voluntary contributions in aid of this
work have been estimated at over £3,000,000. At the same time the annual sub-
scriptions doubled. . . . By 1886, over 3,000,000 places had been added, one-half
of which were due to voluntary agencies, and Voluntary Schools were providing
rather more than two-thirds of the school places in the country. In 1897 the pro-
portion had fallen to three-fifths." (Birchenough, C, History of Elementary Edu-
cation, pp. 138, 140.)

350,000

300,000

250,000

150,000-

50,000

Fig. 194. Work of the School Boards in
PROVIDING School Accommodations

London taken as a type. Note the deficiency in school
accommodation in 1838, that the voluntary schools
made no appreciable gain on this deficiency up to 1870,
the attempt to cope with the situation between 1871
and 1874, and the long pvill of the new Board schools
necessary to provide sufficient schools and seats.

644 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

have power to levy taxes and maintain elementary schools.
Existing Voluntary Schools might be transferred to the School
Boards, whose schools were to be known as Board Schools. The
schools were not ordered made free, but the fees of necessitous
children were to be provided for by the School Boards, and they
might compel the attendance of all children between the ages of
five and twelve. Inspection and grants were limited to secular
subjects, though religious teaching was not forbidden. The cen-
tral government was to be secular and neutral; the local boards
might decide as they saw fit. Such were the beginnings of na-
tional education in England. That the new Board Schools met a
real need, especially in the cities, is shown by the chart on the
preceding page, giving the results in London.

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM

Progress under the Law of 1870. Beginning in 187 1 the Board
Schools had, by 1893, come to enroll 41 per cent of the pupils in
elementary schools in England, as against 44 per cent in Volun-
tary Schools, and by 1903 the proportions were 49 per cent to 39
per cent. By 1902 the government grants for maintenance had
reached, for all schools, £8,000,000 a year, and the Board Schools
were rapidly outrunning the Voluntary Schools both in numbers
and in per- capita expenditures. The Board Schools had made
their greatest headway in the cities. In 1895 there were still
some 11,000 small parishes which had no Board Schools, and in
consequence paid no direct taxes for schools. Of these, 8000 had
only Church-of-England Voluntary Schools.

In 1880 elementary education had been made fully compulsory,
and in 1891 largely free. In 1893 the age for exemption from
attendance was fixed at eleven, and in 1899 this was raised to
twelve. In 1888 county and borough councils had been created,
better to enforce the Act and to extend supervision. The Annual
Codes, from 1870 to 1902, gradually extended governmental con-
trol through more and more detailed instructions as to inspection,
the addition of new subjects, and better compulsion to attend.
In 1899 a Central Board of Education, under a President and a
Parliamentary Secretary, was created, to consolidate in one body
the work formerly done by:

a. The Committee of Council on Education (established 1839),
which administered the grants for elementary education.

b. The Department of Science and Art (established 1853), which

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 645

administered the grants for special and evening instruction in
science and art.

c. The Charity Commissioners, to which had been given (1874)
supervision of the old educational trusts and endowments for
education.

d. The educational functions of the Board of Agriculture.

This new Board unified the administration of elementary and
secondary education for the first time in English history.

By about 1895 the strain on the Voluntary Schools had become
hard to bear. The Church resented the encroachments of the
State on its ancient privilege of training the young, and the larger
resources which the Board Schools could command. In 1895 the
Conservative party won the parliamentary elections, and re-
mained in power for some years. This was the opportunity of
the Voluntary Schools, and in 1897 a special national-aid grant
of five shillings per pupil in average daily attendance was made
to the Voluntary Schools. This simply increased the general dis-
satisfaction, and there was soon a general demand for new legis-
lation that would reconcile the whole question of national educa-
tion. The Law of 1902 was the ultimate result.

The Annexation Law of 1902. The Balfour Education Act of
1902 marks the beginning of a new period in English education.
For the first time in English history education of all grades — ele-
mentary, secondary, and higher; voluntary and state — was
brought under the control of one single local authority, and Vol-
untary Schools were taken over and made a charge on the " rates "
equally with the Board Schools. New local Educational Com-
mittees and Councils replaced the old School Boards, and all
secular instruction in state-aided schools of all types was now
placed under their control. Religious instruction could continue
where desired. In addition, one third of the property of England,
which had heretofore escaped all direct taxation for education,
was now compelled to pay its proper share. The foundation prin-
ciple that "the wealth of the State must educate the children of
the State" was now applied, for the first time.

The State now abandoned the old policy of merely supervising
and assisting voluntary associations to maintain schools, in com-
petition with state-provided schools, and assumed the whole
responsibility for the secular instruction of the people. Though
the law awakened intense opposition from those who felt that it
*' riveted the hand of the cleric on the schools of the land," it

646 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

nevertheless equalized and unified educational provisions; paved
the way for much future progress; made the general provision of
secondary education possible; and represented an important new
step in the process of creating a national system of education
for the people. Under this Law much has been done by the
new Central Board of Education, and subsequent supplementary
legislation, to increase materially the efficiency of the education
provided.

Since 1902 the cost for education per pupil has been increased
more than one half. The local authorities, to whom were given
large powers of control, have levied taxes liberally, and the State
has also increased its grants. Since 1902 also there has been a
continual agitation for a resettlement of the educational question
along broad national lines. Bills have been introduced, and
important committees have considered the matter, but no af-
firmative action was taken. By the time of the opening of
the World War it may be said that English opinion had about
agreed upon the principle of pubHc control of all schools,
absolute religious freedom for teachers, local option as to re-
ligious instruction, large local liberty in management and con-
trol, well-trained and well-paid teachers, and the fusing of all
types of schools into a democratic and truly national school sys-
tem, strong in its unity and national elements, but free from cen-
tralized bureaucratic control. It was left for the World War to
give emphasis to this national need and to permit of the final
creation of such an educational organization.

The incorporation of secondary education into the national
system. For centuries the education of the small ruling class had
been conducted by the private tutor and the endowed secondary
school, and had been completed by a few years at Oxford or Cam-
bridge. The Reform Bill of 1832 had raised the middle commer-
cial and industrial classes to power, and had created new demands
for secondary and higher education for the sons of this class. The
old endowed schools were now no longer sufficient in numbers,
and the result was the founding of many private and joint-stock-
company secondary schools to minister to the new educational
needs. The Second Reform Bill of 1867 enfranchised a very much
greater number of citizens, and the increasing wealth and the
increasing demands for educational advantages led to an insist-
ence for a further extension along secondary and higher lines.
The result was seen in the investigation of the nine ''Great

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 647

Public Schools" of England/ by the Lord Clarendon Commission
(1861-64); and the appointment of the British Schools Inquiry
Commission of 1864-67, to inquire into the 820 other endowed
schools and the 122 proprietary or joint-stock-company schools of
the land. The Report of the first led to the Public Schools Act of
1868, reforming abuses and regulating the use of their old endow-
ments. The second pointed out the great deficiency then existing
in secondary education,^ and led to the enactment of the Endowed
Schools Act of 1869, placing all endowed schools under centralized
supervision. We see here the beginnings of state supervision and
control of the age-old endowments for Latin grammar schools and
other types of schools for secondary training. The repeal of the
old Religious-Tests-for-Degrees legislation, at the old universities
(R. 305), in 187 1, transformed these from Church-of-England into
national institutions, and opened up the whole range of education
to all wiio could meet the standards and pay the fees.

Under the Act of 1870 many local school boards, especially in
the manufacturing cities, began to satisfy the new needs by the
organization of Higher Grade Schools, or High Schools, to supple-
ment the work of the elementary schools and to extend upward,
in a truly democratic fashion, the educational ladder. In this
movement the manufacturing cities of Sheffield, Birmingham,
and Manchester were the leaders. In these three cities also, as
well as in four others (Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, and London) ^
new modern-type universities were created. The Department of
Science and Art (created in 1853) also began, in 1872, to give
large grants to the cities for the establishment of a three-years'
course in science, for the encouragement of scientific training.
These new secondary- type schools, providing for the direct pas-
sage of children from the elementary to the secondary schools,
with many free places for capable students, served to increase the
friction between rate-aided schools on the one hand, and volun-
tary and endowed and proprietary schools on the other. Carry-

^ These were the seven endowed secondary boarding schools — Winchester (1382),
Eton (1440), Shrewsbury (1552), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1567), Harrow
(1571), and Charterhouse (1611) — and the two endowed day schools, — Saint
Paul's (1510) and Merchant Taylors' (1561).

2 At least one hundred towns, the Report showed, with a population of five
thousand or over had no endowed secondary school, and London, with a population
then (1867) of over three million, had but twenty-six schools and less than three
thousand pupils enrolled. All the new manufacturing cities were in even worse
condition than London,

^ The University of London was originally founded in 1836, and reorganized in
1900.

648 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ing out, as they did, Huxley's idea of a broad educational ladder,^
they also represented a very democratic innovation in English
educational procedure.

In 1894 a Commission — -a favorite English method for con-
sidering vexatious questions — was appointed, under the chair-
manship of Mr. James (afterwards Lord) Bryce, ''to consider the
best methods of establishing a well-organized system of secondary
education in England." The Report was important and influ-
ential. It recommended the creation of a general Board of Edu-
cation under a responsible government Minister, with a perma-
nent Secretary and a Consultative Educational Council (as was
done in 1899); the establishment of local county and borough
boards to provide adequate secondary- school accommodations,
with aid from the ''rates"; the inspection of secondary schools
by the Central Board of Education; the professional training of
secondary-school teachers; and a great extension of the free-
scholarship plan to children from the elementary schools. On
this last point the Report said : ^

We have to consider the means whereby the children of the less well-
to-do classes of our population may be enabled to obtain such secondary
education as may be suitable and needful for them. As we have not
recommended that secondary education shall be provided free of cost
to the whole community, we deem it all the more needful that ample
provision be made by every local authority for enabling selected chil-
dren of poorer parents to climb the educational ladder. . . . The assist-
ance we have contemplated should be given by means of a carefully
graduated system of scholarships, varying in value in the age at which
they are awarded and the class of school or institution at which they
are tenable.

The Act of 1902 unified control of both elementary and secon-
dary education. Any private or endowed secondary school was
left free to accept or reject government aid and inspection, but,
if the aid were accepted, inspection and the following of govern-
ment plans were required. Secondary education must provide
for scholars up to or beyond the age of sixteen. No attempt was
made to unify the work and character of the secondary schools,
it being clearly recognized that, in England at least, these must
be suited to the different requirements of the scholars, the means

1 The scientist Thomas Huxley was a London School Board member, and, speak-
ing as such, he expressed the views of many when he said: "I conceive it to be our
duty to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along which any child may
climb."

- Royal {Bryce) Commission on Secondary Education, vol. i, p. 299. London, 1895.

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 649

of the parents, the age at which schooling will stop, and the prob-
able place in the social organism of England which the pupils will
occupy. By 19 10, out of 841 secondary schools in England re-
ceiving grants of state aid, 325 were supported by local authori-
ties and were the crea-
tions of the preceding four
decades. Most of the oth-
ers represented old Latin
grammar-school founda-
tions, thus incorporated
into the national system,
and without that violence
and destruction of endow-
ments which character-
ized the transformations
in France and Italy.

A national system at
last evolved. It is a little
more than two centuries
from the founding of the
Society for the Promotion
of Christian Knowledge
(1699) to the very import-
ant Fisher Education Act ^
of August, 1918. The first
marked the beginnings of
the voluntary system ; the
second ''the first real at-
tempt in England to lay
broad and deep the foun-
dations of a scheme of ed-
ucation which would be
truly national." ThisAct,
passed by Parliament in the midst of a war which called upon the
English people for heavy sacrifices, completed the evolution of
two centuries and organized the educational resources — element-
ary, secondary, evening, adult, technical, and higher — into one

1 Known as the "Education Act, 1918" (8 and 9 Geo. V, ch. 39). The Act has
been reprinted in full in the Biennial Survey of Education, igi6-i8, of the United
States Commissioner of Education, in the chapter on Education in Great Britain.
It also has been reprinted as an appendix to Moore, E. C, What the War teaches
about Education, New York, 1919.

Local and

Voluntary

Schools

Endowed

and
Proprietary
Schools

Fig. 195. The English Educational
System as finally evolved

The years, for the divisions of English educa-
tion, are only approximate, as English educa-
tion is more flexible than that found in most
other lands.

650 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

national system, animated by a national purpose, and aimed at
the accomplishment for the nation of twentieth-century ends on
the most democratic basis of any school system in Europe. In so
doing Huxley's educational ladder has not only been changed
into a broad highway, but the educational traditions of England
(R. 306) have been preserved and moulded anew.

The central national supervisory authority has been still further
strengthened; the compulsion to attend greatly extended; and the
voice of the State has been uttered in a firmer tone than ever
before in English educational history. Taxes have been increased;
the scope of the school system extended; all elements of the sys-
tem better integrated; laggard local educational authorities sub-
jected to firmer control; the training of teachers looked after more
carefully than ever before ; and the foundations for unlimited im-
provement and progress in education laid down. Still, in doing
all this, the deep English devotion to local liberties has been
clearly revealed. The dangers of a centralized French-type edu-
cational bureaucracy have been avoided; necessary, and relatively
high, minimum standards have been set up, but without sacrific-
ing that variety which has always been one of the strong points
of English educational effort; and the legitimate claims of the
State have been satisfied without destroying local initiative and
independence. In this story of two centuries and more of struggle
to create a really national system of education for the people we
see strongly revealed those prominent characteristics of English
national progress — ■ careful consideration of new ideas, keen sen-
sitiveness to vested rights, strong sense of local liberties and
responsibilities, large dependence on local eft'ort and good sense,
progress by compromise, and a slow graf ting-on of the best ele-
ments of what is new without sacrificing the best elements of
what is old.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that the English method of slow progress and after long discussion
would naturally result in a plan bearing evidence of many compromises.

2. What does the extensive Charity-School movement in eighteenth-century
England indicate as to the comparative general interest in learnmg in
England and the other lands we have previously studied?

3. Show how the Sunday-School instruction, meager as it was, was very
important in England in paving the way for further educational progress.

4. What do all the different late eighteenth-century voluntary educational
movements indicate as to comparative popular interest in education in
England and Prussia? England and France?

NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND 651

5. Can you explain the much greater percentage of city poor in England in
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than in French or
German lands?

6. Can you explain why periods of prolonged warfare are usually followed
by periods of social and political unrest?

7. Can you explain why Pestalozzian ideas found such slow acceptance in
England?

8. Explain, on the basis of the English adult manufacturing conception of
education, why monitorial instruction was hailed as "a new expedient,
parallel and rival to the modern inventions in the mechanical depart-
ments."

9. To what extent do we now accept Robert Owen's conception of the
influence of education on children?

10. Show how the many philanthropic societies for the education of the
children of the poor came in as a natural transition from church to state
education.

li. Show the importance of the School Societies in accustoming people to
the idea of free and general education.

12. Show how the Lancastrian system formed a natural bridge between pri-
vate philanthropy in education and tax-supported state schools.

13. Why were the highly mechanical features of the Lancastrian organiza-
tion so advantageous in its day, whereas we of to-day would regard them
as such a disadvantage?

14. Explain how the Lancastrian schools dignified the work of the teacher
by revealing the need for teacher-training.

15. Assuming that there may be some vaHdity to the arguments of Kay-
Shuttleworth, what are the limitations to such reasoning?

16. What theory as to education would naturally lie behind a "payment-by-
results " plan of distributing state aid?

17. Show how EngHsh educational development during the nineteenth cen-
tury has been deeply modified by the progress of democracy,

18. Show how the English have attained to minimum standards without
imposing uniform requirements that destroy individuality and initia-
tive.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selections
are reproduced;

291. Parliamentary Report: Charity-School Education described.

292. S.P.C.K.: Cost and Support of Charity-Schools.

293. Raikes: Description of the Gloucester Sunday Schools.

294. Guthrie: Organization, Support, and Work of a Ragged School.

295. Smith, A. : On the Education of the Common People.

296. Malthus: On National Education.

297. Smith, S.: The School of Lancaster described.

298. Philanthropist: Automatic Character of the Monitorial Schools.

299. Montmorency, de: The First Parliamentary Grant for Education.

300. Macaulay: On the Duty of the State to Provide Education.

301. Mosely: Evils of Apprenticing the Children of Paupers.

302. Kay-Shuttleworth ; Typical Reasoning in Opposition to Free Schools,

303. Macnamera: The Duke of Newcastle Commission Report.

304. Statute: Elementary Education Act of 1870.

305. Statute: Abolition of Rehgious Tests at the Universities.

306. Times: The Educational Traditions of England.

652 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Characterize the type of education described by the witness (291).

2. Considering equipment provided and comparative money values, then
and now, about how much of an effort did support (292) involve?

3. What class of children did Raikes (293) make provision for?

4. Characterize the type of education provided (294) in the Ragged
Schools.

5. Would Adam Smith's reasoning (295) still hold true?

6. Would that of Malthus (296)?

7. Indicate the improvements Lancaster had made (297, 298) in organi-
zation and teaching efficiency.

8. Was the first English parliamentary grant (299) expressive of deep
national interest?

9. Would Macaulay's reasoning (300) still be true?

10. Is it probable that the apprenticing of paupers had always given such
(301) results?

11. How sound was Kay-Shuttleworth's reasoning (302)?

12. What merit was there to the "payment-by-results" recommendation of
the Duke of Newcastle Commission (303)?

13. Just what kind of schools did the Act of 1870 (304) make provision for?

14. Have we ever had such religious requirements as those so long main-
tained (305) at the English universities?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Allen, W. 0. B. and McClure, E. Two Hundred Years ; History of

S.P.C.K. 1698-1898.
Adams, Francis. History of the Elementary School Contest in England.
*Binns, H. B. A Century of Education, 1808-1908 , History of the British

and Foreign School Society.
*Birchenough, C. History of Elementary Education in England and Wales
since 1800.
Escott, T. H. S. Social Transformations of the Victorian Era.
Harris, J. H, Robert Raikes; the Man and his Work.
*Holman, H. English National Education.

*Montmorency, J. E. G. de. The Progtess of Education in England.
*Montmorency, J. E. G. de. State Intervention in English Education to

1833-
*Salmon, David. Joseph Lancaster.

CHAPTER XXV

AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN
THE UNITED STATES

I. EARLY NATIONAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS

The American problem. The beginnings of state educational
organization in the United States present quite a different history
from that traced for Prussia, France, Italy, or England. While
the parochial school existed in the Central Colonies, and in time
had to be subordinated to state ends; and while the idea of educa-
tion as a charity had been introduced into all the Anglican Colo-
nies, and later had to be stamped out; the problem of educational
organization in America was not, as in Europe, one of bringing
church schools and old educational foundations into harmonious
working relations with the new state school systems set up. In-
stead the old educational foundations were easily transformed to
adapt them to the new conditions, while only in the Central Colo-
nies did the religious-charity conception of education give any
particular trouble. The American educational problem was
essentially that of first awakening, in a new land, a consciousness
of need for general education; and second, that of developing a
willingness to pay for what it finally came to be deemed desirable
to provide.

By the middle of the eighteenth century, as we have pointed
out (p. 438), the earlier religious interests in America had clearly
begun to wane. In the New England Colonies the school of the
civil town had largely replaced the earlier religious school. In
the Middle Colonies many of the parochial schools had died out.
In the Southern Colonies, where the classes in society and negro
slavery made common schools impossible, and the lack of city life
and manufacturing made them seem largely unnecessary, the
common school had tended to disappear. Even in New England,
where the Calvinistic conception of the importance of education
had most firmly estabhshed the idea of school support, the eight-
eenth century witnessed a constant struggle to prevent the dying-
out of that which an earlier generation had deemed it important
to create.

Effect of the war on education. The effect of the American
War for Independence, on all types of schools, was disastrous.

654 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The growing troubles with the mother country had, for more
than a decade previous to the opening of hostihties, tended to
concentrate attention on other matters than schoohng. PoHtical
discussion and agitation had largely monopolized the thinking of
the time.

With the outbreak of the war education everywhere suffered
seriously. Most of the rural and parochial schools closed, or
continued a more or less intermittent existence. In New York
City, then the second largest city in the country, practically all
schools closed with British occupancy and remained closed until
after the end of the war. The Latin grammar schools and acade-
mies often closed from lack of pupils, while the colleges were
almost deserted. Harvard and Kings, in particular, suffered
grievously, and sacrificed much for the cause of liberty. The
war engrossed the energies and the resources of the peoples of the
different Colonies, and schools, never very securely placed in the
affectiqps of the people, outside of New England, were allowed to
fall into decay or entirely disappear. The period of the Revolu
tion and the period of reorganization which followed, up to the
beginning of the national government (1775-89), were together
a time of rapid decline in educational advantages and increasing
illiteracy among the people. Meager as had been the opportuni-
ties for schooling before 1775, the opportunities by 1790, except
in a few cities and in the New England districts, had shrunk
almost to the vanishing point. For Boston (R. 307), Providence
(Rs. 309, 310), and a number of other places we have good pic-
tures preserved of the schools which actually did exist.

The close of the war found the country both impoverished and
exhausted. All the Colonies had made heavy sacrifices, many
had been overrun by hostile armies, and the debt of the Union
and of the States was so great that many thought it could never
be paid. The thirteen States, individually and collectively, with
only 3,380,000 people, had incurred an indebtedness of $75,000,000
for the prosecution of the conflict. Commerce was dead, the
Government of the Confederation was impotent, petty insurrec-
tions were common, the States were quarreling continually with
one another over all kinds of trivial matters, England still re-
mained more or less hostile, and foreign complications began to
appear. That during such a crucial period, and for some years
following, but little or no attention was anywhere given to the
question of education was only natural.

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 655

No real educational consciousness before about 1820. Re-
gardless of the national land grants for education made to the
new States (p. 523), the provisions of the different state constitu-
tions (R. 259), the beginnings made here and there in the few
cities of the time, and the early state laws (R. 262) , it can hardly
be said that the American people had developed an educational
consciousness, outside of New England and New York, before
about 1820, and in some of the States, especially in the South, a
state educational consciousness was not awakened until very
much later. Even in New England there was a steady decline in
education during the first fifty years of the national history.

There were many reasons in the national life for this lack of
interest in education among the masses of the people. The simple"
agricultural life of the time, the homogeneity of the people, the
absence of cities, the isolation and independence of the villages,
the lack of full manhood suffrage in a number of the States, the
want of any economic demand for education, and the fact that no
important political question calling for settlement at the polls
had as yet arisen, made the need for schools and learning seem a
relatively minor one. The country, too, was still very poor. The
Revolutionary War debt still hung in part over the Nation, and
the demand for money and labor for all kinds of internal improve-
ments was very large. The country had few industries, and its
foreign trade was badly hampered by European nations. Ways
and means of strengthening the existing Government and holding
the Union together,^ rather than plans which could bear fruit only
in the future, occupied the attention of the leaders of the time.

When the people had finally settled their political and com-
mercial future by the War of 181 2-14, and had built up a national
consciousness on a democratic basis in the years immediately fol-
lowing, and the Nation at last possessed the energy, the money,
and the interest for doing so, they finally turned their energies
toward the creation of a democratic system of public schools. In
the meantime, education, outside of New England, and in part
even there, was left largely to private individuals, churches, in-
corporated school societies, and such state schools for the children

^ "The Constitution," as John Quincy Adams expressed it, "was extorted from
the grinding necessities of a reluctant people" to escape anarchy and the ultimate
entire loss of independence, and many had grave doubts as to the permanence of
the Union. It was not until after the close, of the War of 1812 that belief in the
stability of the Union and in the capacity of the people to govern themselves became
the belief of the many rather than the very few, and plans for education and national
development began to obtain a serious hearing.

656 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of the poor as might have been provided by private or state
funds, or the two combined.

The real interest in advanced education. In so far as the
American people may be said to have possessed a real interest in
education during the first half-century of the national existence,
it was manifested in the establishment and endowment of acade-
mies and colleges rather than in the creation of schools for the
people. The colonial Latin grammar school had been almost
entirely an English institution, and never well suited to American
needs. As democratic consciousness began to arise, the demand
came for a more practical institution, less exclusive and less aris-
tocratic in character, and better adapted in its instruction to the
needs of a frontier society. Arising about the middle of the
eighteenth century, a number of so-called Academies had been
founded before the new National Government took shape. While
essentially private institutions, arising from a church founda-
tion, or more commonly a local subscription or endowment,
it became customary for towns, counties, and States to assist in
their maintenance, thus making them semi-public institutions.
Their management, though, usually remained in private hands,
or under boards or associations.^

Beside offering a fair type of higher training - before the days
of high schools, the academies also became training-schools for
teachers, and before the rise of the normal schools were the chief
source of supply for the better grade of elementary teachers.

^ After the beginning of the national life a number of States founded and endowed
a state system of academies. Massachusetts, in 1797, granted land endowments
to approved academies. Georgia, in 1783, created a system of county academies
for the State. New York extended state aid to its academies, in 1813, having put
them under state inspection as early as 1787. Maryland chartered many acade-
mies between 1801 and 181 7, and authorized many lotteries to provide them with
funds, as did also North Carolina. The Rhode Island General Assembly chartered
many academies, and aided them by lotteries. Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana,
among western States, also provided for county systems of academies.

2 The study of Latin and a little Greek had constituted the curriculum of the old
Latin grammar school, and its purpose had been almost exclusively to prepare boys
for admission to the colony colleges. In true English style, Latin was made the
language of the classroom, and even attempted for the playground as well. As a
concession, reading, writing, and arithmetic were sometimes taught. The new
caademies, while retaining the study of Latin, and usually Greek, though now taught
through the medium of the English, added a number of new studies adapted to the
needs of a new society. English grammar was introduced and soon rose to a place
of great importance, as did also oratory and declamation. Arithmetic, algebra,
geometry, geography, and astronomy were in time added, and surveying, rhetoric
(including some literature), natural and moral philosophy, and Roman antiquities
were frequently taught. Girls were admitted rather freely to the new academies,
whereas the grammar schools had been exclusively for boys. For better instruction
a "female department" was frequently organized.

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 657

These institutions rendered an important service during the first
half of the nineteenth century, but were in time displaced by the
publicly supported and publicly controlled American high school,
the first of which dates from 182 1. This evolution we shall
describe more in detail a little later on.

The colleges of the time. Some interest also was taken in col-
lege education during this early national period. College attend-
ance, however, was small, as the country was still new and the
people were poor. As late as 181 5, Harvard graduated a class of
but 66; Yale of 69; Princeton of 40; Williams of 40; Pennsylvania
of 15; and the University of South Carolina of 37. After the
organization of the Union the nine old colonial colleges were re-
organized, and an attempt was made to bring them into closer
harmony with the ideas and needs of the people and the govern-
ments of the States. Dartmouth, Kings (now rechristened
Columbia), and Pennsylvania were for a time changed into state
institutions, and an unsuccessful attempt was made to make a
state university for Virginia out of William and Mary. Fifteen
additional colleges were organized by 1800, and fourteen more by
1820. Between 1790 and 1825 there was much discussion as to
the desirability of founding a national university at the seat of
government, and Washington in his will (1799) left, for that time,
a considerable sum to the Nation to inaugurate the new under-
taking. Nothing ever came of it, however. Before 1825 six
States — Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Indi-
iana, and Michigan — had laid the foundations of future state
universities. The National Government had also granted to each
new Western State two entire townships of land to help endow a
university in each — a stimulus which eventually led to the estab-
lishment of a state university in every Western State.

A half-century of transition. The first half-century of the
national life may be regarded as a period of transition from the
church-control idea of education over to the idea of education
under the control of and supported by the State. Though many
of the early States had provided for state school systems in their
constitutions (R. 259), the schools had not been set up, or set up
only here and there. It required time to make this change in
thinking. Up to the period of the beginnings of our national
development education had almost everywhere been regarded as
an affair of the Church, somewhat akin to baptism, marriage, the
administration of the sacraments, and the burial of the dead.

658 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Even in New England, which formed an exception, the evolution
of the civic school from the church school was not yet complete.

The church charity-school had become, as we have seen (p. 449),
a familiar institution before the Revolution. The English '' Soci-
ety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" (p. 449),
which maintained schools in connection with the Anglican
churches in the Anglican Colonies and provided an excellent grade
of charity-school master, withdrew at the close of the Revolution-
ary War from work in this country. The different churches after
the war continued their efforts to maintain their church charity-
schools, though there was for a time a decrease in both their num-
bers and their effectiveness.

In the meantime the demand for education grew rather rapidly,
and the task soon became too big for the churches to handle.
For long the churches made an effort to keep up, as they were
loath to relinquish in any way their former hold on the training
of the young. The churches, however, were not interested in the
problem except in the old way, and this was not what the new
democracy wanted. The result was that, with the coming of
nationality and the slow but gradual growth of a national con-
sciousness, national pride, national needs, and the gradual devel-
opment of national resources in the shape of taxable property —
all alike combined to make secular instead of religious schools
seem both desirable and possible to a constantly increasing num-
ber of citizens.

II. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

Between about 18 10 and 1830 a number of new forces — phil-
anthropic, poHtical, social, economic — combined to change the
earlier attitude by producing conditions which made state rather
than church control and support of education seem both desirable
and feasible. The change, too, was markedly facilitated by the
work of a number of semi-private philanthropic agencies which
now began the work of founding schools and building up an inter-
est in education, the most important of which were: (i) the Sun-
day-School movement; (2) the City School Societies; (3) the
Lancastrian movement; and (4) the Inf ant-School Societies.
These will be described briefly, and their influence in awakening
an educational consciousness pointed out.

The Sunday-School movement. The Sunday School, as a
means of providing the merest rudiments of secular and religious

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 659

learning, had been made, through the initiative of Raikes of
Gloucester (p. 617), a very important EngHsh institution for
providing the beginnings of instruction for the children of the city
poor. Raikes's idea was soon carried to the United States. In
1786 a Sunday School after the Raikes plan was organized in
Hanover County, Virginia. In 1787 a Sunday School for African
children was organized at Charleston, South Carolina. In 1791
"The First Day, or Sunday School Society," was organized at
Philadelphia, for the establishment of Sunday Schools in that
city. In 1 793 Katy Ferguson's " School for the Poor " was opened
in New York, and this was followed by an organization of New
York women for the extension of secular instruction among the
poor. In 1797 Samuel Slater's Factory School was opened at
Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

Though there had been some Sunday instruction earlier at a
few places in New England, the introduction of the Sunday School
from England, in 1786, marked the real beginning of the religious
Sunday School in America. After the churches had once caught
the idea of a common religious school on Sundays for the instruc-
tion of any one, a number of societies were formed to carry on and
extend the work. The most important of these were:

1808. The Evangelical Society of Philadelphia.

1816. The Female Union for the Promotion of Sabbath Schools (New

York).
18 16. The New York Sunday School Union.

1816. The Boston Society for the Moral and Religious Instruction of
the Poor.

181 7. The Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union.
1824. The American Sunday School Union.

These different types of American Sunday Schools, being
open to all instead of only to the poor and lowly, had a small
but an increasing influence in leveling class distinctions and in
making a common day school seem possible. The movement
for secular instruction on Sundays, though, soon met in America
with the opposition of the churches, and before long they took
over the idea, superseded private initiative and control, and
changed the character of the instruction from a day of secular
work to an hour or so of religious teaching. The Sunday School,
in consequence, never exercised the influence in educational devel-
opment in America that it did in England.

The City School Societies. These were patterned after the
English charity-school subscription societies, and were formed iu

66o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

a number of American cities during the first quarter of the nine-
teenth century for the purpose of providing the rudiments of an
education to those too poor to pay for schooUng. These Societies
were usually organized by philanthropic citizens, willing to con-
tribute something yearly to provide some little education for a
few of the many children in the city having no opportunities for
any instruction. A number of these Societies were able to effect
some financial connection with the city or the State.

One of the first of these School Societies was ''The Manumission
Society," organized in New York, in 1785, for the purpose of
''mitigating the evils of slavery, to defend the rights of the blacks,
and especially to give them the elements of an education." Alex-
ander Hamilton and John Jay were among its organizers. A free
school for colored pupils was' opened, in 1787. This grew and
prospered and was aided from time to time by the city, and in
1801 by the State. Finally, in 1834, all its schools were merged
with those of the "Public School Society" of the city. In 1801
the first free school for poor white children "whose parents belong
to no religious society, and who, from some cause or other, cannot
be admitted into any of the charity schools of the city," was
opened. This was provided by the "Association of Women
Friends for the Relief of the Poor," which engaged ".a widow
woman of good education and morals as instructor" at £30 per
year. This Association also prospered, and received some city or
state aid up to 1824. By 1823 it was providing free elementary
education for 750 children. Its schools also were later merged
with those of the "Public School Society."

*' The Public School Society." Perhaps the most famous of all
the early subscription societies for the maintenance of schools for
the poor was the "New York Free School Society," which later
changed its name to that of "The Public School Society of New
York." This was organized, in 1805, under the leadership of
De Witt Clinton, then mayor of the city, he heading the subscrip-
tion list with a promise of $200 a year for support. On May 14,
1806, the following advertisement appeared in the daily papers:

FREE SCHOOL

The Trustees of the Society for establishing a Free School in the
city of New York, for the education of such poor children as do not
belong to, or are not provided for by any religious Society, having
engaged a Teacher, and procured a School House for the accommo-
dation of a School, have now the pleasure of announcing that it is

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 66i

proposed to receive scholars of the descriptions alluded to without
delay; applications may be made to, &c.

Four days later the officers of the Society issued a general
appeal to the public (R. 311), setting forth the purposes of the
Society and soliciting funds.

This Society was chartered by the legislature ''to provide

Fig. 196. The First Schoolhouse built by the Free School Society

IN New York City

Built in 1809, in Tryon Row. Cost, without site. $13,000

schooling for all children who are the proper objects of a gratui-
tous education." It organized free public education in the city,
secured funds, built schoolhouses, provided and trained teachers,
and ably supplemented the work of the private and church schools.
By its energy and its persistence it secured for itself a large share
of public confidence, and aroused a constantly increasing interest
in the cause of popular education. In 1853, softer it had educated
over 600,000 children and trained over 1200 teachers, this Society,
its work done, surrendered its cliarter and turned over its buildings
and equipment to the public-school department of the city, which
had been created by the legislature in 1842.

School Societies elsewhere. The "Benevolent Society of the
City of Baltimore for the Education of the Female Poor," founded
in 1799, and the "Male Free Society of Baltimore," organized a
little later, were other of these early school societies, though
neither became so famous as the Public School Society of New
York. The schools of the city of Washington were started by sub-
scription, in 1804, and for some time were in part supported by

662 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

subscriptions from public-spirited citizens.^ This society did an
important work in accustoming the people of the capital city to
the provision of some form of free education.

In 1800 "The Philadelphia Society ^ for the Free Instruction
of Indigent Boys" was formed, which a little later changed to
"The Philadelphia Society for the Establishment and Support of
Charity Schools." In 1814 "The Society for the Promotion of a
Rational System of Education" was organized in Philadelphia,
and four years later the public sentiment awakened by a combina-
tion of the work of this Society and the coming of the Lancastrian
system of instruction enabled the city to secure a special law per-
mitting Philadelphia to organize a system of city schools for the
education of the children of its poor. Other societies which ren-
dered useful educational service include the "Mechanics and
Manufacturers Association," of Providence, Rhode Island, organ-
ized in 1789 (Rs. 308, 310); "The Albany Lancastrian School
Society," organized in 1826, for the education of the poor of the
city in monitorial schools; and the school societies organized in
Savannah in 1818, and Augusta, in.182 1 , " to afford education to the
children of indigent parents." Both these Georgia societies re-
ceived some support from state funds.

The formation of these school societies, the subscriptions made
by the leading men of the cities, the bequests for education, and
the grants of some city and state aid to these societies, all of which
in time became somewhat common, indicate a slowly rising inter-
est in providing schools for the education of all. This rising
interest in education was greatly stimulated by the introduction
from England, about this time, of a new and what for the time
seemed a wonderful system for the organization of education, the
Lancastrian monitorial plan.

The Lancastrian monitorial schools. Church-of-England ideas
were not in much favor in the United States for some time after
the close of the Revolutionary War, and in consequence it was the
Lancastrian plan which was brought over and popularized. In
1806 the first monitorial school was opened in New York City,
and, once introduced, the system quickly spread from Massachu-

1 Thomas Jefferson's name appears in the first subscription list as giving $200,
and he was elected a member of the first governing board. The chief sources of
support of the schools, which up to 1844 remained pauper schools, were subscrip-
tions, lotteries, a tax on slaves and dogs, certain license fees, and a small appropria-
tion ($1500) each year from the city council.

2 This organization opened the first schools in Philadelphia for children regardless
of religious afl&liation, and for thirty-seven years rendered a useful service there.

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 663

setts to Georgia, and as far west as Cincinnati, Louisville, and
Detroit. In 1826 Maryland instituted a state system of Lancas-
trian schools, with a Superintendent of Public Instruction, but in
1828 abandoned the idea and discontinued the ofhce. A state
Lancastrian system for North CaroHna was proposed in 1832,
but failed of adoption by the legislature. In 1829 Mexico organ-
ized higher Lancastrian schools for the Mexican State of Texas.
In 1 8 18 Lancaster himself went to America, and was received
with much distinction. Most of the remaining twenty years of
his life were spent in organizing and directing schools in various
parts of the United States.

In many of the rising cities of the eastern part of the country
the first free schools established were Lancastrian schools. The
system provided education at so low a cost (p. 629) that it made
the education of all for the first time seem possible.^ The first
free schools in Philadelphia (18 18) were an outgrowth of Lancas-
trian influence, as was also the case in many other Pennsylvania
cities. Baltimore began a Lancastrian school six years before the
organization of public schools was permitted by law. A number
of monitorial high schools were organized in different parts of the
United States, and it was even proposed that the plan should be
adopted in the colleges. A number of New England cities, that
already had other type schools, investigated the new moni-
torial plan and were impressed with its many important points
of superiority over methods then in use. The Report of the
Investigating Committee (1828) for Boston (R. 312), forms a
good example of such. As in England, the system was very
popular from about 18 10 to 1830, but by 1840 its popularity
was over.

The interest the new plan awakened. It is not strange that the
new plan aroused widespread enthusiasm in many discerning men,
and for almost a quarter of a century was advocated as the best
system of education then known. Two quotations will illustrate
what leading men of the time thought of it. De Witt Clinton, for
twenty-one years president of the New York "Free School Soci-
ety," and later governor of the State, wrote, in 1809:

^ All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced which not only
improved but tremendously cheapened education. In 1822 it cost but $1,22 per
pupil per year to give instruction in New York City, though by 1844 the per-capita
cost, due largely to the decreasing size of the classes, had risen to $2.70, and by 1852
to $5.83. In Philadelphia, in 181 7, the expense was $3, as against $12 in the private
and church schools. One finds many notices in the newspapers of the time as to
the value and low cost of the new system.

664 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

When I perceive that many boys in our school have been taught
to read and write in two months, who did not before know the alphabet,
and that even one has accomplished it in three weeks — when I view
all the bearings and tendencies of this system — when I contemplate
the habits of order which it forms, the spirit of emulation which it
excites, the rapid improvement which it produces, the purity of morals
which it inculcates — when I behold the extraordinary union of celer-
ity in instruction and economy of expense — and when I perceive one
great assembly of a thousand children, under the eye of a single
teacher, marching with unexampled rapidity and with perfect ^disci-
pline to the goal of knowledge, I confess that I recognize in Lancaster
the benefactor of the human race. I consider his system as creating
a new era in education, as a blessing sent down from heaven to redeem
the poor and distressed of this world from the power and dominion of
ignorance.

In a message to the legislature of Connecticut, a State then
fairly well supplied with schools of the Massachusetts district
type, Governor Wolcott said, in 1825:

If funds can be obtained to defray the expenses of the necessary
preparations, I have no doubt that schools on the Lancastrian mode)
ought, as soon as possible, to be established in several parts of this
state. Wherever from 200 to 1000 children can be convened within a
suitable distance, this mode of instruction in every branch of reading,
speaking, penmanship, arithmetic, and bookkeeping, will be found
much more efficient, direct, and economical than the practices now
generally pursued in our primary schools.

The Lancastrian schools materially hastened the adoption of
the free school system in all the Northern States by gradually ac-
customing people to bearing the necessary taxation which free
schools entail. They also made the common school common and
much talked of, and awakened thought and provoked discussion
on the question of public education. They likewise dignified the
work of the teacher by showing the necessity for teacher-training.
The Lancastrian Model Schools, first established in the United
States in 1818, were the precursors of the American normal
schools.

Coming of the Infant SchooL A curious early condition in
America was that, in some of the cities where public schools had
been established, by one agency or another, no provision had been
made for beginners. These were supposed to obtain the element?
of reading at home, or in the Dame Schools. In Boston, for ex-
ample, where public schools were maintained by the city, no chil-
dren could be received into the schools who had not learned to
read and write (R. 314 a). This made the common age of ad-

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA

665

mission somewhere near eight years. The same was in part true
of Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other cities.
When the monitorial schools were established they tended to re-
strict their membership in a similar manner, though not always
able to do so.

In 18 1 6 there came to America, also from England, a valuable
supplement to education as then known in the form of the so-
called Infant Schools (p. 630). First introduced at Boston (R.
313), the Infant Schools proved popular, and in 18 18 the city ap-
propriated $5000 for the purpose of organizing such schools to
supplement the public-school system. These were to admit
children at four years of age, were to be known as primary schools,
were to be taught by women, were to be open all the year round,
and were to prepare the children for admission to the city schools,
which by that time had come to
•be known as English grammar
schools. Providence, similar-
ly, established primary (In-
fant) schools in 1828 for child-
ren between the ages of four
and eight, to supplement the
work of the public schools,
there called writing schools.

The Dame School absorbed.
For New England the estab-
lishment of primary schools
virtually took over the Dame
School instruction as a public
function, and added the pri-
mary grades to the previously
existing school. We have here
the origin of the division, often
still retained at least in name
in the Eastern States, of the
"primary grades" and the
"grammar grades" of the ele-

FiG. 197

"Model" School Building of the

Public School Society

Erected in 1843. Cost (with site), $17,000.
A typical New York school building, after
1830. The infant or primary school was on
the first floor, the second floor contains the
girls' school, and the third floor the boys'
school. Each floor had one large room
seating 252 children; the primary school-
room could be divided into two rooms by
folding doors, so as to segregate the infant
class. This building was for long regarded
as the perfection of the builder's art, and
its picture was printed for years on the
cover of the Society's Annual Reports.

mentary school.

An " Infant-School Society "
was organized in New York, in
1827. The first Infant School was established under the direction
of the Public School Society as the "Junior Department" of

666

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

School No. 8, with a woman teacher in charge, and using moni-
torial methods. A second school was established the next year.
In 1830 the name was changed from Infant School to Primary De-
partment, and where possible these departments were combined
with the existing schools. In 1832 it was decided to organize ten
primary schools, under women teachers, for children from four to
ten years of age, and after the Boston plan of instruction. This
abandoned the monitorial plan of instruction for the new Pesta-
lozzian form, which was deemed better suited to the needs of the
smaller children. By 1844 fifty-six Primary Departments had
been organized in connection with the upper schools of the city.

In Philadelphia three Infant-School Societies were founded in
1827-28, and such schools were at once established there. By
1830 the directors of the school system had been permitted by the
legislature of the State to expend public money for such schools,
and thirty such, under women teachers, were in operation in the*
city by 1837.

Primary education organized. The Infant-School idea was
soon somewhat generally adopted by the Eastern cities, and

1700

1800

1830

1860

1890

College

Fig. 198. Evolution OF the Essential Features of the
American Public School System

changed somewhat to make of it an American primary school.
Where children had not been previously admitted to the schools
without knowing how to read, as in Boston, they supplemented
the work of the public schools by adding a new school beneath.
Where the reverse had been the case, as in New York City, the
organization of Infant Schools as Junior Departments enabled the
existing schools to advance their work. Everywhere it resulted,

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 667

eventually, in the organization of primary and grammar school
departments, often with intermediate departments in between,
and, with the somewhat contemporaneous evolution of the first
high schools, the main outlines of the American free public-school
system were now complete.

These four important educational movements — the secular
Sunday School, the semi-pubHc city School Societies, the Lan-
castrian plan for instruction, and the Infant-School idea — all
arising in philanthropy, came as successive educational ideas to
America during the first half of the nineteenth century, supple-
mented one another, and together accustomed a new generation
to the idea of a common school for all.

III. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES

It is hardly probable, however, that these philanthropic efforts
alone, valuable as they were, could have resulted in the great
American battle for tax-supported schools, at as early a date as
this took place, had they not been supplemented by a number of
other movements of a social, political, and economic character
which in themselves materially changed the nature and direction
of our national life. The more important of these were: (i) The
rise of cities and of manufacturing, (2) the extension of the suf-
frage, and (3) the rise of new class-demands for schools.

Growth of city population and manufacturing. At the time of
the inauguration of the National Government nearly every one in
America lived on the farm or in some little village. The first
forty years of the national life were essentially an agricultural and
a pioneer period. Even as late as 1820 there were but thirteen
cities of 8000 inhabitants or over in the whole of the twenty-three
States at that time comprising the Union, and these thirteen cities
contained but 4.9 per cent of the total population of the Nation.

After about 1825 these conditions began to change. By 1820
many little villages were springing up, and these frequently
proved the nuclei for future cities. In New England many of
these places were in the vicinity of some waterfall, where cheap
power made manufacturing on a large scale possible. Lowell,
Massachusetts, which in 1820 did not exist and in 1840 had a
population of over twenty thousand people, collected there
largely to work in the mills, is a good illustration. Other cities,
such as Cincinnati and Detroit, grew because of their advanta-
geous situation as exchange and wholesale centers. With the

668 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

revival of trade and commerce after the second war with Great
Britain the cities grew rapidly both in number and size.

The rise of 'the new cities and the rapid growth of the older ones
materially changed the nature of the educational problem, by pro-
ducing an entirely new set of social and educational conditions for
the people of the Central and Northern States to solve. The
South, with its plantation life, negro slavery, and absence of
manufacturing was largely unaffected by these changed condi-
tions until well after the close of the Civil War. In consequence
the educational awakening there did not come for nearly half a
century after it came in the North. In the cities in the coast
States north of Maryland, but particularly in those of New York
and New England, manufacturing developed very rapidly. Cot-
ton-spinning in particular became a New England industry, as did
also the weaving of wool, while Pennsylvania became the center
of the iron manufacturing industries.^

The development of this new type of factory work meant the
beginnings of the breakdown of the old home and village indus-
tries, the eventual abandonment of the age-old apprenticeship
system (Rs. 200, 201), the start of the cityward movement of the
rural population, and the concentration of manufacturing in large
establishments, employing many hands to perform continuously
certain limited phases of the manufacturing process. This in
time was certain to mean a change in educational methods: It
also called for the concentration of both capital and labor. The
rise of the factory system, business on a large scale, and cheap
and rapid transportation, all combined to diminish the impor-
tance of agriculture and to change the city from an unimportant to
a very important position in our national life. The 13 cities of
1820 increased to 44 by 1840, and to 141 by i860. There were
four times as many cities in the North, too, where manufacturing
had found a home, as in the South, which remained essentially
agricultural.

New social problems in the cities. The many changes in the
nature of industry and of village and home life, effected by the
development of the factory system and the concentration of man-
ufacturing and population in the cities, also contributed materi-

1 The cotton-spinning industry illustrates the rapid growth of manufacturing in
the United States. The 15 cotton mills of 1807 had increased to 801, by 1831; and
to 1240, by 1840. The South owed its prosperity chiefly to cotton-growing and
shipping, and did not develop factories and workshops until a much more recent
period.

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 669

ally in changing the character of the old educational problem.
When the cities were as yet but little villages in size and charac-
ter, homogeneous in their populations, and the many social and
moral problems incident to the congestion of peoples of mixed
character had not as yet arisen, the church and charity and pri-
vate school solution of the educational problem was reasonably
satisfactory. As the cities now increased rapidly in size, became
more city-like in character, drew to them diverse elements pre-
viously largely unknown, and were required by state laws to ex-
tend the right of suffrage to all their citizens, the need for a new
type of educational organization began slowly but clearly to mani-
fest itself to an increasing number of citizens. The church, char-
ity, and private school system completely broke down under the
new strain. School Societies and Educational Associations, or-
ganized for propaganda, now arose in the cities; grants of city or
state funds for the partial support of both church and society
schools were demanded and obtained; and numbers of charity
organizations began to be established in the different cities to en-
able them to handle better the new problems of pauperism, in-
temperance, and juvenile delinquency which arose.

The extension of the suffrage. The Constitution of the
United States, though framed by the ablest men of the time, was
framed by men who represented the old aristocratic conception of
education and government. The same was true of the conven-
tions which framed practically all the early state constitutions.
The early period of the national life was thus characterized by the
rule of a class — a very well-educated and a very capable class, to
be sure — but a class elected by a ballot based on property quali-
fications and belonging to the older type of political and social
thinking.

Notwithstanding the statements of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, the change came but slowly. Up to 181 5 but four
States had granted the right to vote to all male citizens, regard-
less of property holdings or other somewhat similar restrictions.
After 181 5 a democratic movenient, which sought to abolish all
class rule and all political inequalities, arose and rapidly gained
strength. In this the new States to the westward, with their ab-
sence of old estates or large fortunes, and where men were judged
more on their merits than in an older society, were the leaders.
As will be seen from the map, every new State admitted east of
the Mississippi River, except Ohio (admitted in 1802), where the

670

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

States shaded granted full suflfrage
at the time of admission to the Union - •'

New England element predominated, and Louisiana (1812), pro-
vided for full manhood suffrage at the time of its admission to

statehood. Seven ad-
ditional Eastern States
had extended the same
full voting privileges
to their citizens by
1845, while the old re-
quirements had been
materially modified in
most of the other
Northern States. This
democratic movement
for the leveling of all
class distinctions be-
tween white men be-
came very marked,
after 1820; came to a
head in the election
of Andrew Jackson as
President, in 1828 ; and
the final result was full
manhood suffrage in
all the States. This
gave the farmer in the
West and the new
manufacturing classes in the cities a preponderating influence in
the affairs of government.

Educational significance of the extension of suffrage. The
educational significance of the extension of full manhood suffrage
to all was enormous and far-reaching.

There now took place in the United States, after about 1825,
what took place in England after the passage of the Second Re-
form Act (p. 642) of 1867. With the extension of the suffrage to
all classes of the population, poor as well as rich, laborer, as well
as employer, there came to thinking men, often for the first time,
a realization that general education had become a fundamental
necessity for the State, and that the general education of all in the
elements of knowledge and civic virtue must now assume that
importance in the minds of the leaders of the State that the edu-
cation of a few for the service of the Church and of the many for

Fig. 199. Dates or the granting or
Full Manhood Suffrage

Some of the older States granted almost full man-
hood suffrage at an earlier date, retaining a few minor
restrictions until the date given on the map. States
shaded granted full suffrage at the time of admission
to the Union

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 671

simple church membership had once held in the minds of ecclesi-
astics.

This new conception is well expressed in the preamble to the
first (optional) school law enacted in Illinois (1825), which de-
clares :

To enjoy our rights and liberties, we must understand them; their
security and protection ought to be the first object of a free people;
and it is a well-established fact that no nation has ever continued long
in the enjoyment of civil and political freedom, which was not both
virtuous and enlightened; and believing that the advancement of liter-
ature always has been, and ever will be the means of developing more
fully the rights of man, that the mind of every citizen in a republic is
the common property of society, and constitutes the basis of its
strength and happiness; it is therefore considered the peculiar duty of
a free government, like ours, to encourage and extend the improvement
and cultivation of the intellectual energies of the whole.

Utterances of public men and workingmen. Governors now
began to recommend to their legislatures the estabHshment of
tax-supported schools, and public men began to urge state action
and state control. An utterance by De Witt Clinton, for nine
years governor of New York, may be taken as an example of
many. In a message to the legislature, in 1826, defending the
schools established, he said:

The first duty of government, and the surest evidence of good
government, is the encouragement of education. A general diffusion
of knowledge is a precursor and protector of republican institutions,
and in it we must confide as the conservative power that will watch
over our liberties and guard them against fraud, intrigue, corruption,
and violence. I consider the system of our common schools as the
palladium of our freedom, for no reasonable apprehension can be
entertained of its subversion as long as the great body of the people
are enlightened by education.

After about 1825 many labor unions were formed, and the rep-
resentatives of these new organizations joined in the demands for
schools and education, urging the free education of their children
as a natural right. In 1829 the workingmen of Philadelphia asked
each candidate for the legislature for a formal declaration of the
attitude he would assume toward the provision of ''an equal and a
general system of education" for the State. In 1830 the Work-
ingmen's Committee of Philadelphia submitted a detailed report
(R. 315), after five months spent in investigating educational con-
ditions in Pennsylvania, vigorously condemning the lack of pro-
vision for education in the State, and the utterly inadequate pro-

672 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

vision where any was made. Seth Luther, in an address on " The
Education of Workingmen," delivered in 1832, declared that "a
large body of human beings are ruined by a neglect of education,
rendered miserable in the extreme, and incapable of self-govern-
ment." Stephen Simpson, in his A Manual for Workingmen,
published in 1831, declared that "it is to education, therefore,
that we must mainly look for redress of that perverted system
of society, which dooms the producer to ignorance, to toil, and
to penury, to moral degradation, physical want, and social bar-
barism." Many resolutions were adopted by these organiza-
tions demanding free state-supported schools.^

IV. ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS, AND PROPAGANDA

The alignment of interests. The second quarter of the nine-
teenth century may be said to have witnessed the battle for tax-
supported, publicly controlled and directed, and non-sectarian
common schools. In 1825 such schools were still the distant hope
of statesmen and reformers; in 1850 they had become an actuahty
in almost every Northern State. The twenty-five years interven-
ing marked a period of public agitation and educational propa-
ganda; of many hard legislative fights; of a struggle to secure de-
sired legislation, and then to hold what had been secured; of many
bitter contests with church and private-school interests, which
felt that their "vested rights" were being taken from them; and
of occasional referenda in which the people were asked, at the
next election, to advise the legislature as to what to do. Except-
ing the battle for the abohtion of slavery, perhaps no question has
ever been before the American people for settlement which caused
so much feeling or aroused such bitter antagonisms. The friends
of free schools were at first commonly regarded as fanatics, dan-
gerous to the State, and the opponents of free schools were con-
sidered by them as old-time conservatives or as selfish members
of society.

Naturally such a bitter discussion of a public question forced an
alignment of the people for or against publicly supported and

1 Among many resolutions adopted by the laboring organizations the following is
typical: "At a General Meeting of Mechanics and Workingmen held in New York
City, in 1829, it was

" Resolved, that next to life and liberty, we consider education the greatest blessing
bestowed upon mankind.

"Resolved, that the pubhc funds should be appropriated (to a reasonable extent)
to the purpose of education upon a regular system that shall insure the opportunity
to every individual of obtaining a competent education before he shall have arrived
at the age of maturity."

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 673

controlled schools, and this alignment of interests may be roughly
stated to have been about as follows:

/. For Public Schools.

Men considered as :

1. " Citizens of the Republic."

2. Philanthropists and humanitarians.

3. PubHc men of large vision.

4. City residents.

5. The intelligent workingmen in the cities.

6. Non- taxpayers.

7. Calvinists.

8. " New England men."

//. Lukewarm, or against Public Schools.

Men considered as:

1. Belonging to the old aristocratic class.

2. The conservatives of society.

3. Politicians of small vision.

4. Residents of rural districts.

5. The ignorant, narrow-minded, and penurious.

6. Taxpayers.

7. Lutherans, Reformed-Church, Mennonites, and Quakers.

8. Southern men.

9. Proprietors of private schools.

10. The non-English-speaking classes.

The work of propaganda. To meet the arguments of the ob-
jectors, to change the opinions of a thinking few into the common
opinion of the many, to overcome prejudice, and to awaken the
public conscience to the public need for free and common schools
in such a democratic society, was the work of a generation. To
convince the masses of the people that the scheme of state schools
was not only practicable, but also the best and most economical
means for giving their children the benefits of an education; to
convince propertied citizens that taxation for education was in the
interests of both public and private welfare; to convince legisla-
tors that it was safe to vote for free-school bills; and to overcome
the opposition due to apathy, religious jealousies, and private in-
terests, was the work of years. In time, though, the desirability
of common, free, tax-supported, non-sectarian, state-controlled
schools became evident to a majority of the citizens in the differ-
ent American States, and as it did the American State School,
free and equally open to all, was finally evolved and took its place
as the most important institution in the national life working for

674 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the perpetuation of a free democracy and the advancement of the
public welfare.

For this work of propaganda hundreds of School Societies and
Educational Associations were organized; many conventions
were held, and many resolutions favoring state schools were
adopted; many ''Letters" and ''Addresses to the Public" were
written and published; public-spirited citizens traveled over the
country, making addresses to the people explaining the advan-
tages of free state schools; many public-spirited men gave the best
years of their lives to the state-school propaganda; and many gov-
ernors sent communications on the subject to legislatures not yet
convinced as to the desirability of state action. At each meeting
of the legislatures for /years a deluge of resolutions, memorials,
and petitions for and against free schools met the members.

The invention of the steam printing press came at about this
time, and the first modern newspapers at a cheap price now ap-
peared. These usually espoused progressive measures, and tre-
mendously influenced public sentiment. Those not closely con-
nected with church or private- school interests usually favored
public tax-supported schools.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1 . Explain why the development of a national consciousness was practically
necessary before an educational consciousness could be awakened.

2. Show why it was. natural, suffrage conditions considered, that the early
interest should have been in advanced education.

3. Why did the Sunday- School movement prove of so much less usefulness
in America than in England?

4. Show the analogy between the earlier school societies for educational
work and other forms of modern associative effort.

5. Explain the great popularity of the Lancastrian schools over those previ-
ously common in America.

6. What were two of the important contributions of the Infant-School idea
to American education?

7. Why are schools and education much more needed in a country experi-
encing a city and manufacturing development than in a country experi-
encing an agricultural development?

8. Show how the development of cities caused the old forms of education to
break down, and made evident the need for a new type of education.

9. Show how each extension of the suffrage necessitates an extension of
educational opportunities and advantages.

10. Explain the alignment of each class, for or against tax-supported schools,
on historical and on economic grounds.

NEW INFLUENCES IN AMERICA 675

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selec-
tions are reproduced :

307. Fowle: The Schools of Boston about 1 790-181 5.

308. Rhode Island: Petition for Free Schools, 1799.

309. Providence: Rules and Regulations for the Schools in 1820.

310. Providence: A Memorial for Better Schools, 1837.

311. Bourne: Beginnings of Public Education in New York City.

312. Boston Report: Advantages of the Monitorial System.

313. Wightman: Establishment of Primary Schools in Boston.

314. Boston: The Elementary-School System in 1823.

315. Philadelphia: Report of Workingmen's Committee on Schools.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Just what advantages for boys and for girls existed in Boston (307 a, b)
before the creation of the reading schools?

2. What improvements and additions did the reading schools (307 c)
introduce?

3. State the main features of the Rhode Island petition (308) of 1799.

4. Just what kind of schools do the Providence regulations (309) of 1820
provide for and describe?

5. Despite the many advances made in public schools since the date of the
Providence Memorial (310), have relative public and private school
expenditures materially changed?

6. Compare the New York Public School Society Address (311) with the
Enghsh charity-school organization (237, 238) as to purpose and
instruction.

7. Show that a report on modern classroom organization would present
advantages over the monitorial plan, comparable with those outlined by
the Boston Report (312) comparing the monitorial and individual plans.

8. Just what does the Boston Report on Primary Schools (313) reveal as
to the character of education then provided?

9. Just what kind of elementary schools did Boston have (314) in 1823?
10. Just what kind of schools existed in the cities of Pennsylvania in 1830,

judging from the Report (315) of the Workingmen's Committee? Was
the Report correct with reference to "a monopoly of talent"?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Binns, H. B. A Century of Education, 1 808-1 go8.
Boese, Thos. Public Education in the City of New York.
Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States.
*Fitzpatrick, E. A. The Educational Views and Influences of De Witt
Clinton.
McManis, J. T. "The Public School Society of New York City"; in

Educational Review, vol. 29, pp. 303-11. (March, 1905.)
* Palmer, A. E. The New York Public School System.
*Reigart, J. F. The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools oj

New York City.
*Salmon, David. Joseph Lancaster.
*Simcoe, A. M. Social Forces ift American History.

CHAPTER XXVI
THE AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE STATE SCHOOLS

The problem which confronted those interested in establishing
state-controlled schools was not exactly the same in any two
States, though the battle in many States possessed common ele
ments, and hence was somewhat similar in character. Instead
of tracing the struggle in detail in each of the different States, it
will be much more profitable for our purposes to pick out the
main strategic points in the contest, and then illustrate the con-
flict for these by describing conditions in one or two States where
the controversy was most severe or most typical. The seven
strategic points in the struggle for free, tax-supported, non-sec-
tarian, state-controlled schools in the United States were:

1. The battle for tax support.

2. The battle to eliminate the pauper-school idea.

3. The battle to make the schools entirely free.

4. The battle to establish state supervision.

5. The battle to eliminate sectarianism.

6. The battle to extend the system upward.

7. Addition of the state university to crown the system.

We shall consider each of these, briefly, in order.

1. THE BATTLE FOR TAX SUPPORT

Early support and endowment funds. In New England, land
endowments, local taxes, direct local appropriations, license taxes,
and rate-bills had long been common. Land endowments began
early in the New England Colonies, while rate-bills date back to
the earliest times and long remained a favorite means of raising
money for school support. These means were adopted in the
different States after the beginning of our national period, and to
them were added a variety of license taxes, while occupational
taxes, lotteries, and bank taxes also were employed to raise mone}'
for schools. A few examples of these may be cited:

Connecticut, in 1774, turned over all proceeds of liquor licenses
to the towns where collected, to be used for schools. New Or-
leans, in 1826, licensed two theaters on condition that they each
pay $3000 annually for the support of schools in the city. New
York, in 1799, authorized four state lotteries to raise $100,000 for

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 677

schools, a similar amount again in 1801, and numerous other lot-
teries before 18 10. New Jersey (R. 246) and most of the other
States did the same. Congress passed fourteen joint resolutions,
between 181 2 and 1836, authorizing lotteries to help support the
schools of the city of Washington. Bank taxes were a favorite
source of income for schools, between about 1825 and i860, banks
being chartered on condition that they would pay over each year
for schools a certain sum or percentage of their earnings. These
all represent what is known as indirect taxation, and were val-
uable in accustoming the people to the idea of public schools
without appearing to tax them for their support.

The National Land Grants, begun in the case of Ohio in 1802,
soon stimulated a new interest in schools. Each State admitted
after Ohio also received the sixteenth section for the support of
common schools, and two townships of land for the endowment of
a state university. The new Western States, following the lead
of Ohio (R. 260) and Indiana (R. 261), dedicated these section
lands and funds to free common schools. The sixteen older
States, however, did not share in these grants, so most of them
now set about building up a permanent school fund of their own,
though at first without any very clear idea as to how the income
from the fund was to be used.^

The beginnings of school taxation. The early idea, which
seems for a time to have been generally entertained, that the in-
come from land grants, license fees, and these permanent endow-
ment funds would in time entirely support the necessary schools,
was gradually abandoned as it was seen how little in yearly in-
come these funds and lands really produced, and how rapidly the
population of the States was increasing. By 1825 it may be said
to have been clearly recognized by thinking men that the only
safe reliance of a system of state schools lay in the general and di-
rect taxation of all property for their support. ''The wealth of

^ Connecticut and New York both had set aside lands, before 1800, to create such
a fund, Connecticut's fund dating back to 1750. Delaware, in 1796, devoted the
income from marriage and tavern licenses to the same purpose, but made no use of
the fund for twenty years. Connecticut, in 1795, sold its "Western Reserve" in
Ohio for $1,200,000, and added this to its school fund. New York, in 1805, similarly
added the proceeds of the sale of half a million acres of state lands, though the fund
then formally created accumulated unused until 181 2. Tennessee began to build
up a permanent state school fund in 1806; Virginia in 1810; South Carolina in 181 1;
Maryland in 1812; New Jersey in 1816; Georgia in 1817; Maine, New Hampshire,
Kentucky, and Louisiana in 1821; Vermont and North Carohna in 1825; Pennsyl-
vania in 1831; and Massachusetts in 1834. These were established as permanent
state funds, the annual income only to be used, in some way to be determined later,
for the support of some form of schools.

678

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the State must educate the children of the State" became a
watchword, and the battle for direct, local, county, and state
taxation for education was clearly on by 1825 to 1830 in all the
Northern States, except the four in New England where the prin-
ciple of taxation for education had for long been established.^
Even in these States the struggle to increase taxation and provide
better schools called for much argument and popular education
(R. 316), and occasional backward movements (Rs. 317, 318)
were encountered.

The struggle to secure the first legislation, weak and ineffective

as it seems to us to-day, was often hard and long. "Campaigns

_^^^^,^_ of education" had to be

prepared for and carried
through. Many thought
that tax-supported schools
would be dangerous for
the State, harmful to in-
dividual good, and thor-
oughly undemocratic.
Many did not see the need
for schools at all. Por-
tions of a town or a city
would provide a free
school, while other por-
tions would not. Often
those in favor of taxation
were bitterly assailed, and even at times threatened with per-
sonal violence. Often those in favor of improving the schools
had to wait patiently for the opposition slowly to wear itself out
(R. 319) before any real progress could be made.

State support fixed the state system. With the beginnings of
state aid in any substantial sums, either from the income from
permanent endowment funds, state appropriations, or direct state

1 Now for the first time direct taxation for schools was likely to be felt by the tax-
payer, and the fight for and against the imposition of such taxation was on in earnest.
The course of the struggle and the results were somewhat different in the different
States, but, in a general way, the progress of the conflict was somewhat as follows:

1. Permission granted to communities so desiring to organize a school taxing
district, and to tax for school support the property of those consenting and
residing therein.

2. Taxation of all property in the taxing district permitted.

3. State aid to such districts, at first from the income from permanent endowment
funds, and later from the proceeds of a small state appropriation or a state or
county lax.

4. Compulsory local taxation to supplement the state or county grant.

Fig. 200. The First Free Public
School in Detroit

A one-room school, opened in the Second Ward,
in 1838. No action was taken in any other
ward until 1842

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 679

taxation, the State became, for the first time, in a position to en-
force quite definite requirements in many matters. Communi-
ties which would not meet the State's requirements would receive
no state funds.

One of the first requirements to be thus enforced was that com-
munities or districts receiving state aid must also levy a local tax
for schools. Commonly the requirement was a duplication of
state aid. Generally speaking, and recognizing exceptions in a
few States, this represents the beginnings of compulsory local
taxation for education. As early as 1797 Vermont had required
the towns to support their schools on penalty of forfeiting their
share of state aid. New York in 181 2, Delaware in 1829, and
New Jersey in 1846 required a duplication of all state aid received.
Wisconsin, in its first constitution of 1848, required a local tax for
schools equal to one half the state aid received. The next step in
state control was to add still other requirements, as a prerequisite
to receiving state aid. One of the first of such was that a certain
length of school term, commonly three months, must be provided
in each school district. Another was the provision of free heat,
and later on free schoolbooks and supplies.

When the duplication-of -state-aid-received stage had been
reached, compulsory local taxation for education had been estab-
lished, and the great central battle for the creation of a state
school system had been won. The right to tax for support, and to
compel local taxation, was the key to the whole state system of
education. From this point on the process of evolving an ade-
quate system of school support in any State has been merely the
further education of pubHc opinion to see new educational needs.

II. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA

* The pauper-school idea. The pauper-school idea was a direct
inheritance from England, and its home in America was in the
old Central and Southern Colonies, where the old Anglican
Church had been in control. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela-
ware, Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia were the chief representa-
tives, though the idea had friends among certain classes of the
population in other of the older States. The new and democratic
West would not tolerate it. The pauper-school conception was a
direct inheritance from English rule, belonged to a society based
on classes, and was wholly out of place in a Republic founded on
the doctrine that "all men are created equal, and endowed by

68o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

their Creator with certain unaHenable rights." Still more, it was
a very dangerous conception of education for a democratic form
of government to tolerate or to foster. Its friends were found
among the old aristocratic or conservative classes, the heavy tax-
payers, the supporters of church schools, and the proprietors of
private schools. Citizens who had" caught the spirit of the new
Republic, public men of large vision, intelligent workingmen, and
men of the New England type of thinking were opposed on prin-
ciple to a plan which drew such invidious distinctions between the
future citizens of the State. To educate part of the children in
church or private pay schools, they said, and to segregate those
too poor to pay tuition and educate them at public expense in
pauper schools, often with the brand of pauper made very evident
to them, was certain to create classes in society which in time
would prove a serious danger to our democratic institutions.

Large numbers of those for whom the pauper schools were in-
tended would not brand themselves as paupers by sending
their children to the schools, and others who accepted the ad-
vantages offered, for the sake of their children, despised the sys-
tem.^

The battle for the elimination of the pauper-school idea was
fought out in the North in the States of Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, and the struggle in these two States we shall now briefly
describe.

The Pennsylvania legislation. In Pennsylvania we find the
pauper-school idea fully developed. The constitution of 1790
(R. 259) had provided for a state system of pauper schools, but
nothing was done to carry even this constitutional direction
into effect until 1802. A pauper- school law was then enacted,
directing the overseers of the poor to notify such parents as
they deemed sufficiently indigent that, if they would declare
themselves to be paupers, their children might be sent to some
specified private or pay school and be given free education (R.
315). The expense for this was assessed against the education

^ Concerning the system, "The Philadelphia Society for the Establishment and
Support of Charity Schools," in an "Address to the PubHc," in 1818, said:

"In the United States the benevolence of the inhabitants has led to the establish-
ment of Charity Schools, which, though affording individual advantages, are not
likely to be followed by the political benefits kindly contemplated by their founders.
In the country a parent will raise children in ignorance rather than place them in
charity schools. It is only in large cities that charity schools succeed to any extent.
These dispositions may be improved to the best advantage, by the Legislature, in
place of Charity Schools, establishing Public Schools for the education of all chil-
dren, the offspring of the rich and the poor alike."

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 68i

poor-fund, which was levied and collected in the same manner as
were road taxes or taxes for poor relief. No provision was made
for the establishment of public schools, even for the children of the
poor, nor was any standard set for the education to be provided in
the schools to which they were sent. No other general provision
for elementary education was made in the State until 1834.

With the growth of the cities, and the rise of their special prob-
lems, something more than this very inadequate provision for
schooling became necessary. "The Philadelphia Society for the
P^stablishment and Support of Charity Schools" had long been
urging a better system, and in 18 14 "The Society for the Promo-
tion of a Rational System of Education" was organized in Phila-
delphia for the purpose of educational propaganda. Bills were
prepared and pushed, and in 1818 Philadelphia was permitted, by
special law, to organize as "the first school district" in the State
of Pennsylvania, and to provide, with its own funds, a system of
Lancastrian schools for the education of the children of its poor.^

The Law of 1834. In 1827 "The Pennsylvania Society for the
Promotion of Public Schools" began an educational propaganda
which did much to bring about the Free-School Act of 1834. In
an "Address to the Public" it declared its object to be the pro-
motion of public education throughout the State of Pennsylvania,
and the "Address" closed with these words:

This Society is at present composed of about 250 members, and a
correspondence has been commenced with 125 members, who reside in
every district in the State. It is intended to direct the continued
attention of the public to the importance of the subject ; to collect and
diffuse all information which may be deemed valuable; and to per-
severe in their labors until they shall be crowned with success.

Memorials were presented to the legislature year after year,
governors were interested, "Addresses to the Public" were pre-
pared, and a vigorous propaganda was kept up until the Free-
School Law of 1834 was the result.

This law, though, was optional. It created every ward, town-
ship, and borough in the State a school district, a total of 987 be-
ing created for the State. Each school district was ordered to
vote that autimin on the acceptance or rejection of the law.
Those accepting the law were to organize under its provisions,

^ In 182 1 the counties of Dauphin (Harrisburg) , Allegheny (Pittsburg), Cumber-
land (Carlisle), and Lancaster (Lancaster) were also exempted from the state pauper-
school law, and allowed to organize schools for the education of the children of their
poor.

682

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

while those rejecting the law were to continue under the educa-
tional provisions of the old Pauper-School Act.

The results of the school elections of 1834 are shown, by coun-
ties, on the below map. Of the total of 987 districts created, 502,
in 46 of the then 52 counties (Philadelphia County not voting), or

I lO to 20% nv7T?l21 to 40% giTl41 to 60% ^^61 to 80% ^$^^ 81 to 100%

Fig. 20I. The Pennsylvania School Elections of 1835

Showing the percentage of school districts in each county organizing
under and accepting the School Law of 1834. Percentage of districts
accepting indicated on the map for a few of the counties.

52 per cent of the whole number, voted to accept the new law and
organize under it; 264 districts, in 31 counties, or 27 per cent of the
whole, voted definitely to reject the law; and 221 districts, in 46
counties, or 21 per cent of the whole, refused to take any action
either way. In 3 counties, indicated on the map, every district
accepted the law, and in 5 counties, also indicated, every district
rejected or refused to act on the law. It was the predominantly
German counties, located in the east-central portion of the State,
which were strongest in their opposition to the new law. One
reason for this was that the new law provided for English schools;
another was the objection of the thrifty Germans to taxation;
and another was the fear that the new state schools might injure
their German parochial schools.

The real fight for free versus pauper schools, though, was yet
to come. Legislators who had voted for the law were bitterly as-
sailed, and, though it was but an optional law, the question of its
repeal and the reinstatement of the old Pauper-School Law be-

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 683

came the burning issue of the campaign in the autumn of 1834.
Many legislators who had favored the law were defeated for re-
election. Others, seeing defeat, refused to run. Petitions for the
repeal of the law,^ and remonstrances against its repeal, flooded
the legislature when it met. The Senate at once repealed the
law, but the House, largely under the leadership of a Vermonter
by the name of Thaddeus Stevens,^ refused to reconsider, and
finally forced the Senate to accept an amended and a still
stronger bill. This defeat finally settled, in principle at least, the
pauper-school question in Pennsylvania,^ though it was not until
1873 that the last district in the State accepted the new system.

Eliminating the pauper-school idea in New Jersey. No con-
stitutional mention of education was made in New Jersey until
1844, 2-nd no educational legislation was passed until 18 16. In
that year a permanent state school fund was begun, and in 1820
the first permission to levy taxes "for the education of such poor
children as are paupers" was granted. In 1828 an extensive in-
vestigation showed that one third of the children of the State
were without educational opportunities, and as a result of this in-
vestigation the first general school law for the State was enacted,
in 1829. This provided for district schools, school trustees
and visitation, licensed teachers, local taxation, and made a
state appropriation of $20,000 a year to help establish the sys-
tem. The next year, however, thi^ law was repealed and the old
pauper-school plan reestablished, largely due to the pressure of
church and private-school interests. In 1830 and 1831 the state
appropriation was made divisible among private and parochial
schools, as well as the public pauper schools, and the use of all
pubhc money was limited ''to the education of the children of the
poor."

Between 1828 and 1838 a number of conventions of friends of
free public schools were held in the State, and much work in the
nature of propaganda was done. At a convention in 1838 a com-
mittee was appointed to prepare an "Address to the People of
New Jersey" on the educational needs of the State (R. 320), and

^ Some 32,000 persons petitioned for a repeal of the law, 66 of whom signed by
making their mark, and "not more than five names in a hundred," reported a legis-
lative committee which investigated the matter, "were signed in English script."
It was from among the parochial-school Germans that the strongest opposition to
the law came.

- For Stevens's speech in defense of the Law of 1834, see Report oj the United
States Commissioner of Education, 1898-99, vol. 11, pp. 516-24.

^ By 1836 the new free-school law had been accepted by 75 per cent of the districts
in the State, by 1838 by 84 per cent, and by 1847 by 88 per cent.

684 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

speakers were sent over the State to talk to the people on the sub-
ject. The campaign against the pauper school had just been
fought to a conclusion in Pennsylvania, and the result of the ap
peal in New Jersey was such a popular manifestation in favor of
free schools that the legislature of 1838 instituted a partial state
school system. The pauper- school laws were repealed, and the
best features of the short-lived Law of 1829 were reenacted. In
1844 a new state constitution limited the income of the perma-
nent state school fund exclusively to the support of pubhc schools.
With the pauper-school idea eliminated from Pennsylvania and
New Jersey^ the North was through with it. The wisdom of its
elimination soon became evident, and we hear little more of it
among Northern people. The democratic West never tolerated
it. It continued some time longer in Maryland, Virginia, and
Georgia, and at places for a time in other Southern States, but
finally disappeared in the South as well in the educational reor-
ganizations which took place following the close of the Civil War.

III. THE BATTLE TO MAKE THE SCHOOLS ENTIRELY FREE

The schools not yet free. The rate-bill, as we have previously
stated, was an old institution, also brought over from England, as
the term " rate " signifies. It was a charge levied upon the parent
to supplement the school revenues and prolong the school term,
and was assessed in proportion to the number of children sent by
each parent to the school. In some States, as for example Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut, its use went back to colonial times; in
others it was added as the cost for education increased, and it was
seen that the income from permanent funds and authorized taxa-
tion was not sufficient to maintain the school the necessary length
of time. The deficiency in revenue was charged against the par-
ents sending children to school, pro rata, and collected as ordi-
nary tax-bills (R. 321). The charge was small, but it was suffi-
cient to keep many poor children away from the schools.

The rising cities, with their new social problems, could not and
would not tolerate the rate-bill system, and one by one they se-
cured special laws from legislatures which enabled them to organ-
ize a city school system, separate from city-council control, and
under a local "'board of education." One of the provisions of
these special laws nearly always was the right to levy a city tax
for schools sufficient to provide free education for the children of
the city.

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 685

The fight against the rate-bill in New York. The attempt to
abolish the rate-bill and make the schools wholly free was most
vigorously contested in New York State, and the contest there is
most easily described. From 1828 to 1868, this tax on the par-
ents produced an average annual sum of $410,685.66, or about
one half of the sum paid all the teachers of the State for salary.
While the wealthy districts were securing special legislation and

I I For Free Schools

Against Free Schools
N. Y. C. & H.R. Ry.

New York .

Fig. 202. The New York Referendum of 1850

Total vote: For free schools, 17 counties and 209,346 voters; against
free schools, 42 counties and 184,308 voters.

taxing themselves to provide free schools for their children, the
poorer and less populous districts were left to struggle to main-
tain their schools the four months each year necessary to secure
state aid. Finally, after much agitation, and a number of appeals
to the legislature to assume the rate-bill charges in the form of
general state taxation, and thus make the schools entirely free,
the legislature, in 1849, referred the matter back to the people to
be voted on at the elections that autumn. The legislature was to
be thus advised by the people as to what action it should take.

686 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The result was a state-wide campaign for free, public, tax-sup-
ported schools, as against partially free, rate-bill schools.

The result of the 1849 election was a vote of 249,872 in favor of
making "the property of the State educate the children of the
State," and 91,952 against it. This only seemed to stir the op-
ponents of free schools to renewed action, and they induced the
next legislature to resubmit the question for another vote, in the
autumn of 1850.

The result of the referendum of 1850 is shown on the map on
page 685. The opponents of tax-supported schools now mustered
their full strength, doubhng their vote in 1849, while the majority
for free schools was materially cut down. The interesting thing
shown on this map was the clear and unmistakable voice of the
cities. They would not tolerate the rate-bill, and, despite their
larger property interests, they favored tax-supported free schools.
The rural districts, on the other hand, opposed the idea.

The rate-bill in other States. These two referenda virtually
settled the question in New York, though for a time a compro-
mise was adopted. The state appropriation for schools was very
materially increased, the rate-bill was retained, and the organiza-
tion of "union districts" to provide free schools by local taxation
where people desired them was authorized. Many of these
"union free districts" now arose in the more progressive com-
munities of the State, and finally, in 1867, after rural and other
forms of opposition had largely subsided, and after almost all the
older States had abandoned the plan, the New York legislature
finally abolished the rate-bill and made the schools of New York
entirely free.

The dates for the abolition of the rate-bill in the other older
Northern States were:

1834. Pennsylvania. 1867. New York.

1852. Indiana. 1868. Connecticut.

1853. Ohio. 1868. Rhode Island.
1855. Illinois. 1869. Michigan.
1864. Vermont, 187 1. New Jersey.

The New York fight of 1849 ^-nd 1850 was the pivotal fight; in the
other States it was abandoned by legislative act, and without
a serious contest. In the Southern States free education came
with the educational reorganizations following the close of the
Civrl War.

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 687

IV. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH SCHOOL SUPERVISION

Beginnings of state control. The great battle for state schools
was not only for taxation to stimulate their development where
none existed, but was also indirectly a battle for some form of
state control of the local systems which had already grown up.
The establishment of permanent state school funds by the older
States, to supplement any other aid which might be granted, also
tended toward the establishment of some form of state supervi-
sion and control of the local school systems. The first step was
the establishment of some form of state aid; the next was the un-
posing of conditions necessary to secure this state aid.

State oversight and control, however, does not exercise itself,
and it soon became evident that the States must elect or appoint
some officer to represent the State and enforce the observance of
its demands. It would be primarily his duty to see that the laws
relating to schools were carried out, that statistics as to existing
conditions were collected and printed, and that communities
were properly advised as to their duties and the legislature as to
the needs of the State. We find now the creation of a series of
school officers to represent the State, the enactment of new laws
extending control, and a struggle to integrate, subordinate, and
reduce to some semblance of a state school system the hundreds
of little community school systems which had grown up.

The first state school officers. The first American State to
create a state officer to exercise supervision over its schools was
New York, in 181 2, In enacting the new law ^ providing for state
aid for schools the first State Superintendent of Common Schools
in the United States was created. So far as is known this was a
distinctively American creation, uninfluenced by the practice in
any other land. It was to be the duty of this officer to look after
the establishment and maintenance of the schools throughout the
State. ^ Maryland created the office in 1826, but two years later
abolished it and did not re-create it until 1864. Illinois directed

^ This State had enacted an experimental school law, and made an annual state
grant for schools, from 1795 to 1800. Then, unable to reenact the law, the system
was allowed to lapse and was not reestabhshed until the New England element
gained control, in 181 2.

2 By his vigorous work in behalf of schools the first appointee, Gideon Hawley,
gave such offense to the politicians of the time that he was removed from ofi&ce, in
182 1, and the legislature then abolished the position and designated the Secretary
of State to act, ex officio, as Superintendent. This condition continued until 1854,
when New York again created the separate office of Superintendent of Public
Instruction.

688

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

its Secretary of State to act, ex officio, as Superintendent of
Schools in 1825, as did also Vermont in 1827, Louisiana in 1833,
Pennsylvania in 1834, and Tennessee in 1835. Illinois did not
create a real State Superintendent of Schools, though, until 1854,
Vermont until 1845, Louisiana until 1847, Pennsylvania until
1857, or Tennessee until 1867. The first States to create separate
school officials who have been continued to the present time were
Michigan and Kentucky, both in 1837. Often quite a legislative
struggle took place to secure the establishment of the office, and
later on to prevent its abolition.

By 1850 there were ex~officio state school officers in nine and
regular school officers in seven of the then thirty-one States, and

I I No School Sup*r»liion provided
' ' KtlraiU a„i I'lah u:,,, TirrilorU

fTTTTH Had la .i-offlcio St.te School Offi^

I I Hud > i.g«l«t State School Offlier

llllllll H>d Countj Sliporinwodentl of School!

^SSSa Had both StsK and County School Offlcar

• Cities having a Cilj Superintendent of Sch.

Fig. 203. Status of School Supervision in the United States

BY 1 86 1

For a list of the 28 City Superintendencies established up to 1870, see
Cubberley's Public School Administration, p. 58. For the history of the
state educational office in each State see Cubberley and Elliott, State
and County School Administration, Source Book, pp. 283-87.

by 1 86 1 there were ex-officio officers in nine and regular officers in
nineteen of the then thirty-four States, as well as one of each in
two of the organized Territories. The above map shows the
growth of supervisory oversight by 186 1 — forty-nine years from
the time the first American state school officer was created. The
map also shows the ten of the thirty-four States which had, by
1861, also created the office of County Superintendent of Schools,
as well as the twenty-five cities which had, by 186 1, created the
office of City Superintendent of Schools. Only three more cities

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 689

— Albany, Washington, and Kansas City — were added before
1870, making a total of twenty-eight, but since that date the
number of city superintendents has increased to something like
fourteen hundred to-day.

The first State Board of Education. Another important form
for state control which was created a little later was the State
Board of Education, with an appointed Secretary, who exercised
about the same functions as a State Superintendent of Schools.
This form of organization first arose in Massachusetts, in 1837, in
an effort to subordinate the district schools and reduce them to a
semblance of an organized system. In 1826 each town (town-
ship) had been required to appoint a School Committee (School
Board) to exercise general supervision over its schools, in 1834 the
state permanent school fund was created, and in 1837 the reform
movement reached its culxaination in the creation of the first real
State Board of Education in the United States. Instead of fol-
lowing the usual American practice of the time, and providing for
an elected State School Superintendent, Massachusetts provided
for a small appointed State Board of Education which in turn
was to select a Secretary, who was to act in the capacity of a state
school officer and report to the Board, and through it to the legis-
lature and the people. Neither the Board nor the Secretary were
given any powers of compulsion, their work being to investigate
conditions, report facts, expose defects, and make recommenda-
tions as to action to the legislature. The permanence and influ-
ence of the Board thus depended very largely on the character of
the Secretary it selected.

Horace Mann the first Secretary. A prominent Brown Univer-
sity graduate and lawyer in the State Senate, by the name of
Horace Mann (i 796-1859), who as president of the Senate had
been of much assistance in securing passage of the bill creating the
State Board of Education, was finally induced by the Governor
and the Board to accept the position of Secretary. Mr. Mann
now began a most memorable work of educating public opinion,
and soon became the acknowledged leader in school organization
in the United States. State after State called upon him for ad-
vice and counsel, while his twelve annual Reports to the State
Board of Education will always remain memorable documents.
Public men of all classes — lawyers, clergymen, college professors,
literary men, teachers — were laid under tribute and sent forth
over the State explaining to the people the need for a reawakening

690 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

of educational interest in Massachusetts. Every year Mr. Mann
organized a "campaign," to explain to the people the meaning and
importance of general education. So successful was he, and so
ripe was the time for such a movement, that he not only started a
great common school revival in Massachusetts which led to the
regeneration of the schools there, but one which was felt and
which influenced development in every Northern State.

His twelve carefully written Reports on the condition of educa-
tion in Massachusetts and elsewhere, with his intelligent discus-
sion of the aims and purposes of public education, occupy a com-
manding place in the history of American education, while he
will always be regarded as perhaps the greatest of the "founders"
of our American system of free public schools. No one did more
than he to establish in the minds of the American people the con-
ception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, and
free, and that its aim should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and
character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sec-
tarian ends. Under his practical leadership an unorganized and
heterogeneous series of community school systems was reduced to
organization and welded together into a state school system, and
the people of Massachusetts were effectively recalled to their an-
cient belief in and duty toward the education of the people.

Henry Barnard in Connecticut and Rhode Island. Ahnost
equally important, though of a somewhat different character,
was the work of Henry Barnard (1811-1900) in Connecticut and
Rhode Island. A graduate of Yale, and also educated for the
law, he turned aside to teach and became deeply interested in
education. The years 1835-37 he spent in Europe studying
schools, particularly the work of Pestalozzi's disciples. On his
return to America he was elected a member of the Connecticut
legislature, and at once formulated and secured passage of the
Connecticut law (1839) providing for a State Board of Commis-
sioners for Common Schools, with a Secretary, after the Massa-
chusetts plan. Mr. Barnard was then elected as its first Secre-
tary, and reluctantly gave up the law and accepted the position at
the munificent salary of $3 a day and expenses. Until the legis-
lature abolished both the Board and the position, in 1842, he ren-
dered for Connecticut a service scarcely less important than the
better-known reforms which Horace Mann was at that time car-
rying on in Massachusetts.

In 1843 he was called to Rhode Island to examine and report

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AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 691

upon the existing schools, and from 1845 to 1849 acted as State
Commissioner of Public Schools there, where he rendered a serv-
ice similar to that previously rendered in Connecticut. In addi-
tion he organized a series of town Hbraries throughout the State.
For his teachers' institutes he devised a traveling model school, to
give demonstration lessons in the art of teaching. From 1851 to
1855 he was again in Connecticut, as principal of the newly estab-
lished state normal school and ex-officio Secretary of the Connec-
ticut State Board of Education. He now rewrote the school
laws, increased taxation for schools, checked the power of the dis-
tricts, there known as ''school societies," and laid the foundations
of a state system of schools. The work of Mann and Barnard had
its influence throughout all the Northern States, and encouraged
the friends of education everywhere. Almost contemporaneous
with them were leaders in other States who helped fight through
the battles of state establishment and state organization and con-
trol, and the period of their labors has since been termed the
period of the "great awakening."

V. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE SECTARIANISM

The secularization of American education. The Church, it
will be remembered, was from the earliest colonial times in posses-
sion of the education of the young. Not only were the earliest
schools controlled by the Church and dominated by the religious
motive, but the right of the Church to dictate the teaching in the
schools was clearly recognized by the State. Still more, the State
looked to the Church to provide the necessary education, and as-
sisted it in doing so by donations of land and money. The minis-
ter, as a town official, naturally examined the teachers and the in-
struction in the schools. After the establishment of the National
Government this relationship for a time continued.^ New York
and the New England States specifically set aside lands to help
both church and school. After about 1800 these land endow-
ments for religion ceased, but grants of state aid for religious
schools continued for nearly a half-century longer. Then it be-
came common for a town or city to build a schoolhouse from city
taxation, and let it out rent-free to any responsible person who

^ When Connecticut sold its Western Reserve, in 1795, and added the sum to the
Connecticut school fund, it was stated to be for the aid of "schools and the gospel."
In the sales of the first national lands in Ohio (1,500,000 acres to The Ohio Company,
in 1787; and 1,000,000 acres in the Symmes Purchase, near Cincinnati, in 1788),
section 16 in each township was reserved and given as an endowment for schools,
and section 29 "for the purposes of religion,"

692 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

would conduct a tuition school in it, with a few free places for se-
lected poor children. Still later, with the rise of the state schools,
it became quite common to take over church and private schools
and aid them on the same basis as the new state schools.

In colonial times, too, and for some decades into our national
period, the warmest advocates of the establishment of schools
were those who had in view the needs of the Church. Then grad-
ually the emphasis shifted to the needs of the State, and a new
class of advocates of public education now arose. Still later the
emphasis has been shifted to industrial and civic and national
needs, and the religious aim has been almost completely elimi-
nated. This change is known as the secularization of American
education. It also required many a bitter struggle, and was ac-
complished in the different States but slowly. The two great fac-
tors which served to produce this change were:

1. The conviction that the life of the Republic demanded an edu-
cated and intelligent citizenship, and hence the general education
of all in common schools controlled by the State; and

2. The great diversity of religious beliefs among the people, which
forced tolerance and religious freedom through a consideration of
the rights of minorities.

The secularization of education must not be regarded either as a
deliberate or a wanton violation of the rights of the Church, but
rather as an unavoidable incident connected with the coming to
self-consciousness and self-government of a great people.

The fight in Massachusetts. The educational awakening in
Massachusetts, brought on largely by the work of Horace Mann,
was to many a rude awakening. Among other things, it re-
vealed that the old school of the Puritans had gradually been re-
placed by a new and purely American type of school, with instruc-
tion adapted to democratic and national rather than religious
ends. Mr. Mann stood strongly for such a conception of public
education, and being "a Unitarian, and the new State Board of
Education being almost entirely liberal in religion, an attack was
launched against them, and for the first time in our history the
cry was raised that "The public schools are Godless schools.''
Those who believed in the old system of religious instruction,
those who bore the Board or its Secretary personal ill-will, and
those who desired to break down the Board's authority and stop
the development of the public schools, united their forces in this
first big attack against secular education, Horace Mann was the

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 693

first prominent educator in America to meet and answer the re-
ligious onslaught.

A violent attack was opened in both the pulpit and the press.
It was claimed that the Board was trying to eliminate the Bible
from the schools, to abolish correction, and to "make the schools
a counterpoise to religious instruction at home and in Sabbath
schools." The local right to demand religious instruction was in-
sisted upon.

Mr. Mann felt that a great pubhc issue had been raised which
should be answered carefully and fully. In three public state-
ments he answered the criticisms and pointed out the errors in the
argument (R. 322). The Bible, he said, was an invaluable book
for forming the character of children, and should be read without
comment in the schools, but it was not necessary to teach it there.
He showed that most of the towns had given up the teaching of the
Catechism before the establishment of the Board of Education.
He contended that any attempt to decide what creed or doctrine
should be taught would mean the ruin of the schools. The attack
culminated in the attempts of the religious forces to abolish the
State Board of Education, in the legislatures of 1840 and 1841,
which failed dismally. Most of the orthodox people of the State
took Mr. Mann's side, and Governor Briggs, in one of his mes-
sages, commended his stand by inserting the following:

Justice to a faithful public ofificer leads me to say that the inde-
fatigable and accomplished Secretary of the Board of Education has
performed services in the cause of common schools which will earn
him the lasting gratitude of the generation to which he belongs.

The attempt to divide the school funds. As was stated earHer,
in the beginning it was common to aid church schools on the same
basis as the state schools, and sometimes, in the beginnings of
state aid, the money was distributed among existing schools with-
out at first establishing any pubHc schools. In many Eastern
cities chirrch schools at first shared in the pubhc funds. In Penn-
sylvania church and private schools were aided from poor-law
funds up to 1834. In New Jersey the first general school law of
1829 had been repealed a year later through the united efforts of
church and private-school interests, who unitedly fought the de-
velopment of state schools, and in 1830 and 1831 new laws had
permitted all private and parochial schools to share in the small
state appropriation for education.

After the beginning of the forties, when the Roman CathoHc in-

694 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

fluence came in strongly with the increase in Irish immigration to
the United States, a new factor was introduced and the problem,
which had previously been a Protestant problem, took on a some-
what different aspect in the form of a demand for a division of the
school funds. Between 1825 and 1842 the fight was especially
severe in New York City. In 1825 the City Council refused to
grant public money to any religious Society/ and in 1840 the
Catholics carried the matter to the State Legislature.

The legislature deferred action until 1842, and then did the un-
expected thing. The heated discussion of the question in the city
and in the legislature had made it evident that, while it might not
be desirable to continue to give funds to a privately organized
corporation, to divide them among the quarreling and envious re-
ligious sects would be much worse. The result was that the legis-
lature created for the city a City Board of Education, to establish
real public schools, and stopped the debate on the question of aid
to religious schools by enacting that no portion of the school
funds was in the future to be given to any school in which ''any
religious sectarian doctrine or tenet should be taught, inculcated,
or practiced." Thus the real public-school system of New York
City was evolved out of this attempt to divide the public funds
among the churches. The Public School Society continued for a
time, but its work was now done, and, in 1853, it surrendered its
buildings and property to the City Board of Education and dis-
banded.

The contest in other States. As early as 1830, Lowell, Massa-
chusetts, had granted aid to the Irish Catholic parochial schools
in the city, and in 1835 had taken over two such schools and
maintained them as public schools. In 1853 the representatives
of the Roman Catholic Church made a demand on the state legis-
lature for a division of the school fund of the State. To settle the
question once for all a constitutional amendment was submitted
by the legislature to the people, providing that all state end town
moneys raised or appropriated for education must be expended
only on regularly organized and conducted public schools, and
that no religious sect should ever share in such funds. This
measure failed of adoption at the election of 1853 by a vote of

* The Public School Society continued to receive money grants, it being regarded
as a non-denominational organization, though chartered to teach "the sublime
truths of religion and morahty contained in the Holy Scriptures" in its schools. In
1828 the Society was even permitted to levy a local tax to supplement its resources,
it being estimated that at that time there were 10,000 children in the city with no
opportunities for education.

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 695

65,111 for and 65,512 against, but was re-proposed and adopted
in 1855. This settled the question in Massachusetts, as Mann
had tried to settle it earlier, and as New Hampshire had settled it
in its constitution of 1792, Connecticut in its constitution of 1 818,
and Rhode Island in its constitution of 1842.

Other States now faced similar demands, but no demand for a
share in or a division of the public-school funds, after 1840, was
successful. The demand everywhere met with intense opposi-
tion, and with the coming of enormous numbers of Irish CathoHcs
after 1846, and German Lutherans after 1848, the question of the
preservation of the schools just established as unified state school
systems now became a burning one. Petitions for a division of
the funds deluged the legislatures (R. 323), and these were met by
counter-petitions (R. 324). Mass meetings on both sides of the
question were held. Candidates for office were forced to declare
themselves. Anti-Catholic riots occurred in a number of cities.
The Native-American Party was formed, in 1841, " to prevent the
union of Church and State," and to "keep the Bible in the
schools." In 1841 the Whig Party, in New York, inserted a
plank in its platform against sectarian schools. In 1855 the na-
tional council of the Know-Nothing Party, meeting in Philadel-
phia, in its platform favored public schools and the use of the
Bible therein, but opposed sectarian schools. This party carried
the elections that year in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Con-
necticut, Rhode Island, Maryland, and Kentucky.

To settle the question in a final manner legislatures now began
to propose constitutional amendments to the people of their sev-
eral States which forbade a division or a diversion of the funds,
and these were almost uniformly adopted at the first election after
being proposed. No State admitted to the Union after 1858, ex-
cept West Virginia, failed to insert such a provision in its first state

constitition.^

VI. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL

The elementary or common schools which had been estabhshed
in the different States, by 1850, supplied an elementary or com-
mon school education to the children of the masses of the people,

^ The question may be regarded as a settled one in our American States. Our
people mean to keep the public-school system united as one state school system, well
realizing that any attempt to divide the schools among the different religious de-
nominations (the World Almanac for 19 17 lists 49 different denominations and 171
different sects in the United States) could only lead to inefficiency and educational
chaos.

696

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and the primary schools which were added, after about 1820, car-
ried this education downward to the needs of the beginners. In
the rural schools the American school of the 3 Rs provided for all
the children, from the little ones up, so long as they could ad-
vantageously partake of its instruction. Education in advance
of this common school training was in semi-private institutions —
the academies and colleges — in which a tuition fee was charged.
The next struggle came in the attempt to extend the system up-
ward so as to provide to pupils, free of charge, a more complete
education than the common schools afforded.

The transition Academy. About the middle of the eighteenth
century a tendency manifested itself, in Europe as well as in
America, to establish higher schools offering a more practical

curriculum than the old Latin
schools had provided. In Amer-
ica it became particularly evident,
after the coming of nationality,
that the old Latin grammar-
school type of instruction, with
its hmited curriculum and exclu-
sively college-preparatory ends,
was wholly inadequate for the
needs of the youth of the land.
The result was the gradual dying-
out of the Latin school and the
evolution of the tuition Acad-
emy, previously referred to briefly
on page 463.
The academy movement spread rapidly during the first half of
the nineteenth century. By 1800 there were 17 academies in
Massachusetts, 36 by 1820, and 403 by 1850. By 1830 there
were, according to Hinsdale, 950 incorporated academies in the
United States, and many unincorporated ones, ahd by 1850, ac-
cording to Inglis, there were, of all kinds, 1007 academies in New
England, 1636 in the Middle Atlantic States, 2640 in the Southern
S'tates, 753 in the Upper Mississippi Valley States, and a total re-
ported for the entire United States of 6085, with 12,260 teachers
employed and 263,096 pupils enrolled.^ The greatest period of

1 The movement gained a firm hold everywhere east of the Missouri River, the
States incorporating the largest number being New York with 887, Pennsylvania
with 524, Massachusetts with 403, Kentucky with 330, Virginia with 317, North
Carolina with 272, and Tennessee with 264. Some States, as Kentucky and Indiana,

Fig. 204. a Typical New

England Academy

Pittsfield Academy, New Hampshire.

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 697

their development was from 1820 to 1830, though they continued
to dominate secondary education until 1850, and were very promi-
nent until after the Civil War.

Characteristic features. The most characteristic features of
these academies were their semi-pubUc control (R. 325), their
broadened curriculum and religious purpose, and the extension of
their instruction to girls. The Latin Grammar School was essen-
tially a town free school, maintained by the towns for the higher
education of certain of their male children. It was aristocratic in
type, and belonged to the early period of class education. With
the decline in zeal for education, after 1750, these tax-supported
higher schools largely died out, and in their place private energy
and benevolence came to be depended upon to supply the needed
higher education.

One of the main purposes expressed in the endowment or crea-
tion of the academies was the establishment of courses which
should cover a number of subjects having value aside from mere
preparation for college, particularly subjects of a modern nature,
useful in preparing youths for the changed conditions of society
and government and business. The study of real things rather
than words about things, and useful things rather than subjects
merely preparatory to college, became prominent features of the
new courses of study. Among the most commonly found new
subjects were algebra, astronomy, botany, chemistry, general his-
tory, United States history, EngHsh literature, surveying, intellec-
tual philosophy, declamation, and debating.^

Not being bound up with the colleges, as the earlier Latin gram-
mar schools had largely been, the academies became primarily
independent institutions, taking pupils who had completed the
English education of the common school and giving them an ad-
vanced education in modern languages, the sciences, mathemat-
ics, history, and the more useful subjects of the time, with a view
to "rounding out" their studies and preparing them for business

provided for a system of county academies, while many States extended to them
some form of state aid. In New York State they found a warm advocate in Gover-
nor De Witt Clinton, who urged (1827) that they be located at the county towns
of the State to give a practical scientific education suited to the wants of farmers,
merchants, and mechanics, and also to train teachers for the schools of the State.
^ The^ new emphasis given to the study of English, mathematics, and book-
science is noticeable. New subjects appeared in proportion as the academies in-
creased in numbers and importance. Of 149 new subjects for study appearing in the
academies of New York, between 1787 and 1870, 23 appeared before 1826, 100 be-
tween 1826 and 1840, and 26 after 1840. Between 1825 and 1828 one half of the
new subjects appeared. This also was the maximum period of development of the
academies.

69B HISTORY OF EDUCATION

life and the rising professions. They thus built upon instead of
running parallel to the common school course, as the old Latin
grammar school had done (see Figure 198, p. 666) and hence clearly
mark a transition from the aristocratic and somewhat exclusive
college-preparatory Latin grammar school of colonial times to the
more democratic high school of to-day. The academies also
served a very useful purpose in supplying to the lower schools the
best-educated teachers of the time.

The old Latin grammar school, too, had been maintained
exclusively for boys. Girls had been excluded as ''Improper &
inconsistent w^^ such a Grammar Schoole as y^ law injoines, and
is y^ Designe of this Settlem^." The new academies soon reversed
this situation. Almost from the first they began to be established
for girls as well as boys, and in time many became co-educational.
In New York State alone 32 academies were incorporated between
1819 and 1853 with the prefix "Female" to their title. In this
respect, also, these institutions formed a transition to the modern
co-educational high school. The higher education of women in
the United States clearly dates from the establishment of the
academies. Troy (New York) Seminary, founded by Emma
Willard, in 182 1, and Mt. Holyoke (Massachusetts) Seminary,
founded by Mary Lyon, in 1836, though not the first institutions
for girls, were nevertheless important pioneers in the higher educa-
tion of women.

The demand for higher schools. The different movements
tending toward the building-up of free public-school systems in the
cities and States, which we have described in this and the preced-
ing chapter, and which became clearly defined in the Northern
States after 1825, came just at the time when the Academy had
reached its maximum development. The settlement of the ques-
tion of general taxation for education, the elimination of the rate-
bill by the cities and later by the States, the establishment of the
American common school as the result of a long native evolution,
and the complete establishment of public control over the entire
elementary-school system, all tended to bring the semi-private
tuition academy into question. Many asked why not extend the
public-school system upward to provide the necessary higher edu-
cation for all in one common state-supported school.^

^ The existence of a number of colleges, basing their entrance requirements on
the completion of the classical course of the academy., and the establishment of a
few embryo state universities in the new States of the West and the South, naturally
raised the further question of why there should be a gap in the public-school sys-

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 699

The demand for an upward extension of the pubHc school,
which would provide academy instruction for the poor as well as
the rich, and in one common public higher school, now made itself
felt. As the colonial Latin grammar school had represented the

^ The Latin Grammar School

The Tuition Academy

The Free Public High School

(Proportional heights indicate estimated
relative development)

12,000

9,000

1630 1650

1700

1750

18U0

IbbU

lyuu 1916

6.000

3.000

Fig. 205. The Development of Secondary Schools in the United

States

The transitional character of the Academy is well shown in this diagram.

educational needs of a society based on classes, and the academies
had represented a transition period and marked the growth of a
middle class, so the rising democracy of the second quarter of the
nineteenth century now demanded and obtained the democratic
high school, supported by the pubHc and equally open to all, to
meet the educational needs of a new society built on the basis of
a new and aggressive democracy. Where, too, the academy had
represented in a way a missionary effort — that of a few provid-
ing something for the good of the people (Rs. 319, 325) — the
high school on the other hand represented a cooperative effort
on the part of the people to provide something for themselves.

The first American high school. The first high school in the
United States was established in Boston, in 182 1 (R. 326). For
three years it was known as the '' English Classical School"

tern. The increase of wealth in the cities tended to increase the number who passed
through the elementary course and could profit by more extended education; the
academies had popularized the idea of more advanced education; while the new
manufacturing and commercial activities of the time called for more training than
the elementary schools afforded, and of a different type from that demanded by the
small colleges of the time for entrance, /

700

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

(R. 327), but in 1824 the school appears in the records as the
"EngHsh High School." In 1826 Boston also opened the first

high school for girls, but abolished it in
1828, due to its great popularity, and
instead extended the course of study for
girls in the elementary schools.

The Massachusetts Law of 1827.
Though Portland, Maine, established a
high school in 1821, Worcester, Massa-
chusetts, in 1824, and New Bedford,
Haverhill, and Salem, Massachusetts, in
1827, copying the Boston idea, the real
beginning of the American high school
as a distinct institution dates from the
Massachusetts Law of 1827 (R. 328),

•iiuiiKtiniii^.

THE United States
Established at Boston in 182 1

- X

Fig. 206
The First High School IN enacted through the influence of James

G. Carter. This law formed the basis
of all subsequent legislation in Massa-
chusetts, and deeply influenced development in other States.
The law is significant in that it required a high school in every
town having 500 families or over, in which should be taught
United States history, bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, and sur-
veying, while in every town having 4000 inhabitants or over,
instruction in Greek, Latin, history, rhetoric, and logic must be
added. A heavy penalty was attached for failure to comply
with the law. In 1835 the law was amended so as to permit any
smaller town to form a high school as well.

This Boston and Massachusetts legislation clearly initiated the
public high-school movement in the United States. It was there
that the new type of higher school was founded, there that its
curriculum was outlined, there that its standards were established,
and there that it developed earliest and best.

The struggle to establish and maintain high schools. Tlic
development of the American high school, even in its home, was
slow. Up to 1840 not much more than a dozen high schools had
been established in Massachusetts, and not more than an equal
number in the other States, The Academy was the dominant
institution, the cost of maintenance was a factor, and the same
opposition to an extension of taxation to include high schools was
manifested as was earlier shown toward the establishment of com-
mon schools. The early state legislation, as had been the case

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 701

with the common schools, was nearly always permissive and not
mandatory. Massachusetts forms a notable exception in this
regard. The support for the schools had to come practically
entirely from increased local taxation, and this made the struggle
to establish and maintain high schools in any State for a long time
a series of local struggles. Years of propaganda and patient effort
were required, and, after the establishment of a high school in a
community, constant watchfulness was necessary to prevent its
abandonment (R. 329).

In many States, legislation providing for the establishment of
high schools was attacked in the courts. One of the clearest cases

fw^

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High Schools

in 1860

Fig. 207. High Schools in the United States by i860

Based on the table given in the Report of the United States Commissioner
of Education, 1904, vol. 11, pp. 1782-1989. This table is only approxi-
mately correct, as exact information is difficult to obtain. This table
gives 321 high schools by i860, and all but 35 of these were in the
States shown on the above map. There were two schools in California
and three in Texas, and the remainder not shown were in the Southern
States. Of the 321 high schools reported, over half (167) were in the
three States of Massachusetts (78), New York (41), and Ohio (48).

of this came in Michigan, in a test case appealed from the city of
Kalamazoo, and commonly known as the Kalamazoo case. The
opinion of the Supreme Court of the State (R. 330) was so favor-
able and so positive that this decision deeply influenced develop-
ment in almost all of the Upper Mississippi Valley States.
The struggle to estabHsh and maintain high schools in Massa-

702 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

chusetts and New York preceded the development in most other
States, because there the common school had been established
earher. In consequence, the struggle to extend and complete the
public-school system came there earher also. The development
was likewise more peaceful there, and came more rapidly. In
Massachusetts this was in large part a result of the educational
awakening started by James G. Carter and Horace Mann. In
New York it was due to the early support of Governor De Witt
Chnton, and the later encouragement and state aid which came
from the Regents of the University of the State of New York.
Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire were Hke Massachusetts
in spirit, and followed closely its example. In Rhode Island and
New Jersey, due to old conditions, and in Connecticut, due to the
great decline in education there after 1800, the high school devel-
oped much more slowly, and it was not until after 1865 that any
marked development took place in these States. The democratic
West soon adopted the idea, and established high schools as soon
as cities developed and the needs of the population warranted.
In the South the main high-school development dates from rela-
tively recent times.

Gradually the high school has been accepted as a part of the
state common-school system by all the American States, and the
funds and taxation originally provided for the common schools
have been extended to cover the high school as well. The new
States of the West have based their legislation largely on what
the Eastern and Central States earlier fought out.

VII. THE STATE UNIVERSITY CROWNS THE SYSTEM

The colonial colleges. The earlier colleges — Harvard, WilHam
and Mary, Yale — had been created by the religious-state govern-
ments of the earlier colonial period, and continued to retain some
state connections for a time after the coming of nationality. As
it early became evident that a democracy demands intelligence
on the part of its citizens, that the leaders of democracy are not
likely to be too highly educated, and that the character of collegi-
ate instruction must ultimately influence national development,
efforts were accordingly made to change the old colleges or create
new ones, the final outcome of which was the creation of state
universities in all the new and in most of the older States. The
evolution of the state university, as the crowning head of the free
public school system of the State, represents the last phase which

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE. SCHOOLS 703

we shall trace of the struggle of democracy to create a system of
schools suited to its peculiar needs.

The close of the colonial period found the Colonies possessed of
nine colleges. These, with the dates of their foundation, the Col-
ony founding them, and the religious denomination they chiefly
represented were:

1636.

Harvard College

Massachusetts

Puritan

1693.

William and Mary

Virginia

Anglican

I70I.

Yale College

Connecticut

Congregational

1746.

Princeton

New Jersey

Presbyterian

1753-55

Academy and College

Pennsylvania

Non-denominational

1754-

King's College (Columbia)

New York

Anglican

1764.

Brown

Rhode Island

Baptist

1766.

Rutgers

New Jersey

Reformed Dutch

1769.

Dartmouth

New Hampshin

I Congregational

The religious purpose had been dominant in the founding of
each institution, though there was a gradual shading- off in strict
denominational control and insistence upon religious conformity
in the foundations after 1750. Still the prime purpose in the
founding of each was to train up a learned and godly body of min-
isters, the earlier congregations at least "dreading to leave an
illiterate ministry to the churches when our present ministers
shall lie in the dust." In a pamphlet, published in 1754, Presi-
dent Clap of Yale declared that "Colleges are Societies of Minis-
ters, for training up Persons for the Work of the Ministry,''^ and
that "The great design of founding this School (Yale), was to
Educate Ministers in our own Way.'^ In the advertisement pub-
lished in the New York papers announcing the opening of King's
College, in 1754, it was stated that:

IV. The chief Thing that is aimed at in this College, is, to teach and
engage the Children to know God in Jesus Christ, and to love and serve
him in all Sobriety, Godliness, and Richness of Life, with a perfect Heart
and a Willing Mind: and to train them up in all Virtuous Habits, and
all such useful Knowledge as may render them creditable to their
Families and Friends, Ornaments to their Country, and useful to the
Public Weal in their generation.

These colonial institutions were all small. For the first fifty
years of Harvard's history the attendance at the college seldom
exceeded twenty, and the President did all the teaching. The
first assistant teacher (tutor) was not appointed until 1699, and
the first professor not until 1721, when a professorship of divinity
was endowed. By 1800 the instruction was conducted by the
President and three professors — divinity, mathematics, and

704

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

''Oriental languages" — assisted by a few tutors who received
only class fees, and the graduating classes seldom exceeded forty.
The course was four years in length, and all students studied the
same subjects. The first three years were given largely to the
so-called "Oriental languages" — -Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.
In addition, Freshmen studied arithmetic; Sophomores, algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry; and Juniors, natural (book) science;
and all were given much training in oratory, and some general
history was added. The Senior year was given mainly to ethics,
philosophy, and Christian evidences.^ The instruction in the
eight other older colleges, before 1800, was not materially different.
Growth of colleges by i860. Fifteen additional colleges were
founded before 1800, and it has been estimated that by that date
the two dozen American colleges then existing did not have all
told over one hundred professors and instructors, not less than

, — ■

r^5^

+ Colonial Collec|e6 N./^
•Colleges founded. 1775-1860

(Moitly Denomina-tional)
0 Sta.te Universities

•V

•7

• ?p'v'

J. ©

rs=:

Fig. 2o8. Colleges and Universities established by i860

Compiled from data given in the Reports of the United States Commissioner of Edu-
cation. Of the 246 colleges shown on the map, but 17 were state institutions, and
but two or three others had any state connections.

one thousand nor more than two thousand students, or property
worth over one million dollars. Their graduating classes were
small. No one of the twenty-four admitted women in any way
to its privileges. After 1820, with the firmer establishment of the

^ For an interesting table showing the simple entrance requirements of Harvard
in 1642, 1734, 1803, 1825, 1850, 1875, and 1885, see Report of the United States
Commissioner of Education, 1902, vol. i, pp. 930-33.

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 705

Nation, the awakening of a new national consciousness, the devel-
opment of larger national wealth, and a court decision (p. 706)
which safeguarded the endowments, interest in the founding of
new colleges perceptibly quickened, as may be seen from the
adjoining table, and between 1820 and 1880 came the great period
of denominational effort. The map shows the colleges estabhshed
by i860, from which it will be seen how large a part the denomi-
national colleges played in the early history of higher education
in the United States. Up to about 1870 the provision of higher
education, as had been the case earher with the provision of
secondary education by the acade-
mies, had been left largely to private lygo-Sg . .° . . '.......... ^7

effort. There were, to be sure, a 1790-99 7

few state universities before 1870, 1800-09 9

though usually these were not better 132^29 22

than the denominational colleges 1830-39 38

around them, and often they main- 1840-49 42

tained a non-denominational char- ig^^lg 2^

acter only by preserving a proper 1870-79 61

balance between the different de- 1880-89 74

nominations in the employment of ^ 2?\^? -^

... , . ^ , . "^ „ Total 494

their faculties. Speaking generally,

, . , , . . ,, XT •; TO. / Colleges FOUNDED UP TO igoo

higher education m the United States ^^^ ,, , _

*^ •11 (After a table by Dexter, corrected

before 1870 was provided very by U.S. Comr. Educ, data. Onlyap-

largely in the tuitional colleges of P^-o'^'-^teiy correct.)
the different religious denominations, rather than by the State.
Of the 246 colleges founded by the close of the year i860, as shown
on the map, but 17 were state institutions, and but two or three
others had any state connections.

The new national attitude toward the colleges. After the com-
ing of nationality there gradually grew up a widespread dissatis-
faction with the colleges as then conducted, because they were
aristocratic in tendency, because they devoted themselves so
exclusively to the needs of a class, and because they failed to
answer the needs of the States in the matter of higher education.
Due to their religious origin, and the common requirement that
the president and trustees must be members of some particular
denomination, they were naturally regarded as representing the
interests of some one sect or faction within the State rather than
the interests of the State itself. With the rise of the new demo-
cratic spirit after about 1820 there came a demand, felt least in

7o6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

New England and most in the South and the new States in the
West, for institutions of higher learning which should represent
the State. It was argued that colleges were important instru-
mentalities for moulding the future, that the kind of education
given in them must ultimately influence the welfare of the State,
and that higher education cannot be regarded as a private matter.
The type of education given in these higher institutions, it was
argued, "will appear on the bench, at the bar, in the pulpit, and
in the senate, and will unavoidably affect our civil and religious
principles." For these reasons, as well as to crown our state
school system and to provide higher educational advantages for
its leaders, it was argued that the State should exercise control
over the colleges.

This new national spirit manifested itself in a number of ways.
In New York we see it in the reorganization of King's College,
the rechristening of the institution as Columbia, and the placing
of it under at least the nominal supervision of the governing edu-
cational body of the State. In Pennsylvania an attempt was
made to bring the university into closer connection with the
State, but this failed. In New Hampshire the legislature tried,
in 1816, to transform Dartmouth College into a state institution.
This act was contested in the courts, and the case was finally
carried to the Supreme Court of the United States. There it was
decided, in 18 19, that the charter of a college was a contract, the
obligation of which a legislature could not impair.

Effect of the Dartmouth College decision. The effect of this
decision manifested itself in two different ways. On the one hand
it guaranteed the perpetuity of endowments, and the great period
of private and denominational effort (see table, p. 705) now fol-
lowed. On the other hand, since the States could not change
charters and transform old establishments, they began to turn
to the creation of new state universities of their own. Virginia
created its state university the same year as the Dartmouth case
decision. The University of North Carolina, which had been
established in 1789, and which began to give instruction in 1795,
but which had never been under direct state control, was taken
over by the State in 182 1. The University of Vermont, originally
chartered in 1791, was rechartered as a state university in 1838.
The University of Indiana was established in 1820. Alabama
provided for a state university in its first constitution, in 1819,
and the institution opened for instruction in 1831. Michigan, in

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE SCHOOLS 707

framing its first constitution preparatory to entering the Union,
in 1835, made careful provisions for the safeguarding of the state
university and for establishing it as an integral part of its state
school system, as Indiana had done in 1816. Wisconsin provided
for the creation of a state university in 1836, and embodied the
idea in its first constitution when it entered the Union in 1848,
and Missouri provided for a state university in 1839, Mississippi
in 1844, Iowa in 1847, ^^^ Florida in 1856. The state university
is to-day found in every " new " State and in some of the " original
States, and practically every new Western and Southern State
followed the patterns set by Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin
and made careful provision for the establishment and maintenance
of a state university in its first state constitution.

There was thus quietly added another new section to the
American educational ladder, and the free public-school system
was extended farther upward. Though the great period of state
university foundation came after i860, and the great period of
state university expansion after 1885, the beginnings were clearly
marked early in our national history. Of the sixteen States having
state universities by i860 (see Figure 208), all except Florida had
established them before 1850. For a long time small, poorly sup-
ported by the States, much like the church colleges about them in
character and often inferior in quality, one by one the state univer-
sities have freed themselves alike from denominational restric-
tions on the one hand and political control on the other, and have
set about rendering the service to the State which a state univer-
sity ought to render. Michigan, the first of our state universities
to free itself, take its proper place, and set an example for others
to follow, opened in 1841 with two professors and six students.
In 1844 it was a little institution of three professors, one tutor,
one assistant, and one visiting lecturer, had but fifty-three stu-
dents, and offered but a single course of study, consisting chiefly
of Greek, Latin, mathematics, and intellectual and moral science
(R. 331). As late as 1852 it had but seventy-two students, but
by i860, when it had largely freed itself from the incubus of
Baptist Latin, Congregational Greek, Methodist intellectual
philosophy, Presbyterian astronomy, and Whig mathematics,
and its remarkable growth as a state university had begun, it
enrolled five hundred and nineteen.

The American free public- school system now established. By
the close of the second quarter of the nineteenth century, certainly

7o8

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

by i860, we find the American public-school system fully estab-
lished, in principle at least, in all our Northern States (R. 332).
Much yet remained to be done to carry into full effect what had

been estabhshed in principle, but
everywhere democracy had won
its fight, and the American pub-
lic school, supported by general
taxation, freed from the pauper-
school taint, free and equally open
to all, under the direction of rep-
resentatives of the people, free
from sectarian control, and com-
plete from the primary school
through the high school, and in
the Western States through the
university as well, was estab-
lished permanently in American
public policy. It was a real dem-
ocratic educational ladder that
had been created, and not the
typical two-class school system of
continental European States. The
estabhshment of the free public
high school and the state uni-
versity represent the crowning
achievements of those who strug-
gled to found a state-supported
educational system fitted to the
needs of great democratic States.
Probably no other influences have
done more to unify the Amer-

Compare this with the figure on page ic^^ Pe^Pl^.' reconcile diverse
577, and the democratic nature of the points of view, eliminate state

American school system will be ap- jealousies, set ideals for the peo-
ple, and train leaders for the serv-
ice of the States and of the Nation than the academies, high
schools, and colleges scattered over the land. They have edu-
cated but a small percentage of the people, to be sure, but they
have trained most of the leaders who have guided the American
democracy since its birth.

w
I

n ni

« SENIOR •

• JUNIOR • 11

• SOPHOMORE • 1

. FRESHMAN • 1

. TWELFTH GRADE

. ELEVENTH GRADE

TENTH GRADE •

• NINTH GRADE

EIGHTH GRADE

. SEVENTH GRADE • (j |

. SIXTH GRADE

. FIFTH GRADE

$ -

s -

FOURTH GRADE

. THIRD GRADE

SECOND GRADE

FIRST GRADE

Fig. 209. The American
Educational Ladder

AMERICAN BATTLE FOR hREE SCHOOLS 709

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain the theory of "vested rights" as appHed to private and parochial
schools.

2. Does every great advance in provisions for human welfare require a
period of education and propaganda? Illustrate.

3. Explain just what is meant by "the wealth of the State must educate
the children of the State."

4. Show how the retention of the pauper-school idea would have been
dangerous to the life of the Republic.

5. Why were the cities more anxious to escape from the operation of the
• pauper-school law than were the towns and rural districts?

6. Why were the pauper-school and the rate-bill so hard to ehminate?

7. Explain why, in America, schools naturally developed from the com-
munity outward.

8. State your explanation for the older States beginning to establish per-
manent school funds, often before they had estabhshed a state system
of schools.

g. Show the gradual transition from church control of education, through
state aid of church schools, to secularized state schools.

10. Show why secularized state schools were the only possible solution for
the United States.

11. Show that secularization would naturally take place in the textbooks
and the instruction, before manifesting itself in the laws.

12. Show how the American academy was a natural development in the
national life.

13. Show how the American high school was a natural development after
the academy.

14. Show why the high school could be opposed by men who had accepted
tax-supported elementary schools. Why has such reasoning been aban-
doned now?

15. Explain the difference, and illustrate from the history of American edu-
cational development, between establishing a thing in principle and carry-
ing it into full effect.

16. Was the early argument as to the influence of higher education on the
State a true argument? Why?

17. What would have been the probable results had the Dartmouth College
case been decided the other way?

18. Show how the opening of collegiate instruction to women was a phase
of the new democratic movement.

19. Show how college education has been a unifying force in the national life.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selections
are reproduced:

316. Mann: The Ground of the Free-School System.

317. Governor Cleveland: Repeal of the Connecticut School Law.

318. Mann: On the Repeal of the Connecticut School Law.

319. Gulliver: The Struggle for Free Schools in Norwich.

320. Address: The State and Education.

321. Michigan: A Rate-Bill, and a Warrant for Collection.

322. Mann: On Religious Instruction in the Schools.

323. Michigan: Petition for a Division of the School Fund.

710 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

324. Michigan: Counter-Petition against a Division.

325. Connecticut: Act of Incorporation of Norwich Free Academy.

326. Boston: EstabHshment of the First American High School.

327. Boston: The Secondary-School System in 1823.

328. Massachusetts: The High School Law of 1827.

329. Gulliver: An Example of the Opposition to High Schools.

330. Michigan: The Kalamazoo Decision.

331. Michigan: Program of Studies at University, 1843.

332. Tappan: The Michigan State System of Public Instruction.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Do Mann's three propositions (316) hold equally true to-day?

2. Of what type of person is the reasoning of Governor Cleveland (317)
typical?

3. Assuming Mann's description of Connecticut progress (318) to be cor-
rect, how do you account for the legislature following Governor Cleve-
land's recommendations so readily?

4. Did the leaders in Norwich (319) use good diplomacy?

5. Point out the essential soundness of the reasoning of the New Jersey
■Report (320).

6. Explain the willingness of people seventy-five years ago to conduct the
school business on such a small basis (321) as the rate-bill indicates.

7. Show that, as Mr. Mann points out (322), sectarian schools and a State
Church are near together,

8. Point out the weakness in the argument in the Michigan petition (323).

9. State the purpose and nature of the first American high school (326),
and contrast it with the earlier academy.

10. Contrast the English Classical School (High School) of Boston of 1823,
with the older Latin School (327), as to purpose and instruction.

11. Just what did the Massachusetts Law of 1827 (328) require?

12. Has such opposition as that described in 329 completely died out even
now?

13. State the line of reasoning and the conclusions of the Court in the Kala-
mazoo Case (330) . Point out how this decision might influence develop-
ment elsewhere.

14. Compare the University of Michigan of 1843 (33 1) with a present-day
high school.

15. Show that Michigan (332) had perfected an American educational
ladder.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Brown, E. E. The Making of our Middle Schools.
*Brown, S. W. The Secularization of American Education.
Cubberley, E. P. Public Education in the United States.
Dexter, E. G. A History of Education in the United States.
*Hinsdale, B. A. Horace Mann, and the Common School Revival in the

United States.
*Inglis, A. J. The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts.
Martin, George H. The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School
System.
*Mead, A. R. The Development of Free Schools in the United States, as
Illustrated by Connecticut and Michigan.
Taylor, James M. Before Vassar Opened.
*Thwing, Charles F. A History of Higher Education in America.

CHAPTER XXVII
EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL

I. SPREAD OF THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA

The five type nations. We have now traced, in some detail,
the struggles of forward-looking men to establish national sys-
tems of education in five great world nations. In each we have
described the steps by means of which the State gradually super-
seded the Church in the control of education, and the motives
and impulses which finally led the State to take over the school as
a function of the State. The steps and impelling motives and
rate of transfer were not the same in any two nations, but in each
of the five the political necessities of the State in time made the
transfer seem desirable. Time everywhere was required to effect
the change. The movement began earliest and was concluded
earliest in the German States, and was concluded last in England.
In the German States, France, and Italy the change came rapidly
and as a result of legislative acts or imperial decrees. In England
and the United States the transfer took place, as we have seen,
only in response to the slow development of public opinion.

This change in control and extension of educational advantages
was essentially a nineteenth-century movement, and a resultant
of the new pohtical philosophy and the democratic revolutions of
the later eighteenth century, combined with the industrial revo-
lution of the nineteenth century. A new pohtical impulse now
replaced the earlier religious motive as the incentive for education,
and education for literacy and citizenship became, during the
nineteenth century, a new political ideal that has, in time, spread
to progressive nations all over the world.

The five great nations whose educational evolution has been
described in the preceding chapters may be regarded as having
formed types which have since been copied, in more or less detail,
by the more progressive nations in different parts of the world.
The continental European two-class school system, the American
educational ladder, and the English tendency to combine the two
and use the best parts of each, have been reproduced in the differ-
ent national educational systems which have been created by the
various pohtical governments of the world. The continental

712 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

European idea of a centralized ministry for education, with an
appointed head or a cabinet minister in control, has also been
widely copied. The Prussian two- class plan has been most influ-
ential among the Teutonic and Slavic peoples of Europe, and has
also deeply influenced educational development among the Jap-
anese; English ideas have been extensively copied in the English
self-governing dominions; and the American plan has been clearly
influential in Canada, the Argentine, and in China. The French
centralized plan for organization and administration has been
widely copied in the state educational organizations of the Latin
nations of Europe and South America. In a general way it may
be stated that the more democratic the government of a nation
has become the greater has been the tendency to break away
from the two-class school system, to introduce more of an educa-
tional ladder, and to bring in more of the English conception of
granting to localities a reasonable amount of local liberty in edu-
cational affairs.

Spread of the state-control idea among northern nations. The
development of schools under the control of the government, and
the extension of state supervision to the existing religious schools,
took place hi the different cantons of Switzerland, and in Holland,
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, somewhat contemporaneously
with the development described for the five type nations. The
work of Pestaloz^ and Fellenberg, and of their disciples and fol-
lowers, had given an early impetus to the establishment of schools
and teacher- training in the Swiss cantons, most being done in the
German- speaking portions.

In Holland, where the Reformation zeal for schools largely died
out in the eighteenth century, the organization of the '^ Society
of Public Good," in 1784, by a Mennonite clergyman, did much
to awaken a new interest in schools for the people and to inaugu-
rate a new movement for educational organization. In 1795 a
revolution took place in Holland, a republic was established, and
the extension of educational advantages followed. From 1806
to 181 5 Holland was under the rule of Napoleon. A school law
of 1806 forms the basis of public education in Holland. This
asserted the supremacy of the State in education, and provided
for state inspection of schools. In 181 2 the French scientist,
M. Cuvier, reported to Napoleon that there were 4451 schools
in little Holland, and that one tenth of the total population was
in school. In 18 16 a normal school was estabhshed at Haarlem.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 713

CSX!

«11

I 10

Both the constitutions of 181 5 and 1848 provided for state con-
trol of education, which has been steadily extended since the
beginning of the revival in 1784. To-day Holland provides a
good system of public instruction for its people.

In Denmark and Sweden the development of state schools has
been worked out, much as in England, in cooperation with the
Church, and the Church still assists the State in the admin-
istration and supervision of the
school systems which were event-
ually evolved. In each of these
countries, too, the continental
two-class school system has been
somewhat modified by an upward
movement of the transfer point
between the two and the develop-
ment of people's high schools, so
as to produce a more democratic
type of school and afford better
educational opportunities to all
classes of the population. The an-
nexed diagram, showing the organ-
ization of education in Denmark,
is typical of this modification and
extension.

Finland should also be classed
with these northern nations in
matters of educational develop-
ment. Lutheran ideas as to reli-
gion and the need for education
took deep hold there at an early
date (p. 297). A knowledge of
reading and the Catechism was made necessary for confirmation
as early as 1686, and democratic ideas also found an early home
among this people. In consequence the Finns have for long
been a literate people. The law making elementary education
a function of the State, however, dates only from 1866, and
secondary education was taken over from the ecclesiastical au-
thorities only in 1872.

Similarly, Scotland, another northern nation, began schools as
a phase of its Reformation fervor. During the eighteenth cen-
tury the parish schools, created by the Acts of 1646 (R. 179;

< 12

Transfer Point

Fig. 210, The School System
OF Denmark

714

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

p. 335) and 1696, proved insufficient, and voluntary schools were
added to supplement them. Together these insured for Scotland
a much higher degree of literacy than was the case in England.
The final state organization of education in Scotland dates from
the Scottish Education Act of 1872.

The map reproduced here, showing the progress of general
education by the close of the nineteenth century, as measured by

^4 A^ cs:^S E A Cy

Fig. 211. The Progress or Literacy in Europe by the Close of the

Nineteenth Century

the spread of the ability to read and write, reveals at a glance the
high degree of literacy of the northern Teutonic and mixed Teu-
tonic nations. It was among these nations that the Protestant
Reformation ideas made the deepest impression; it was in these
northern States that the Protestant elementary vernacular school,
to teach reading and religion, attained its earliest start; it was
there that the school was taken over from the Church and erected
into an effective national instrument at an early date ; and it was
these nations which had been most successful, by the close of the
nineteenth century, in extending the elements of education to all
and thus producing literate populations.

EDT^rATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 715

The state-control idea in the south and east of Europe. As we

pass to the south and east of Europe we pass not only to lands
which remained loyal to the Roman Church, or are adherents of
the Greek Church, and hence did not experience the Reformation
fervor with its accompanying zeal for education, but also to lands
untouched by the French-Revolution movement and where
democratic ideas have only recently begun to make any progress.
Greece alone forms an exception to this statement, a constitu-
tional government having been established there in 1843. Re-
moved from the main stream of European civilization, these
nations have been influenced less by modern forces; the hold of
the Church on the education of the young has there been longest
retained; and the taking-over of education by the State has there
been longest deferred. In consequence, the schools provided
have for long been inadequate both in number and scope, and the
progress of literacy and democratic ideas among the people has
been slow.

Despite the beginnings made by Maria Theresa (p. 475) in the
late eighteenth century, Austria dropped backward to a low place
in matters of education during the period of reaction following
the Napoleonic wars, and the real beginnings of state elementary-
schools there date from the law of 1867. The beginnings in Hun-
gary date from 1868. The beginnings of other state elementary
school systems are: Greece, 1823; Portugal, 1844; Spain, 1857;
Roumania, 1859; Bulgaria, 1881; and Serbia, 1882. In many of
these States, despite early beginnings, but little real progress
has even yet been made in developing systems of national educa-
tion that will provide gratuitous elementary-school training for all
and inculcate the national spirit. In many of these States the
ilHteracy of the people is still high,^ the people are poor, the na-
tions are economically backward, the military and clerical classes
still dominate, and intelligent and interested governments have
not as yet been evolved.

In Russia, though Catherine II (p. 477) and her successors
made earnest efforts to begin a system of state education, the
period following Napoleon was one of extreme repressive reaction.

' In Spain, for example, the percentage of illiteracy in i860 was 75.52; in 1870
70.01 per cent; in 1887, 68.01 per cent; in 1890, 63.78 per cent; and in 1910, 59.35
per cent. The percentage for 1920 will probably not be less than for 19 10, due to
the closing of many schools for lack of teachers during the World War. In 1916
ten provinces had an illiteracy of over 70 per cent, and but five had less than 40 per
cent. In Madrid and Barcelona, cities as large as Baltimore and Cleveland, the
illiteracy approaches a third of the population in Madrid, and a half in Barcelona.

716 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

The military class and the clergy of the Greek Church Joined
hands in a government interested in keeping the people submis-
sive and devout. In consequence, at the time of the emancipa-
tion of the serfs, in 1861, it was estimated that not one per cent
of the total population of Russia was then under instruction, and
the ratio of illiteracy by the close of the nineteenth century was
the highest in Europe outside of Spain, Portugal, and the Balkan
States.

The state-control idea in the English self-governing dominions.
The English and French settlers in Ontario, Quebec, and the
Maritime Provinces of Canada brought the English and French
parochial-school ideas from their home-lands with them, but
these home conceptions were materially modified, at an early
date, by settlers from the northern States of the American Union.
These introduced the New England idea of state control and
pubHc responsibility for education. In part copying precedents
recently established in the new American States, as an outcome
of the struggles there to establish free, tax-supported, and state-
controlled schools, both Ontario and Quebec early began the
establishment of state systems of education for their people. A
superintendent of education was appointed in Ontario in 1844,
and the Common School Act of 1846 laid the foundation of the
state school system of the Province. In the law of 187 1 a system
of uniform, free, compulsory, and state-inspected schools was
definitely provided for. Quebec, in 1845, niade the ecclesiastical
parish the unit for school administration; in 1852 appointed
government inspectors for the church schools; and in 1859 pro-
vided for a Council of PubHc Instruction to control all schools in
the Province. The Dominion Act of 1867 left education, as in
the United States, to the several Provinces to control, and state
systems of education, though with large liberty in religious in-
struction, or the incorporation of the religious schools into the
state school systems, have since been erected in all the Canadian
Provinces. Following American precedents, too, a thoroughly
democratic educational ladder has almost everywhere been cre-
ated, substantially like that shown in the Figure on page 708.

In AustraHa and New Zealand education has similarly been
left to the different States to handle, but a state centralized con-
trol has been provided there which is more akin to French practice
than to EngHsh ideas. In each State, primary education has been
made free, compulsor>^, secular, and state-supported. The laws

EDI^CATTON BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 717

making such provision in the different States date from 1872, in
Victoria; 1875, in Queensland; 1878, in South Australia, West
Australia, and New Zealand; and 1880, in New South Wales.
Secondary education has not as yet been made free, and many
excellent privately endowed or fee-supported secondary schools,
after the English plan, are found in the different States.

In the new Union of South Africa all university education has
been taken over by the Union, while the existing school systems
of the different States are rapidly being taken over and expanded
by the state governments, and transformed into constructive
instruments of the States.

The state-control idea in the South American States. As we
have seen in Chapter xx, the spirit of nationality awakened by
the French Revolution spread to South America, and between
181 5 and 182 1 (p. 503) all of Spain's South American colonies re-
volted, declared their independence from the mother country,
and set up constitutional republics. Brazil, in 1822, in a similar
manner severed its connections from Portugal. The United
States, through the Monroe Doctrine (1826), helped these new
States to maintain their independence. For approximately half
a century these States, isolated as they were and engaged in a
long and difficult struggle to evolve stable forms of govern-
ment, left such education as was provided to private individ-
uals and societies and to the missionaries and teaching orders
of the Roman Church. After the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the new forces stirring in the modern world began to be
felt in South America as well, and, after about 1870, a well-
defined movement to establish state school systems began to be
in evidence.

The Argentine constitution of 1853 had directed the estabhsh-
ment of primary schools by the State, but nothing of importance
was done until after the election of Dr. Sarmiento as President, in
1868. Under his influence an American-type normal school was
established, teachers were imported from the United States, and
liberal appropriations for education were begun. In 1873 ^
general system of national aid for primary education was estab-
Hshed, and in 1884 2. new law laid the basis of the present state
school system. Though some earlier beginnings had been made
in some of the other South American nations, Argentine is re-
garded as the leader in education among them. This is largely
due to the democratic nature of the government which, in connec-

7i8

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion with the deep interest in education of President Sarmiento,^
found educational expression in the creation of an American-type
educational ladder, as the accompanying diagram shows. Large
emphasis has been placed on scientific and practical studies in
the secondary colegios. The normal school has been given large

importance, and made a parallel
and connecting link in the edu-
cational ladder between the prim-
ary schools and the universities.
The Argentine school system,
probably due to American influ-
ences acting through President
Sarmiento, forms an exception to
the usual South American state
school system, as nearly all the
other States have followed the
French model and created a Eu-
ropean two-class school system.

In Chili, the constitution of
1833 declared education to be of
supreme importance, and a nor-
mal school was established in
Santiago, as early as 1840. The
basic law for the organization of
a state system of primary instruc-
tion, however, dates from i860,
and the law organizing a state
system of secondary and higher
education from 1872.

In Peru, an educational reform
movement was inaugurated in
1876, but the war with Chili (1879-84) checked all progress. In
1896 an Educational Commission was appointed to visit the
United States and Europe, and the law of 1901 marked the crea-
tion of a ministry for education and the real beginnings of a state
school system.

^ While an exile from the Argentine, Dr. Sarmiento was commissioned by Chili to
visit, study, and report on the state school systems of the United States and Europe.
While in the United States he became intimately acquainted with Horace Mann.
Later he was Minister from the Argentine to the United States, being recalled, in 1868,
to assume the presidency of the Republic. He was deeply impressed with the type of
educational opportunity provided in the schools of the United States and, through an
appointed Minister of Education, impressed his ideas on the Argentine nation.

Fig. 212. The School System of
THE Argentine Republic ♦

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 719

The Brazilian constitution of 1824 left education to the several
States (twenty and one Federal District), and a permissive law,
of 1827 allowed the different States to establish schools. It was
not until 1854, however, that public schools were organized in
the Federal District, and these mark the real beginning of state
education in Brazil. Since then the establishment of state schools
has gradually extended to the coast States, and inland with the
building of railway lines and the opening-up of the interior to
outside influences. The basis for state-controlled education has
now been laid in all the States, but the attendance at the schools
as yet is small. ^

In some of the other South American States, such as Bolivia,
Ecuador, and Venezuela, but Httle progress in extending state-
controlled schools has as yet been made, and the training of the
young is still left largely to private effort, the Church, and the
religious orders. The illiteracy in all the South American States
is still high, in part due to the large native populations, and
much remains to be done before education becomes general there.
The state-control idea, though, has been definitely estabhshed in
principle in these countries. With the estabHshment of stable
governments, the building of railroads and steamship lines, and
the development of an important international commerce —
events which there have characterized the first two decades of
the twentieth century — early and important progress in state
educational organization and in the extension of educational
advantages may be expected.

The state-school idea in eastern Asia. In 1854 Admiral Perry
effected the treaty of friendship with Japan which virtually opened
that nation to the influences of western civilization, and one of the
most wonderful transformations of a people recorded in history
soon began. In 1867 a new Mikado came to the throne, and in
1868 the small military class, which had ruled the nation for some
seven hundred years, gave up their power to the new ruler. A
new era in Japan, known as the Meiji, dates from this event.
In 187 1 the centuries-old feudal system was aboKshed, and all
classes in the State were declared equal before the law. This
same year the first newspaper in Japan was begun. In 1872 the
first educational code for the nation was promulgated by the
Mikado. This ordered the general estabHshment of schools,
the compulsory education of the people (R. 334 a), and the

^ In 1910 only about 3 per cent of the total population was in any type of school.

720

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

KvSocB

v^^

^Si

>■ >.

o ^

wwm

23
22
2i

19
18
17
16
15
14
13

•t;!^

equality of all classes in educational matters. Students were
now sent abroad, especially to Germany and the United States;
foreign teachers were imported; an American normal-school
teacher was placed in charge of the newly opened state normal
school; the American class method of instruction was introduced;

schoolbooks and teaching appar-
atus were prepared, after Ameri-
can models; middle schools were
organized in the towns; higher
schools were opened in the cities;
and the old Academy of Foreign
Languages was evolved (1877) into
the University of Tokyo. In 1884
the study of English was intro-
duced into the courses of the public
schools. In 1889 a form of consti-
tution was granted to the people,
and a parliament established.^

Adapting the continental Euro-
pean idea of a two-class- school
system to the peculiar needs of
the nation, the Japanese have
worked out, during the past half-
century, a type of state-controlled
school system which has been well
adapted to their national needs. ^
Instruction in national morality,
based on the ancestral virtues,
brotherly affection, and loyalty to
the constitution and the ruling
well worked out in their schools,
largely autocratic in

Transfer Point
11

Fig. 213. The Japanese Two-
Class School System

class (R. 334 b-c), has been

Though the government has remained

form, the Japanese have, however, retained throughout all their

educational development the fundamental democratic principle

enunciated in the Preamble to the Educational Code of 1872

1 The Mikado still retained, through his ministers, very large powers, v/hile the
parliament was a consultative assembly rather than a legislative one. The form of
government has been much Hke that of the German Empire before the World War.

2 The Japanese Government has so far been a military autocracy, and the Japan-
ese have been the Prussians of the Orient. The two-class school system has accord-
ingly met the needs of a benevolent autocracy fairly well. With the rise of a liberal
party in Japan, and the beginning of some democratic life, we may look for pro-
gressive changes in their schools which will tend to produce a more democratic type
of educational organization.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 721

fiCO

be 3

(R. 334 a), mz.^ that every one without distinction of class or
sex shall receive primary education at least, and that the oppor-
tunity for higher education shall be open to all children. So com-
pletely has the education of the people been conceived of as one
of the most important functions of the State that all education
has been placed under a central-
ized state control, with a Cabinet
Minister in charge of all admin-
istrative matters connected with
the education of the nation.

Since near the end of the nine-
teenth century what promises to
be an even more wonderful trans-
formation of a people — political,
social, scientific, and industrial
— has been taking place in China
(R* 335)- A much more demo-
cratic type of national school sys-
tem than that of the Japanese has
been worked out, and this* the
new (191 2) Republic of China is
rapidly extending in the prov-
inces, and making education a
very important function of the
new democratic national life . ^ In
the beginning, when displacing
the centuries-old Confucian ed-
ucational system, 2 the Chinese
adopted Japanese ideas and organized their schools (1905) some-
what after the Japanese model. Later on, responding to the
influence of many American-educated Chinese and to the more

1 "The idea of education for all classes, the aim of all educators and statesmen of
western countries, scarcely entered the minds of the leaders of China under the
traditional system of education. With the introduction of the new educational sys-
tem, however, the problem of universal education suddenly came into prominence.
Indeed, it is the stated goal of the new educational policy." (Ping Wen Kuo, The,
Chinese System of Public Education, p. 149.)

2 Education in China has been common, for a class, for over four thousand years.
The schools were private, but a detailed national system of examinations was pro-
vided by the State, and all who expected any state preferment were required to pass
these state examinations. The system was based on the old Confucian classics.
Under it schools existed in all the chief towns, and the examination system exerted
a strong unifying influence on the nation. In 1842 China opened five treaty ports
to the ships and commerce of western nations, and from 1842 to 1903 a process of
gradual transition from the ancient examination system to modern conditions took
place.

23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14

13
12

a 10

B 9

I 8

§7

Fig. 214. The Chinese
Educational Ladder

722 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

democratic impulses of the Chinese people, the new government
established by the Republic of 191 2 changed the school system at
first estabhshed so as to make it in type more like the American
educational ladder. The new Chinese school system is shown in
the drawing on page 221. The university instruction is modern
and excellent, and the addition of the cultural and scientific knowl-
edge worked out in western Europe to the intellectual qualities
of this capable people can hardly fail to result, in time, in the
production of a wonderful modern nation,^ probably in one of the
greatest nations of the mid-twentieth century.

In 1 89 1 the independent Kingdom of Siam,^ awakened from its
age-long isolation by new world influences, sent a prince to Europe
to study and report on the state systems of education maintained
there. As a result of his report a department of public education
was created, which later evolved into a ministry of public instruc-
tion, and elementary schools were opened by the State in the
thirteen thousand old Buddhist temples. These schools offered a
two-year course in Siamese, followed by a five-year course in
English, given by imported English teachers. Schools for girls
were provided, as well as for boys. ' Since this beginning, higher
schools of law, medicine, agriculture, engineering, and military
science have been added, taught largely by imported English and
American teachers. In consequence of the new educational or-
ganization, and the new influences brought in, the whole life of
this little kingdom has been transformed during the past three
decades.

General acceptance of the state-function conception. The
different national school systems, the creation of which has so far
been briefly described, are typical and represent a great world
movement which characterized the latter half of the nineteenth

^ "A nation that has preserved its identity by peaceful means for three milleni-
ums; that has made the soil produce subsistence for a multitudinous population
during that long period, while Western peoples have worn out their soil in less than
that many centuries; that has produced many of the most influential of modern
inventions, such as printing, gunpowder, and the compass; that has developed such
mechanical ingenuity and commercial ability as are shown in its everyday life, un-
doubtedly possesses the ability to accomplish results by the use of methods worked
out by the Western world. When modern scientific knowledge is added by the
Chinese to the skill which they already have in agriculture, in commerce, in industry,
in government, and in military affairs, results will be achieved, on the basis of their
physical stamina and moral qualities, which will remove the ignorance, the indiffer-
ence, and the prejudice of the Western world regarding things Chinese." (Monroe,
Paul, Editorial introduction to Ping Wen Kuo's The Chinese System of Public
Education.)

^ Though appearing small on the map, Siam is a nation of six millions of people,
and an area over three and a half times that of the six New England States.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 723

century. This movement is still under way, and increasing in
strength. Other state school organizations might be added to the
list, but those so far given are sufficient. Beginning with the na-
tions which were earliest to the front of the onward march of civi-
lization, the movement for the state control of education, itself an
expression of new world forces and new national needs, has in a
century spread to every continent on the globe. To-day pro-
gressive nations everywhere conceive of education for their peo-
ple as so closely associated with their social, political, and indus-
trial progress, and their national welfare and prosperity (R. 336),
that the control of education has come to be regarded as an indis-
pensable function of the State. State constitutions (R. 333) have
accordingly required the creation of comprehensive state school
systems; legislators have turned to education with a new interest;
bulky state school codes have given force to constitutional man-
dates; national literacy has become a goal; the diffusion of poHti-
cal intelligence by means of the school has naturally followed the
extension of the suffrage; while the many new forces and impulses
of a modern world have served to make the old religious type of
education utterly inadequate, and to call for national action to a
degree never conceived of in the days when religious, private, and
voluntary educational effort sufficed to meet the needs of the few
who felt the call to learn. What a few of the more important of
these new nineteenth-century forces have been, which have so
fundamentally modified the character and direction of education,
it may be worth while to set forth briefly, before proceeding fur-
ther.

II. NEW MODIFYING FORCES

The advance of scientific knowledge. The first and most im-
portant of these nineteenth-century forces, and the one which
preceded and conditioned all the others, was the great increase of
accurate knowledge as to the forces and laws of the physical world,
arising from the application of scientific method to the investiga-
tion of the phenomena of the material world (R. 337). During
the nineteenth century the intellect of man was stimulated to ac-
tivity as it had not been before since the days when little Athens
was the intellectual center of the world. What the Revival of
Learning was to the classical scholars of the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries, the movement for scientific knowledge and its
application to human affairs was to the nineteenth. It changed

724 HISTORY OP^ EDUCATION

the outlook of man on the problems of life, vastly enlarged the
intellectual horizon, and gave a new trend to education and to
scholarly effort. What the scholars of the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries had been slowly gathering together as interesting
and classified phenomena, the scientific scholars of the nineteenth
century organized, interpreted, expanded, and appHed. Since
the day of Copernicus (p. 386) and Newton (p. 388) a growing ap-
preciation of the permanence and scope of natural law in the uni-
verse had been slowly developing, and this the scholars of the
nineteenth century fixed as a principle and appHed in many new
directions. A few of the more important of these new directions
may profitably be indicated here.

In the domain of the physical sciences very important advances
characterized the century. Chemistry, up to the end of the first

quarter of the nineteenth century largely
a collection of unrelated facts, was trans-
formed by the labors of such men as Dal-
ton (i 766-1 844), Faraday (1791-1867), and
Liebig into a wonderfully well- organized
and vastly important science. Liebig car-
ried chemistry over into the study of the
processes of digestion and the functioning
of the internal organs, and reshaped much
of the instruction in medicine. Liebig is
also important as having opened, at Giessen,
t/l in 1826, the first laboratory instruction in
/ chemistry for students provided in any
Fig. 215. Baron university in the world. By many subse-
(180-1-77,) ^^ quent workers chemistry has been so ap-
plied to the arts that it is not too much to
say that a knowledge of chemistry underlies the whole manu-
facturing and industrial life of the present, and that the degree
of industrial preeminence held by a nation to-day is largely de-
termined by its mastery of chemical processes.

Physics has experienced an equally important development.
It, too, at the beginning of the nineteenth century was in the pre-
liminary state of collecting, coordinating, and trying to interpret
data. In a century physics has, by experimentation and the ap-
plication of mathematics to its problems, been organized into a
number of exceedingly important sciences. In dynamics, heat,
light, and particularly in electricity, discoveries and extension of

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 725

previous knowledge of the most far-reaching significance have
been raade. What at the beginning of the nineteenth century
was'a small textbook study of natural philosophy has since been
subdivided into the two great sciences of physics and chemistry,
and these in turn into numerous well-organized branches. To-
day these are taught, not from textbooks, but in large and costly
laboratories, while manufacturing estabhshments and govern-
ments now find it both necessary and profitable to maintain large
scientific institutions for chemical and physical research.

The great triumph of physics, from the point of view of the
reign of law in the world of matter, was the experimental estab-
lishment (1849) of the fundamental principle of the conservation
of energy. This ranks in importance in the world of the physical
sciences with the theory of evolution in the biological. The per-
fection of the spectroscope (1859) revealed the rule of chemical
law among the stars, and clinched the theory of evolution as ap-
pHed to the celestial universe. The atomic theory of matter ^
was an extension of natural laws in another direction. In 1846
occurred the raost spectacular proof of the reign of natural law
which the nineteenth century witnessed. Two scientists, in dif-
ferent lands, ^ working independently, calculated the orbit of a
new planet, Neptune, and when the telescope was turned to the
point in the heavens indicated by their calculations the planet
was there. It was a tremendous triumph for both mathematics
and astronomy. Such work as this meant the firm establishment
of scientific accuracy, and the ultimate elimination of the old the-
ories of witchcraft, diabolic action, and superstition as controlling
forces in the world of human affairs.

The publication by Charles Lyell (i 797-1875) of his Principles
of Geology^ in 1830, marked another important advance in the
knowledge of the operations of natural law in the physical world,
and likewise a revolution in thinking in regard to the age and past
history of the earth. Few books have ever more deeply influenced
human thinking. The old theological conception of earthly

^ "Through metaphysics first; then through alchemy and chemistry, through
physical and astronomical spectroscopy, lastly through radio-activity, science has
slowly groped its way to the atom." (Soddy, F., Matter and Energy.)

2 Adams in England, and Leverrier in France. The planet Uranus had for long
been known to be erratic in its movements, and Adams and Leverrier concluded,
working from Newton's law for gravitation, that it must be due to the pull of an
unknown planet. Both calculated the orbit of this unknown body, Adams sending
his calculations to the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and Leverrier to the
observatory at Berlin. At both observatories the new planet — later named Nep-
tune — was picked up by the telescope at the position indicated.

726

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Fig. 2i6.
Charles Darwin

(1809-82)

'' catastrophes " ^ was overthrown, and in its place was substituted
the idea of a very long and a very orderly evolution of the planet.
Geology was created as a new science, and out of this has comfe, by

subsequent evolution, a number of other
new sciences ^ which have contributed
much to human progress.

Another of the great books of all time
appeared in 1859, when Charles Darwin
(1809--1882) pubHshed the results of thirty
years of careful biological research in his
Origin of Species, This swept away the
old theory of special and individual crea-
tion which had been cherished since early
antiquity, and substituted in its place the
reign of law in the field of biological life.
This substitution of the principle of or-
derly evolution for the old theory of special
creation marked another forward step in
human thinking,^ and gave an entirely new direction to the old
study of natural history.'' In the hands of such workers as Wal-
lace (1823-19 13), Asa Gray (1810-88), Huxley (1825-94), and
Spencer (1820-1903) it now proved a fruitful field.

In 1856 the German Virchow (1821-1902) made his far-reach-
ing contribution of cellular pathology to medical science; between
1859 and 1865 the French scientist Pasteur (1822-95) established
the germ theory of fermentation, putrefaction, and disease; about
the same time the English surgeon Lister (182 7- 191 4) began to
use antiseptics in surgery; and, in 1879, the bacillus of typhoid

^ This theory of "catastrophes" held that at a number of successive epochs, of
which the age of Noah was the latest, great revolutions or disasters had taken place
on the earth's surface, in which all living things were destroyed. Later the world
was restocked, and again destroyed. This explained the successive strata, and the
fossils they contained. For this theory Lyell substituted a slow and orderly evolu-
tion, covering ages, and completely upset the Mosaic chronology.

2 For example: — mineralogy, petrography, petrology, crystallography, stratig-
raphy, and paleontology.

^ "Darwin's Origin of Species had come into the theological world like a plow into
an ant-hill. Everywhere those thus rudely awakened from their old comfort and
repose had swarmed forth angry and confused. Reviews, sermons, books, light and
heavy, came flying at the new thinker from all sides." (White, A. D., The War-
fare of Science and Theology, vol. i, p. 70.)

* Natural history as a study goes back to the days of Aristotle, in Greece, but it
had always been a study of fixed forms. Darwin destroyed this conception, and
vitalized the new subject of biology. From this botany and zoology have been
derived, and from these again many other new sciences, such as physiology, mor-
phology, bacteriology, anthropology, cytology, entomology, and all the different
agricultural sciences.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL ']2^

Fig. 217. Louis Pasteur

(1822-95)

fever was found. Out of this work the modern sciences of pa-
thology, aseptic surgery, bacteriology, and immunity were created,
and the cause and mode of transmission of the great diseases ^
which once decimated armies and cities —
plague, cholera, malaria, typhoid, typhus,
yellow fever, dysentery — as well as the
scourges of tuberculosis, diphtheria, and
lockjaw, have been determined. The im-
portance of these discoveries for the fu-
ture welfare and happiness of mankind
can scarcely be overestimated. Sanitary
science arose as an application of these
discoveries, and since about 1875 a san-
itary and hygienic revolution has taken
place.

The above represent but a few of the
more important of the many great scien-
tific advances of the nineteenth century.
What the thinkers of the eighteenth century had sowed broadcast
through a general interest in science, their successors in the nine-
teenth reaped as an abundant harvest. The three great master
keys of science — the higher mathematics, the principle of the
conservation of energy, and the principle of orderly evolution of
life according to law — so long unknown to man, had at last been
discovered, and, with these in their possession, men have 'since
opened up many of the long-hidden secrets of cause and growth
and form and function, both in the heavens and on the earth, and
have revealed to a wondering world the prodigious and eternal
forces of an orderly universe. The fruitfulness of the Baconian
method (p. 390) in the hands of his successors has far surpassed
his most sanguine expectations.

The applications of science and the result. All this work, as
has been frequently pointed out (R. 338), had of necessity to pre-
cede the applications of science to the arts and to the advance-
ment of the comforts and happiness of mankind. The new stud-
ies soon caught the attention of younger scholars; special schools
for their study began to be established by the middle of the nine-
teenth century; ^ enthusiastic students of science began forcefully
to challenge the centuries-long supremacy of classical studies;

^ The bacillus of tuberculosis was isolated in 1882, Asiatic cholera in 1883, lock-
jaw and diphtheria in 1884, and bubonic plague in 1894.

^ Schools of engineering, mining, agriculture, and applied science are types.

728 HISTORY OF EDUCAllON

funds for scientific research began to be provided; the printing-
press disseminated the new ideas; and thousands of appHcations
of science to trade and industry and human welfare began to at-
tract pubHc attention and create a new demand for schools and
for a new extension of learning. During the past century the ap-
plications of this new learning to matters that intimately touch
the life of man have been so numerous and so far-reaching in their
effects that they have produced a revolution in life conditions un-
like anything the world ever experienced before. In all the
days from the time of the Crusades to the end of the Napoleonic
Wars the changes in living effected were less, both in scope and
importance, than have taken place in the century since Napoleon
was sent to Saint Helena.

This transformation we call the Industrial Revolution. This,
as we pointed out earher (p. 492), began in England in the late
eighteenth century. France did not experience its beginnings un-
til after the Napoleonic Wars, though after about 1820 the trans-
formations there were rapid and far-reaching. In the United
States it began about 18 10-15, and between 1820 and i860 the in-
dustrial methods of the people of the northeastern quarter of the
United States were revolutionized. Between i860 and 1900 they
were revolutionized again. In the German States the trans-
formation began about 1840, though it did not reach its great
development until after the establishment of the Empire, in
187 1. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, with the
development of factories, the building of railroads, and the ex-
tension of steamship lines, even the most remote countries have
been affected by the new forces. Nations long primitive and
secluded have been modernized and industrialized; century-old
trades and skills have been destroyed by machinery; the old home
and village industries have been replaced by the factory system;
cities for manufacturing and trade have everywhere experienced a
rapid development; and even on the farm the agricultural meth-
ods of bygone days have been replaced by the discoveries of
science and the products of invention. Almost nothing is done
to-day as it was a century ago, and only in remote places do peo-
ple live as they used to live. The nature and extent of the change
which has been wrought, and some estimate as to its effect upon
educational procedure, may perhaps be better comprehended if
we first contrast living conditions before and after this industrial
transformation.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 729

Fig. 218. Man Power before the
Days of Steam

Foot power a century ago. (From a cut
by Anderson, America's first important
engraver)

Living conditions a century ago. A century ago people every-
where lived comparatively simple lives. The steam engine,
while beginning to be put to use (p. 493), had not as yet been ex-
tensively applied and made the willing and obedient slave of man.
The lightning had not as yet been harnessed, and the now om-
nipresent electric motor was
then still unknown. Only in
England had manufacturing
reached, any large proportions,
and even there the methods
were somewhat primitive.
Thousands of processes which
we now perform simply and
effectively by the use of steam
or electric power, a century
ago were done slowly and pain-
fully by human labor. The
chief sources of power were
then man and horse power.
The home was a center in
which most of the arts and trades were practiced, and in the long
winter evenings the old crafts and skills were turned to commer-
cial account. What every family used and wore was largely
made in the home, the village, or the neighborhood.

Travel was slow and expensive and something only the well-to-
do could afford. To go fifty miles a day by stage-coach, or one
hundred by sailing packet on the water, was extraordinarily
rapid. ''One could not travel faster by sea or by land," as Hux-
ley remarked, "than at any previous time in the world's his-
tory, and King George could send a message from London to
York no faster than King John might have done." The steam
train was not developed until about 1825, and through railway
lines not for a quarter-century longer. It took four days by
coach from London to York (188 miles) ; six weeks by sailing ves-
sel from Southampton to Boston; and six months from England to
India. People moved about but little. A journey of fifty miles
was an event — for many something not experienced in a life-
time. To travel to a foreign land made a man a marked individ-
ual. Benjamin Franklin tells us that he was frequently pointed
out on the streets of Philadelphia, then the largest city in the
United States, as a man who had been to Europe. George Tick-

730

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

nor has left us an interesting record (R. 339) of his difficulties,
in finding anything in print in the libraries of the time, about
181 5, or any one who could tell him about the work of the German
universities, which he, as a result of reading Madame de Stael's
book on Germany, was desirous of attending.^

Everywhere it was a time of hard work and simple living.
Every youngster ' had to become useful at an early age. The
work of life, in town or on the farm, required hard and continual
labor from all. Farm machinery had not been perfected, and

Fig. 219. Threshing Wheat a Century ago
(After a woodcut by Jacque, in IJIllustration)

hand labor performed all the operations of ploughing and sow-
ing, reaping and harvesting. With the introduction of the fac-
tory system, men, women, and children were used to operate
machinery, children being apprenticed to the mills at about eight
years of age and working ten to twelve hours a day. This soon
worked the life out of human beings, and in consequence sick-
ness, wretchedness. Juvenile delinquency, ignorance, drunkenness,
pauperism, and crime increased greatly as cities grew and the fac-
tory system drew thousands from the farms to the towns. When
Queen Victoria came to the throne (1837) one person in twelve in
England was a pauper, and the lot of the poor was wretched in
the extreme. In cities they Hved in cellars and basements and
hovels. There was practically no sanitation or drainage. Streets

_^ The book on Germany {De rAllemagm) by Madame de Stael (1766-18 17), a
brilliant French novelist, was published and immediately confiscated in France in
181 1, and republished in England in 1813. It is one of the most remarkable books
on one country written by a native of another which had appeared up to that time.
Through reading it many English and Americans discovered a new world.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 731

and alleys were filthy. Graveyards were commonly located in
the heart of a town. A pure water-supply through water-mains
was unknown. Pumps and water-carriers supplied nearly all the
needs. There was in conse-
quence much sickness, and
such diseases as typhoid
and malaria ran rampant.

Change in living condi-
tions to-day. In a cen-
tury all has been changed.
Steam and electricity and
sanitary science haye trans-
formed the world ; the rail-
way, steamship, telegraph,
cable, and printing-press
have made the world one.
The output of the factory
system has transformed
living and labor condi-
tions, even to the remote
comers of the world; sani-
tary science and sanitary
legislation have changed the primitive conditions of the home
and made of it a clean and comfortable modern abode; men
and women have been freed from an almost incalculable amount
of drudgery and toil, and the human effort and time saved may
now be devoted to other types of work or to enjoyment and learn-
ing. Thousands who once were needed for menial toil on farm or
in shop and home are now freed for employment in satisfying
new wants and new pleasures that mankind has come to know,^
or may devote their time and energies to forms of service that
advance the welfare of mankind or minister to the needs of the
human spirit.

Labor-saving devices and the applications of scientific work
have touched all phases of life and labor of men and women, and

^ For example, it has been estimated that one fifteenth of the working population
of modern industrial nations devotes itself to transportation; another one fifteenth
to maintaining public services — light, gas, telephone, water, sewage, streets, parks
— unknown in earher times; and another one fifteenth to the manufacture and
distribution and care of automobiles. Add still further the numbers employed in con-
nection with theaters, moving-picture shows, phonographs, magazines and the news-
papers, soft-drink places, millinery and dry goods, hospitals, and similar "append-
ages of civiHzation," and we get some idea of the increased labor efficiency which
the applications of science have brought about.

Fig. 220. A City Water-Supply

ABOUT 1830

(After a lithograph by Bellange)

732 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

under modern methods of transportation go everywhere. The
American self -binding reaper is found in the grain-fields of Russia
and the Argentine; one may buy cans of kerosene and tinned
meats and vegetables almost anywhere in the world to-day; sew-
ing machines and phonographs add to the comfort and pleasure
of the African native and the dweller on the Yukon; "milady" in
Siami uses cosmetics manufactured for the devotees of fashion in
Paris; the Sultan of Sulu wears an elegant American wrist-watch;
the Dahomeny tribesman has a safety razor, and a mirror of
French plate; the Persian dandy wears shoes and haberdashery
made in the United States; old Chinamen up the Yellow River
Valley read their Confucius by the light of an Edison Mazda ; the
steam train wends its way up from Jaffa to Jerusalem; the gaso-
line power boat chugs its course up the Nile the Pharaohs sailed;
and modern surgical methods and instruments are used in the
hospitals of Manila and Singapore, Cairo and Cape Town. A
rupee spent for thread at Calcutta starts the spindles going in
Manchester; a new cahco dress for a Mandalay belle helps the
cotton-print mills of Leeds; a new carving set for a Fiji Islander
means more labor for some cutlery works in Sheffield; a half-dollar
for a new undershirt in Panama means increased work for a cotton
mill in New England; a new blanket called for against the win-
ter's cold of Siberia moves the looms of some Rhode Island town ;
a dime spent for a box of matches in Alaska means added labor
and profit for a match factory in California; a new bath tub in
Paraguay spells increased output for a factory at Milan or Turin ;
and the Christmas wishes of the children in Brazil give work to
the toy factories of Nuremberg.

Trains and huge steamers move to-day along the great trade
routes of the modern world, exchanging both the people and their
products. The holds of the ships are filled with coal and grain
and manufactured implements and commodities of every de-
scription, while their steerage space is crowded with modern
Marco Polos and Magellans going forth to see the world. The
Hindoo walks the streets of Cape Town, London, Sydney, New
York, San Francisco, and Valparaiso; the Russian Jew is found in
all the Old and New World cities; the Englishman and the Ameri-
can travel everywhere; the Japanese are fringing the Pacific with
their laboring classes; toiling Italians and Greeks are found all
over the w'orld; peasants from the Balkans gather the prune
and orange crops of California; the moujic from the Russian Cau-

EDUCATION l^ECOMES A iNATlONAL TOOL 733

H)0 Long. W. ao from Or.-.n. 20 'JO L"ns. E. BO (r..m GiMn. ICH)

Fig. 221. The Great Trade Routes of the Modern World

Broken lines, on land, indicate gaps soon to be closed. Compare this with the maps
on pages i6i and 258, and note the progress in discovery and intercommunication.
Ships and trains are constantly passing over these routes, bearing both freight and
peoples.

casus tills the wheat-fields of the Dakotas; while the Irish,
Scandinavians, and Teutons form the political, farming, and
commercial classes in many far-distant lands. In the recent
World War Serbs from Montana and Colorado fought side by
side with Serbs from Belgrade and Nisch; Greeks from New York
and San Francisco helped their brothers from Athens drive the
Bulgars back up the Vardar Valley; Italians from New Orleans
and Rio de Janeiro helped their kinsmen from the valley of the Po
hold back the Hun from the Venetian plain; Chinese from the
valleys of the Tong-long and the Yang-tse-Kiang backed up the
AlHed armies by tilling the fields of France; and Algerian and
Senegalese natives helped the French hold back the Teutonic
hordes from the ravishment of Paris. So completely has the old
isolation been broken down! So completely is the world in flux!
So small has the world become!

It was almost a century from the time instruction in Greek was
revived in Florence (1396) until Linacre first lectured on Greek at
Oxford (c. 1492); six months after the X-ray was perfected in
Germany it was in use in the hospitals of San Francisco. In the
Middle Ages thousands might have died of starvation in Persia or
Egypt, a famous city in Asia Minor might have been destroyed by
an earthquake and many people killed, or- war might have raged
for years in the Orient without a citizen of western Europe know-

734

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ing of it all his life. To-day any important event anywhere
within the range of the telegraph or the cable would be reported
in to-morrow morning's paper, and carefully described and illus-
trated in the magazines at an early date. Man is no longer a
citizpn of a town or a state, but of a nation and of the world.
How intelligently he can use this larger citizenship depends to-
day largely upon the character and the extent of the education he
has received.

Effect of these changes on the laboring-classes. At first the
effect of the introduction of factory-made goods and labor-saving
devices was to upset the old established institutions. Trades
practiced by the guilds since the Middle Ages were destroyed, be-
cause factories could turn out goods faster and cheaper than guild
workmen could make them. The age-old apprenticeship system
began to break down. Everywhere people were thrown out of

employment, and a vast shift-
ing of occupations took place.
There was much discontent,
and laborers began to unite,
where allowed to do so,^ with
a view to improving their eco-
nomic and political condition
by concerted action. The
political revolutions of 1848
throughout Europe were in
part a manifestation of this
discontent, and the right to
organize was everywhere de-
manded and in time generally
obtained. Among the planks
in their platform were equal-
ity of all before the law; the
limitation of child and woman labor; better working conditions
and wages; the provision cf schools for their children at public
expense; and the extension of the right of suffrage.

^ Labor unions were legalized in England in 1825. In the United States they
arose about 1825-30, and for a time played an important part in securing legislation
to better the condition of the workingman and to secure education for his children.
In continental Europe, the reactionary governments following the downfall of
Napoleon forbade assemblies of workingmen or their organization, as dangerous to
government. In consequence, labor organizations in France were not permitted
until 1848, and in Germany and Austria not until after the middle of the century.
In Japan, as late as 19 19, laborers were denied the right to organize.

Fig. 222, An Example of the Smrx-
iNG OF Occupations

Sawing boards by hand, before the intro-
duction of steam power.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 735

Despite certain unfortunate results following the change from
age-old working conditions, the century of transition has seen the
laboring man making gains unknown before in history, and the
peasant has seen the abolition of serfdom ^ and feudal dues.
Homes have gained tremendously. The drudgery and wasteful
toil have been greatly mitigated. To-day there is a standard of
comfort and sanitation, even for those in the humblest circum-
stances, beyond all previous conceptions. The poorest workman
to-day can enjoy in his home lighting undreamed of in the days of
tallow candles; warmth beyond the power of the old smoky soft-
coal grate; food of a variety and quality his ancestors never knew;
kitchen conveniences and an ease in kitchen work wholly un-
known until recently; and sanitary conveniences and conditions
beyond the reach of the wealthiest half a century ago. The caste
system in industry has been broken down, and men and their
children may now choose their occupations freely,^ and move
about at will. Wages have greatly increased, both actually and
relatively to the greatly improved standard of living. The work
of women and children is easier, and all work for shorter hours.
Child labor is fast being eliminated in all progressive nations. In
consequence of all these changes for the better, people to-day have
a leisure for reading and thinking and personal enjoyment en-
tirely unknown before the middle of the nineteenth century, and
governments everywhere have found it both desirable and neces-
sary to provide means for the utilization of this leisure and the
gratification of the new desires. Along with these changes has
gone the development of the greatest single agent for spreading
liberalizing ideas — the modern newspaper — '^ the most inveter-
ate enemy of absolutism and reaction." Despite censorships,
suppressions, and confiscations, the press has by now established
its freedom in all enlightened lands, and the cylinder press, the
telegraph, and the cable have become ''indispensable adjuncts to

^ Up to 1789 serfdom was the rule on the continent of Europe; by 1850 there was
practically no serfdom in central and western Europe, and in 1866 serfdom was
abolished in Russia. For the worker and farmer the years between 1789 and 1848
were years of rapid progress in the evolution from mediaeval to modern conditions
of living.

2 Under conditions existing up to the close of the eighteenth century, in part per-
sisting up to the middle of the nineteenth on the continent, and still found in unpro-
gressive lands, a close limitation of the rights of labor was maintained. Children
followed the trade of their fathers, and the right of an apprentice later to open a
shop and better his condition was prohibited until after he had become an accepted
master (p. 210) in his craft. Guild members, too, were not permitted to branch out
into any other line of activity, or to introduce any new methods of work. All these
old limitations the Industrial Revolution swept away.

736 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the development of that power which every absolutist has come to
dread, and with which every prime minister must daily reckon."

III. EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION

General result of these changes. The general result of the
vast and far-reaching changes which we have just described is
that the intellectual and political horizon of the working classes
has been tremendously broadened; the home has been completely
altered; children now have much leisure and do little labor; and
the common man at last is rapidly coming into his own. Still
more, the common man seems destined to be the dominant force
in government in the future. To this end he and his children
must be educated, his wife and children cared for, his home pro-
tected, and governments must do for him the things which satisfy
his needs and advance his welfare. The days of the rule of a
small intellectual class and of government in the interests of such
a class have largely passed, and the political equality which the
Athenian Greeks first in the western world gave to the "citizens"
of little Athens, the Industrial Revolution has forced modern and
enlightened governments to give to all their people. In conse-
quence, real democracy in government, education, justice, and
social welfare is now in process of being attained generally, for the
first time in the history of the world.

The effect of all these changes in the mode of living of peoples
is written large on the national life. The political and industrial
revolutions which have marked the ushering-in of the modern age
have been far-reaching in their consequences. The old home life
and home industries of an earlier period are passing, or have
passed, never to return. Peoples in all advanced nations are rap-
idly swinging into the stream of a new and vastly more complex
world civilization, which brings them into contact and competi-
tion with the best brains of all mankind. At the same time a
great and ever-increasing specialization of human effort is taking
place on all sides, and with new and ever more difficult social, po-
litical, educational, industrial, commercial, and hupian-life prob-
lems constantly presenting themselves for solution. The world
has become both larger and smaller than it used to be, and even
its remote parts are now being linked up, to a degree that a cen-
tury ago would not have been deemed possible, with the future
welfare of the nations which so long bore the brunt of the struggle
for the preservation and advancement of civilization.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 737

These changes and the school. It is these vast and far-reach-
ing political, industrial, and social changes which have been the
great actuating forces behind the evolution and expansion of the
state school systems which we have so far described. The Ameri-
can and French political revolutions, with their new philosophy
of political equality and state control of education, clearly inaugu-
rated the movement for taking over the school from the Church
and the making of it an important instrument of the State. The
extension of the suffrage to new classes gave a clear political mo-
tive for the school, and to train young people to read and write
and know the constitutional bases of liberty became a political
necessity. The industrial revolution which followed, bringing in
its train such extensive changes in labor and in the conditions
surrounding home and child life, has since completely altered the
face of the earlier educational problem. What was simple once
has since become complex, and the complexity has increased with
time. Once the ability to read and write and cipher distinguished
the educated man from the uneducated; to-day the man or woman
who knows only these simple arts is an uneducated person, hardly
fit to cope with the struggle for existence in a modern world, and
certainly not fitted to participate in the complex political and in-
dustrial life of which, in all advanced nations, he or she ^ to-day
forms a part.

It is the attempt to remould the school and to make of it a
more potent instrument of the State for promoting national con-
sciousness (R. 340) and political, social, and industrial welfare
that has been behind the many changes and expansions and ex-
tensions of education which have marked the past half-century
in all the leading world nations, and which underlie the most
pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. These
changes and expansions and problems we shall consider more in
detail in the chapters which follow. Suffice it here to say that
from mere teaching institutions, engaged in imparting a little re-
ligious instruction and some knowledge of the tools of learning,
the school, in all the leading nations, has to-day been transformed
into an institution for advancing national welfare. The leading
purpose now is to train for political and social efficiency in the

1 Women in Europe have secured the ballot rapidly since the end of the nine-
teenth century. With manhood suffrage secured, universal suffrage is the next
step. Women were given the right to vote and hold office in Finland in 1906; in
Norway in 1907; in Denmark in 1916; in England in 1918; in Germany in 1919; and
in the United States in 1920.

738 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

more democratic types of governments being instituted among
peoples, and to impart to the young those industrial and social
experiences once taught in the home, the trades, and on the farm,
but which the coming of the factory system and city life have
deprived them otherwise of knowing.

New problems to be met by education. As participation in the
political life of nations has been extended to larger and larger
groups of the people, and as the problems of government have be-
come more and more complex, the schools have found it necessary
to add instruction in geography, history, government, and na-
tional ideals and culture to the earlier instruction. In the less
democratic nations which have evolved national school systems,
this new instruction has often been utilized to give strength to the
type of government and social conditions which the ruling class
desired to have perpetuated. This has been the evident purpose
in Japan (R. 334), though the government of Imperial Germany
formed perhaps the best illustration of such perversion. This
was seen and pointed out long ago by Horace Mann (R. 281).
There the idea of nationality through education (R. 342) was car-
ried to such an extreme as made the government oppressive to
subject peoples and a menace to neighboring States.^ On the
other hand, the French have used their schools for national ends
(R. 341) in a manner that has been highly commendable.

As the social life of nations has become broader and more com-
plex, a longer period of guidance has become necessary to prepare
the future citizens of the State for intelligent participation in it.
As a result, child life everywhere has and is still experiencing a
new lengthening of the period of dependence and training, and all
national interests now indicate that the period devoted to prepar-
ing for life's work will need to be further lengthened. All recent
thinking and legislation, as well as the interests of organized labor
and the public welfare, have in recent decades set strongly against
child labor. Economically unprofitable under modern industrial
conditions, and morally indefensible, it has at last come to be ac-
cepted as a principle, by progressive nations, that it is better for
children and for society that they remain under some form of in-
struction until they are at least sixteen years of age. To this end
the common primary school has been continued upward, part-
time continuation schools of various types have been organized

1 See an excellent brief article "On German Education," by E. C. Moore, in
School and Society, vol. i, pp. 886-89.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 739

for those who must go to labor earHer, and people's high schools or
middle schools have been added (see Figure 210, p. 713) to give
the equivalent of a high-school education to the children of the
classes not patronizing the exclusive and limited tuition second-
ary school.

As large numbers of immigrants from distant lands have en-
tered some of the leading nations, notably England and the
United States, and particularly immigrants from less advanced
nations where general education is not as yet common, and where
far different political, social, judicial, and hygienic conditions pre-
vail, a new duty has been thrust upon the school of giving to such
incoming peoples, and their children, some conception of the
meaning and method and purpose of the national life of the people
they have come among. The national schools have accordingly
been compelled to give attention to the needs of these new ele-
ments in the population, and to direct their attention less exclu-
sively to satisfying the needs of the well-to-do classes of society.
Educational systems have in consequence tended more and more
to become democratic in character, and to serve in part as instru-
ments for the assimilation of the stranger within the nation's
gates and for the perpetuation and improvement of the national
life.

Education a constructive national tool. One result of the many
political, social, and industrial changes of a century has been to
evolve education into the great constructive tool of modem po-
litical society. For ages a church and private affair, and of no
great importance for more than a few, it has to-day become the
prime essential to good government and national progress, and is
so recognized by the leading nations of the world. As people are
freed from autocratic rule and take upon themselves the functions
of government, and as they break loose from their age-old politi-
cal, social, and industrial moorings and swing out into the current
of the stream of modern world-civilization, the need for the educa-
tion of the masses to enable them to steer safely their ship of
state, and take their places among the stable governments of a
modern world, becomes painfully evident. In the hands of an un-
educated people a democratic form of government is a dangerous
instrument, while the proper development of natural resources
and the utilization of trade opportunities by backward peoples,
without being exploited, is almost impossible. In Russia, Mex-
ico, and the Central American "republics" we see the results of a

740

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

democracy in the hands of an uneducated people. There, too
often, the revolver instead of the ballot box is used to settle pub-
lic issues, and instead of orderly government under law we find
injustice and anarchy. A general system of education that will
teach the fundamental principles of constitutional Hberty, and

apply science to production in agricul-
ture and manufacturing, is almost the
only solution for such conditions. By
contrast with the surrounding "repub-
lics" one finds in Guatemala^ a coun-
try that has used education intelligently
as a tool to advance the interests of its
people.

When the United States freed Cuba,
Porto Rico, and the Philippines from
Spanish rule, a general system of public
education, modeled after the American
educational ladder, was created as a safe-
guard to the libert}^ just brought to these
islands, and to education the United
States added courts of justice and bu-
reaus of sanitation as important auxili-
ary agencies. A^ a result the peoples of
these islands have made a degree of pro-
gress in self-government and industry in
three decades not made in three centu-

^ A State approximately the size of Illinois, and
containing a population of about two million people.
The great development of this country is in reality a
history of the work of President Manuel Estrada
Cabrera, who was president from 1898 to 1920. His
ruling interest has been pubHc education, believing
that in universal education rests the future greatness
of the State. He accordingly labored to establish
schools, and to bring them up to as high a level
as possible. The government has spent much in
building modern-type schoolhouses and in subsidiz-
ing schools, holding that with the proper training of
the younger generation the future position of the na-
tion rests. A sincere admirer of the United States,
American models have been copied. When the United
States entered the World War, Guatemala was the
first Central American republic to follow. During
the War President Cabrera "would allow nothing
to interfere with the advancement of free and com-
pulsory education in the State." (See Domville-
Fife, C. W., Guatemala and the States of Central
America.)

o 11

a
< 10

Fig. 223.
The Philippine School

System

A teacher-training course is
given as one of the voca-
tional courses in the Inter-
mediate School, and the
Normal School at Manila re-
presents one of the secondary
school courses. The Univer-
sity, besides the combined
five-year college course, has
eight professional courses of
from three to five years in
length.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 741

ries under Spanish rule. The good results of the work done in
these islands in establishing schools, building roads and bridges,
introducing police courts, establishing good sanitary conditions,
building hospitals and training nurses, applying science to agri-
culture, developing tropical medicine, and training the people in
the difficult art of self-government, will for long be a monument to
the political foresight and intelligent conceptions of government
held by the American people. In a similar way the French have
opened schools in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Senegal, Madagascar,
and French Indo-China, as have the English in Egypt, India,
Hong Kong,i the West Indies, and elsewhere. With the freeing
of Palestine from the rule of the Turk, the English at once began
the establishment of schools and a national university there, and
doubtless they will do the same in time in Persia and Mesopo-
tamia.

Germany, too, before the World War, but with less benevolent
purposes than the Americans, the French, or the English, was also
busily engaged in extending her influence through education.
Her universities were thrown open to students from the whole
world, and excellent instruction did they offer. The "Society
for the Extension of Germanism in Foreign Countries" rendered
an important service. Professors were ''exchanged"; the intro-
duction of instruction in the German language into the schools of
other nations was promoted; and German schools were founded
and encouraged abroad. Especially were Realschulen promoted
to teach the wonders of German science, pure and applied. In
southern Brazil and the Argentine, and in Roumania, Bulgaria,
and Turkey, particular efforts were made to extend German in-
fluence and pave the way for German commercial and perhaps
political expansion. Primary schools, girls' schools, and Real-
schools in numbers were founded and aided abroad, and their
progress reported to the colonial minister at home. All through
the Near East the German was busily building, through trade

1 "Imagine how the streams of Celestials circulating between Hong Kong and
the mainland spread the knowledge of what a civilized government does for the
people ! At Shanghai and Tientsin, veritable fairylands for the Chinese, they cannot
but contrast the throngs of rickshas, dog-carts, broughams, and motor cars that pour
endlessly through the spotless asphalt streets with the narrow, crooked, filthy, noi-
some streets of their native city, to be traversed only on foot or in a sedan chair.
Even the young mandarin, buried alive in some dingy walled town of the far interior,
without news, events, or society, recalled with longing the lights, the gorgeous tea
houses, and the alluring 'sing-song' girls of Foochow Road, and cursed the stupid
policy of a government that penalized even enterprising Chinamen who tried to
'start something' for the benefit of the community." (Ross, E. A., Changing
America, p. 22.)

742 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and education, a new empire for himself. Had he been content to
follow the slower paths of peaceful commercial and intellectual
conquest, with his wonderful organization he would have been
irresistible. With one gambler's throw he dashed his future to the
ground, and unmasked himself before the world!

Expansion of the educational idea. In all lands to-day where
there is an intelligent government, the education of the people
through a system of state-controlled schools is regarded as of the
first importance in moulding and shaping the destinies of the na-
tion and promoting the country's welfare. Beginning with edu-
cation to impart the ability to read and write and cipher, and as
an aid to the political side of government, the education of the
masses has been so expanded in scope during the century that to-
day it includes aims, classes, types of schools, and forms of service
scarcely dreamed of at the time the State began to take over the
school from the Church, with a view to extending elementary edu-
cational advantages and promoting literacy and citizenship.
What some of the more important of these expansions have been
we shall state in a following chapter, but before doing so let us re-
turn to another phase of the problem — that of the progress of
educational theory — and see what have been the main lines of
this progress in the theory as to the educational purpose since the
time when Pestalozzi formulated a theory for the secular school.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What does the emphasis on the People's High Schools in Denmark indi-
cate as to the political status of the common people there?

2. Explain the educational prominence of Finland, compared with its
neighbor Russia.

3. Show the close relation between the character of the school system devel-
oped in Japan and the character of its government. In China.

4. Show why the state-function conception of education is destined to be
the ruling plan everywhere.

5. Show the close connection between the Industrial Revolution and a
somewhat general diffusion of the fundamental principles revealed by
the study of science.

6. Show how the Industrial Revolution has created entirely new problems
in education, and what some of these are.

7. Show the connection between the Industrial Revolution and political
enfranchisement.

8. Enumerate some of the educational problems we now face that we should
not have had to deal with had the Industrial Revolution not taken place.

9. Why has the result of these changes been to extend the period of depend-
ence and tutelage of children?

10. Outline an educational solution of the problem of Mexico. Of Russia.
Of Persia.

EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL 743

11. Show how Germany found it profitable to establish Reahchulen in such
distant countries as Turkey, Mesopotamia, and the Argentine.

12. Describe the expansion of the educational idea since the days when
Pestalozzi formulated the theory for the secular school.

13. What is the social significance of the development of parallel secondary
schools and courses, in all lands?

14. Contrast the American and the European secondary school in purpose.
Why should the American be a free school, while those in Europe are
tuition schools?

15. Show why the essentially democratic school system maintained in the
United States would not be suited to an autocratic form of government.

16. Show that the weight of a priesthood and the force of religious instruc-
tion in the schools would be strong supports for monarchical forms of
government.

17. Homogeneous monarchical nations look after the training of their teach-
ers much better than does such a cosmopolitan nation as the United
States. Why?

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following illustrative selections
are reproduced:

333 • Switzerland : Constitutional Provisions as to Education and Religious
Freedom.

334. Japan: The Basic Documents of Japanese Education.

{a) Preamble to the Education Code of 1872.
{b) Imperial Rescript on Moral Education.
(f) Instructions as to Lessons on Morals.

335. Ping Wen Kuo: Transformation of China by Education.

336. Mann: Education and National Prosperity.

337. Huxley: The Recent Progress of Science.

338. Anon.: Scientific Knowledge must precede Invention.

339. Ticknor: Illustrating Early Lack of Communication.

340. Monroe: The Struggle for National Realization.

341. Buisson, F.: The French Teacher and the National Spirit.

342. Fr. de Hovre: The German Emphasis on National Ends.

343. Stuntz: Landing of the Pilgrims at Manila.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Compare the Swiss and American Federal organizations, and state just
what the Swiss Constitution (333) provides as to education.

2. Suppose you knew nothing about the Japanese, what type of govern-
ment would you take theirs to be from reading the Imperial Rescript
(334 b)?

3. In comparing the Chinese transformation and the Renaissance (335),
does Mr. Ping propose comparable events?

4. Show that Mr. Mann's argument (336) is still sound.

5. Does Huxley overdraw (337) our dependence on science?

6. From 338, show why the Middle Ages were so poor in inventions and
discoveries.

7. Are there universities anywhere to-day of which we know as little as
Ticknor was able to find out (339) a century ago?

8. Show that Monroe's statements are true that the struggle for national
realization (340) has dominated modern history from the fifteenth cen-
tury on.

744 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

9. Compare the conceptions as to the function of education in a State as
revealed in the selections as to French (341) and German (342) educa-
tional purpose.
10. Show the entirely new character of the event (343) described by Stuntz.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Buisson, F. and Farrington, F. E. French Educational Ideals of To-day.
Butler, N. M. "Status of Education at the Close of the Century"; in

Proceedings National Education Association, igoo, pp. 188-96.
Davidson, Thos. "Education as World Building"; in Educational Re-
view, vol. XX, pp. 325-45. (November, 1900.)
Doolittle, Wm. H. Inventions of the Century.

Foster, M. "A Century's Progress in Science"; in Educational Review,
vol. xviii, pp. 313-31. (November, 1899.)
*Friedel, V. H. The German School as a War Nursery.
Gibbons, H. de B. Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century.
Hughes, J. L., and Klemm, L. R. Progress of Education in the Nineteenth
Century.
*Huxley, Thos. "The Progress of Science"; in his Methods and Results.
*Kuo, Ping Wen. The Chinese System of Public Education.
Lewis, R. E. The Edticational Conquest of the Far East.
Macknight, Thos. Political Progress of the Century.
*Ross, E. A. "The World Wide Advance of Democracy " ; in his Changing
America.
Routledge, R, A Popular History of Science.
Sandiford, Peter, Editor. Comparative Education.
*Sedgwick, W. T., and Tyler, H. W. A Short History of Science.
*Thwing, C. F. Education in the Far East.
Webster, W. C. General History of Commerce.
White, A. D. The Warfare of Science and Theology.

CHAPTER XXVIII
NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY

INSTRUCTION

The beginnings of normal- school training. The training of
would-be teachers for the work of instruction is an entirely mod-
ern proceeding. The first class definitely organized for imparting
training to teachers, concerning which we have any record, was
a small local training group of teachers of reading and the Cate-
chism, conducted by Father Demia, at Lyons, France, in
1672. The first normal school to be established anywhere was
that founded at Rheims, in northern France, in 1685, by Abbe de
la Salle (p. 347). He had founded the Order of '^The Brothers of
the Christian Schools" the preceding year, to provide free reli-
gious instruction for children of the working classes in France
(R. 182), and he conceived the new idea of creating a special
school to train his prospective teachers for the teaching work of
his Order. Shortly afterward he established two similar institu-
tions in Paris. Each institution he called a '^ Seminary for School-
masters." In addition to imparting a general education of the
type of the time, and a thorough grounding in religion, his student
teachers were trained to teach in practice schools, under the
direction of experienced teachers. This was an entirely new idea.

The beginnings elsewhere, as we have previously pointed out
were made in German lands, Francke's Seminarium Prceceptorum,
established at Halle (p. 419), in 1697, coming next in point of
time. In 1738 Johann Julius Hecker (1707-68), one of Francke's
teachers (p. 562), established the first regular Seminary for
Teachers in Prussia, and in 1748 he established a private Lehrer-
seminar in Berlin. In these two institutions he first showed the
German people the possibilities of special training for teachers
in the secondary school. In 1753 the Berlin institution was
adopted as a Royal Teachers' Seminary (p. 563) by Frederick the
Great. After this, and in part due to the enthusiastic support
of the Berlin institution by the King, the teacher- training idea
for secondary teachers began to find favor among the Germans.
We accordingly find something like a dozen Teachers' Seminaries

746 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

had been founded in German lands before the close of the eight-
eenth century.^ A normal school was established in Denmark,
by royal decree, as early as 1789, and five additional schools
when the law organizing public instruction in Denmark was
enacted, in 18 14. In France the beginnings of state action came
with the action of the National Convention, which decreed the
establishment of the '' Superior Normal School for France," in
1794 (p. 517). This institution, though, was short lived, and the
real beginnings of the French higher normal school awaited the
reorganizing work of Napoleon, in 1808 (p. 595; R. 283).

The schools just mentioned represent the first institutions in
the history of the world organized for the purpose of training
teachers to teach. The teachers they trained, though, were
intended primarily for the secondary schools, and the training was
largely academic in character. Only in Silesia was any effort
made, before the nineteenth century, to give training in special
institutions to teachers intended for the vernacular schools.
There Frederick the Great, in his ''Regulations for the Catholic
Schools of Silesia" (R. 275, a § 2) designated six cathedral and
monastery schools as model schools, where teachers could "have
the opportunity for learning all that is needed by a good teacher."
In another place he defined this as "skill in singing and playing
the organ sufficient to perform the services of the Church," and
"the art of instructing the young in the German language"
(R. 275, a § i). So long as the instruction in the vernacular
school consisted chiefly of reading and the Catechism, and of
hearing pupils recite what they had memorized, there was of
course but little need for any special training for the teachers.
It was not until after Pestalozzi had done his work and made his
contribution that there was anything worth mentioning to train
teachers for.

Pestalozzi's contribution. The memorable work done by
Pestalozzi in Switzerland, during his quarter-century (1800-25)
of effort at Burgdorf and Yverdon, changed the whole face of the
preparation of teachers problem. His work was so fundamental
that it completely redirected the education of children. Taking

^ The earliest Teachers' Seminaries in German lands were :

1750. Alfeld, in Hanover. i777- Bamberg, in Bavaria.

1753. Wolfenbiittel, in Brunswick. 1778. Halberstadt, in Prussia.

1764. Glatz, in Prussia. i779- Coburg, in Gotha.

1765. Breslau, in Prussia. 1780. Segeberg, in Holstein.
1768. Carlsruhe, in Baden. 1785. Dresden, in Saxony.

1 771. Vienna, in Austria. i794- Weissenfels, in Prussia.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 747

the seed- thought of Rousseau that sense-impression was ''the
only true foundation of human knowledge " (R. 267), he enlarged
this to the conception of the mental development of human
beings as being organic, and proceeding according to law. His
extension of this idea of Rousseau's led hirti to declare that educa-
tion was an individual development, a drawing-out and not a
pouring-in; that the basis of all education exists in the nature of
man; and that the method of education is to be sought and con-
structed.^ These were his great contributions. These ideas
fitted in well with the rising tide of individualism which marked
the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, and upon
these contributions the modern secular elementary school has
been built.

These ideas led Pestalozzi to emphasize sense perception and
expression; to formulate the rule that in teaching we must pro-
ceed from the concrete to the abstract; and to construct a "fac-
ulty psychology" which conceived of education as "a harmoni-
ous development" of the different "faculties" of the mind. He
also tried, unsuccessfully to be sure, to so organize the teaching
process that eventually it could be so "mechanized" that there
would be a regular A, B, C, for each type of instruction, which,
once learned, would give perfection to a teacher. In his Report
of 1800 (R. 267), which forms a very clear statement of his aims,
he had said:

I know what I am undertaking; but neither the difficulties in the
way, nor my own limitations in skill and insight, shall hinder me from
giving my mite for a purpose which Europe needs so much. . . . The
most essential point from which I start is this : — Sense-impression of
Nature is the only true foundation of human knowledge. All that
follows is the result of this sense-impression, and the process of abstrac-
tion from it. . . .

Then the problem I have to solve is this : — How to bring the ele-
ments of every art into harmony with the very nature of mind, by
follo\^iing the psychological mechanical laws by which mind rises from
physical sense-impressions to clear ideas.

Largely out of these ideas and the new direction he gave to in-
struction the rnodern normal school for training teachers for the
elementary schools arose.

Oral and objective teaching developed. Up to the time of

1 " My views of the subject," said he, " came out of a personal striving after meth-
ods, the execution of which forced me actively and experimentally to seek, to gain,
and to work out what was not there, and what I yet really knew not."

748 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Pestalozzi, and for years after he had done his work, in many
lands and places the instruction of children continued to be of
the memorization of textbook matter and of the recitation type.
The children learned what was down in the book, and recited the
answers to the teacher. Many of the early textbooks were con-
structed on the plan of the older Catechism — that is, on a ques-
tion and answer plan (R. 351 a). There was nothing for children
to do but to memorize such textbook . material, or for the teacher
but to see that the pupils knew the answers to the questions. It
was school-keeping, not teaching, that teachers were engaged in.

The form of instruction worked out by Pestalozzi, based on
sense-perception, reasoning, and individual judgment, called for a
complete change in classroom procedure. What Pestalozzi tried
most of all to do was to get children to use their senses and their
minds, to look carefully, to count, to observe forms, to get, by
means of their five important senses, clear impressions and ideas
as to objects and life in the world about them, and then to think
over what they had seen and be able to answer his questions, be-
cause they had observed carefully and reasoned clearly. Pesta-
lozzi thus clearly subordinated the printed book to the use of
the child's senses, and the repetition of mere words to clear
ideas about things. Pestalozzi thus became one of the first real
teachers.

This was an entirely new process, and for the first time in his-
tory a real "technique of instruction" was now called for. De-
pendence on the words of the text could no longer be relied upon.
The oral instruction of a class group, using real objects, called for
teaching skill. The class must be kept naturally interested and
under control; the essential elements to be taught must be kept
clearly in the mind of the teacher; the teacher must raise the right
kind of questions, in the right order, to carry the class thinking
along to the right conclusions; and, since so much of this type of
instruction was not down in books, it called for a much mofe ex-
tended knowledge of the subject on the part of the teacher than
the old type of school-keeping had done. The teacher must now
both know and be able to organize and direct. Class lessons
must be thought out in advance, and teacher-preparation in itself
meant a great change in teaching procedure. Emancipated from
dependence on the words of a text, and able to stand before a class
full of a subject and able to question freely, teachers became con-
scious of a new strength and a professional skill unknown in the

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 749

days of textbook reciting. Out of such teaching came oral lan-
guage lessons, drill in speech usage, elementary science instruc-
tion, observational geography, mental arithmetic, music, and
drawing, to add to the old instruction in the Catechism, reading,
writing, and ciphering, and all these new subjects, taught accord-
ing to Pestalozzian ideas as to purpose, called for an individual
technique of instruction.

The normal school finds its place. These new ideas of Pesta-
lozzi proved so important that during the first five or six decades

Fig. 224. The First Modern Normal School

The old castle at Yverdon, where Pestalozzi's Institute was conducted and his
greatest success achieved.

of the nineteenth century the elementary school was made over.
The new conception of the child as a slowly developing personal-
ity, demanding subject-matter and method suited to his stage of
development, and the new conception of teaching as that of di-
recting mental development instead of hearing recitations and
''keeping school," now replaced the earlier knowledge-conception
of school work. Where before the ability to organize and dis-
cipline a school had constituted the chief art of instruction, now
the ability to teach scientifically took its place as the prime pro-
fessional requisite. A "science and art" of teaching now arose;

750 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

methodology soon became a great subject; the new subject of
pedagogy began to take form and secure recognition; and psy-
chology became the guiding science of the school.

As these changes took place, the normal school began to come
into favor in the leading countries of Europe and in the United
States, and in time has established itself everywhere as an im-
portant educational institution. Pestalozzi had himself con-
ducted the first really modern teacher- training school, and his
work was soon copied in a number of the Swiss cantons. Other
cantons, on the contrary, for a time would have nothing to do
with the new idea.

1. The German States. The first nation, though, to take up the
teacher- training idea and estabhsh it as an important part of its
state school system was Prussia. Beginning in 1809 with the
work of Zeller (p. 569), by 1840 there were thirty-eight Teachers'
Seminaries, as the normal schools in German lands have been
called, in Prussia alone. The idea was also quickly taken up b}^
the other German States, and from the first decade of the nine-
teenth century on no nation has done more with the normal
school, or used it, ends desired considered, to better advantage
than have the Germans. One of the features of the Prussian
schools which most impressed Professor Bache, when he visited
the schools of the German States in 1838, was the excellence of
the Seminaries for Teachers (R. 344), and these he described (R.
345) in some detail in his Report. Horace Mann, similarly, on his
visit to Europe, in 1843, was impressed with the thoroughness of
the training given prospective teachers in the Teachers' Seminaries
of the German States (R. 278). University pedagogical seminars
were also established early (c. 1810) Mn the universities, for the
training of secondary teachers, and this training was continued
with increasing thoroughness up to 19 14. Every teacher in the
German States, elementary or secondary, before that date, was a
carefully-trained teacher. This was a feature of the German
state school systems of the pre- War period of which no other na-
tion could boast.

2. France. After the German States, France probably comes
next as the nation in which the normal school has been most used
for training teachers. The Superior Normal School had been re-
created in 1808 (R. 283), and after the downfall of Napoleon the
creation of normal schools for elementary-school teachers was be-

^ See footnote i, page 573, for places and dates.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 751

gun. Twelve had been established by. 1830, and between 1830
and 1833 thirty additional schools for training these teachers were
begun (R. 285). These tendered a service for France (R. 346)
quite similar to that rendered by the Teachers' Seminaries in Ger-
man lands. During the period of reaction, from 1848 to 1870,
the normal school did not prosper in France, but since 1870 a
normal school to train elementary teachers has been established
for men and one for women in each of the eighty-seven depart-
ments into which France, for administrative purposes, has been
divided. Satisfactory provision has also been made for the train-
ing of teachers for the secondary schools.

3. The United States. The United States has also been promi-
nent, especially since about 1870, in the development of normal
schools for the training of elementary teachers. The Lancastrian
schools had trained monitors for their work, but the first teacher-
training school in the United States to give training to individual
teachers was opened privately,^ in 1823, and the second in a simi-
lar manner,^ in 1827. These were almost entirely academic insti-
tutions, being in the nature of tuition high schools, with a little
practice teaching and some lectures on the "Art of Teaching"
added in the last year of the course. In 1826 Governor Clinton
recommended" to the legislature of New York the establishment
by the State of "a seminary for 'the education of teachers in the
monitorial system of instruction." Nothing coming of this, in
1827 he recommended the creation of "a central school in each
county for the education of teachers" (R. 349). That year
(1827) the New York legislature appropriated money to aid the
academies "to promote the education of teachers " — the first
state aid in the United States for teacher-training.

The publication of an English edition of Cousin's Report
(p. 597; R. 284) in New York, in 1835; Calvin E. Stowe's Report
on Elementary Education in Europe,^ in 1837; and Alexander D.

^ By the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, who conducted the school as an adjunct to
his work as a minister. The school accordingly traveled about, being held at Con-
cord, Vermont, from 1823 to 1830; at Andover, Massachusetts, from 1830 to 1837;
and at Plymouth, New Hampshire, from 1837 to 1840.

2 By James Carter, at Lancaster, Massachusetts.

^ In 1836, Calvin Stowe, a professor in the Lane Theological Seminary at Cin-
cinnati, went to Europe to buy books for the library of the institution, and the
legislature of Ohio commissioned him to examine and report upon the systems of
elementary education found there. The result was his celebrated Report on Ele-
mentary Education in Europe, made to the legislature in 1837. In it chief attention
was given to contrasting the schools of Wiirtemberg and Prussia with those found in
Ohio. The report was ordered printed by the legislature of Ohio, and later by the
legislatures of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, and Virginia,
and did much to awaken American interest in advancing common school education.

752

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Bache's Report on Education in Europe (Rs. 344, 345), in 1838,
with their strong commendations of the German teacher- training
system, awakened new interest in the United States, in the matter
of teacher- training. Finally, in 1839, the legislature of Massa-
chusetts duplicated a gift of $10,000, and placed the money in the
hands of the newly created State Board of Education (p. 689) ta
be used ''in qualifying teachers for the common schools of Massa^
chusetts" (R. 350 a). After careful consideration it was decided
to create special state institutions, after the German and French
plans, in which to give the desired training, and the French term
of Normal School was adopted and has since become general in the
United States.

On July 3, 1839, the first state normal school in the United
States opened in the town hall at Lexington, Massachusetts, with

State Normal School •
1845 Etc. - Date of First Introduction
of the Teachers' Institute

Fig. 225. Teacher-Training in the United States by i860
A few private training-schools also existed, though less than half a dozen in all.

one teacher and three students. Later that same year a second
state normal school was opened at Barre, and early the next year
a third at Bridgewater, both in Massachusetts. For these the
State Board of Education adopted a statement as to entrance re-
quirements and a course of instruction (R. 350 b) which shows
well the academic character of these early teaching institutions.
Their success was largely due to the enthusiastic support given
the new idea by Horace Mann. In an address at the dedication
of the first building erected in America for normal-school purposes,

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 753

in 1846, he expressed his deep behef as to the fundamental im-
portance of such institutions (R. 350 c). By i860 eleven state
normal schools had been established in eight of the States of the
American Union, and six private schools were also rendering simi-
lar services. Closely related was the Teachers' Institute, first
definitely organized by Henry Barnard in Connecticut, in 1839,
to offer four- to six- weeks summer courses for teachers in service,
and these had been organized in fifteen of the American States by
i860. Since 1870 the establishment of state normal schools has
been rapid in the United States, two hundred having been estab-
lished by 1910, and many since. The United States, though, is as
yet far from having a trained body of teachers for its elementary
schools. For the high schools, it is on]y since about 1890 that the
professional training of teachers for such service has really been
begun.

4. England. In England the beginnings of teacher-training
came with the introduction of monitorial instruction, both the
Bell and the Lancaster Societies (p. 625) finding it necessary to
train pupils for positions as monitors, and to designate certain
schools as model and training schools. In 1833, it will be remem-
bered (p. 638), Parliament made its first grant of money in aid of
education. Up to 1840 this was distributed through the two Na-
tional Societies, and in 1839 a portion of this aid was definitely set
aside to enable these Societies to establish model schools (R. 347).
From this beginning, the model training-schools for the different
religious Societies were developed. In these model schools pro-
spective teachers were educated, being trained in religious in-
struction and in the art of teaching. In 1836, with the founding
of the "Home and Colonial Infant Society," a Pestalozzian Train-
ing College was founded by it.

In a further effort to secure trained teachers the government, in
1846, adopted a plan then in use in Holland, and instituted what
became known as the " pupil -teacher system" (R. 348). This
was an improvement on the waning monitorial training system
previously in use. Under this, a favorite old English method,
used somewhat for the same purpose a century earlier (R. 243),
was adapted to meet the new need. Under it promising pupils
were apprenticed to a head teacher for five years (usually from
thirteen to eighteen) , he agreeing to give them instruction in both
secondary- school subjects and in the art of teaching in return for
their help in the schoolroom. Beginning in 1846, there were, by

754 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1848, 200 pupil teachers; by 1861, 13,871; and by 1870, 14,612.
This system formed the great dependence of England before the
days of national education. In 1874 the pupil-teacher-center
system was begun, and between 1878 and 1896 the age for enter-
ing as a pupil-teacher was raised from thirteen to sixteen, and the
years of apprenticeship reduced from five to two. In most cases
now the academic preparation continues to seventeen or eighteen,
and is followed by one year of practice teaching in an elementary
school, under supervision. After that the teacher may, or may
not, enter what is there known as a Training- College.^ So far the
training of teachers has not made such headway in England and
Wales as has been the case in the German States, France, the
United States, or Scotland,, but important progress may be ex-
pected in the near future as an outcome of new educational im-
pulses arising as a result of the World War.

Spread of the normal-school idea. The movement for the
creation of normal schools to train teachers for the elementary
schools has in time spread to many nations. As nation after na-
tion has awakened to the desirability of establishing a system of
modern-type state schools, a normal school to train leaders has
often been among the first of the institutions created. The
normal school, in consequence, is found to-day in all the conti-
nental European States; in all the English self-governing domin-
ions; in nearly all the South American States; and in China,^
Japan, Siam, the Philippines, Cuba, Algiers, India, and other less
important nations. In all these there is an attempt, often reach-
ing as yet to but a small percentage of the teachers, to extend to
them some of that training in the theory and art of instruction
which has for long been so important a feature of the education of
the elementary teacher in the German States, France, and the
United States. Since about 1890 other nations have also begun
to provide, as the German States and France have done for so

^ These are higher institutions which offer two, three, or four years of academic
and some professional education, and may be found in connection with a university;
may be maintained by city or county school authorities; or may be voluntary insti-
tutions. In 1910-11 there were eighty-three such institutions in England and
Wales.

2 In China, for example, as soon as the new general system of education had been
decided upon, normal schools of three types — higher normal schools, lower normal
schools, and teacher-training schools — were created, and missionary teachers, for-
eign teachers, and students returning from abroad were used to staff these new
schools. By 19 10 as many as thirty higher normal schools, two hundred and three
lower normal schools, and a hundred and eighty-two training classes had been
established in China under government auspices. (Ping Wen Kuo, The Chinese
System of Public Education, p. 156.)

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 755

long, some form of professional training for the teachers intended
for their secondary schools ^ as well.

Psychology becomes the master science. Everywhere the es-
tablishment of normal schools has meant the acceptance of the
newer conceptions as to child development and the nature of the
educational process. These are that the child is a slowly develop-
ing personality, needing careful study, and demanding subject-
matter- and method suited to his different stages of development.
The new conception of teaching as that of directing and guiding
the education of a child, instead of hearing recitations and "keep-
ing school," in time replaced the earlier knowledge- conception of
school work. Psychology accordingly became the guiding science
of the school, and the imparting to prospective teachers proper
ideas as to psychological procedure, and the proper methodology
of instruction in each of the different elementary-school subjects,
became the great work of the normal school. Teachers thus
trained carried into the schools a new conception as to the nature
of childhood; a new and a minute methodology of instruction;
and a new enthusiasm for teaching; — all of which were impor-
tant additions to school work.

A new methodology was soon worked out for all the subjects
of instruction, both old and new. The centuries-old alphabet
method of teaching reading was superseded by the word and
sound methods ; the new oral language instruction was raised to a
position of first importance in developing pupil- thinking; spelling,
word-analysis, and sentence-analysis were given much emphasis
in the work of the school; the Pestalozzian mental arithmetic
came as an important addition to the old ciphering of sums; the
old writing from copies was changed into a drill subject, requiring
careful teaching for its mastery; the "back to nature" ideas of
Rousseau and Pestalozzi proved specially fruitful in the new study
of geography, which called for observation out of doors, the study
of type forms, and the substitution of the physical and human
aspects of geography for the older poHtical and statistical; object
lessons on natural objects, and later science and nature study,
were used to introduce children to a knowledge of nature and to
train them in thinking and observation ; while the new subjects of
music and drawing came in, each with an elaborate technique of
instruction.

1 The beginnings in tlie United States date from about 1890, and in England even
later. In France, on the other hand, the training of teachers for the secondary
schools goes back to the days of Napoleon.

756

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

By 1875 the normal school in all lands was finding plenty to do,
and teaching, by the new methods and according to the new psy-
chological procedure, seemed to many one of the most wonderful
and most important occupations in the world. How great a
change in the scope, as well as in the nature of elementary-school

1775

1825

1850

1875

READING

Spelling

Writing
( Catechism
\ BIBLE

Arithmetic

j READING*

I Declamation
SPELLING*

Writing
i Good Behavior
\ Manners & Morals

ARITHMETIC*

j READING

] DECLAMATION

SPELLING

WRITING
i Manners
( Conduct

j MENTAL ARITH*
1 CIPHERING

i READING •

j Literary Selectioru

SPELLING

PENMANSHIP*

Conduct

j PRIMARY ARITH.*
i ADVANCED ARITH.

Bookkeeping
GRAMMAR

Geography

Bookkeeping
( Elem. Language
■j GRAMMAR

Geography
History U.S.

( Oral Language *
1 GRAMMAR

{ Home Geography *
( TEXT GEOGRAPHY
( U.S. HISTORY
\ Constitution

Se^gaadKnit-
tiog

Object Lessons

( Object Lessons *
( Elementary Science *

Drawing *

Music *

Physical Exercises

CAPITALS = Host important subjects. Italics = Subjects of medium importance.
Boman — Least important subjecta. * = New methods of teaching now employed.

Fig. 226. Evolution of the Elementary-School Curriculum
AND OF Methods of Teaching

instruction had been effected in a century, the above diagram of
American elementary-school development will reveal. History
and literature, it will be noticed, had also come in as addi-
tional new subjects, but these were relatively unimportant in
either the elementary school or the normal school until after
the coming of Herbartian ideas, to which we shall refer a httle
further on.

Accompanying the organization of professional instruction for
teachers, another important change in the nature of the elemen-
tary school was effected.

The grading of schoolroom instruction. For some time after
elementary schools began it was common to teach all the children
of the different ages together in one room, or at most in two
rooms. In the latter case the subjects of instruction were divided

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 757

between the teachers, rather than the children.^ Many of the pic-
tures of early elementary schools show such mixed-type schools.
In these the children were advanced individually and by subjects,
as their progress warranted,^ until they had progressed as far as
the instruction went or the teacher could teach (R. 352). From
this point on the division of the elementary school into classes and
a graded organization has proceeded by certain rather well-de-
fmed steps.

The first step (Rs. 353, 354) was the division of the school into
two schools, one more advanced than the other, such as lower
and higher, or primary and grammar. Another division was in-
troduced when the Infant School was added, beneath. The njsxt
step was the division of each school into classes. This began by
the employment of assistant teachers, in England and America
known as "ushers," to help the "master," and the provision of
small recitation rooms, off the main large schoolroom, to which
the usher could take his class to hear recitations. The third and
final step came with the erection of a new type of school building,
with smaller and individual classrooms, or the subdivision of the
larger schoolrooms. It was then possible to assign a teacher to
each classroom, sort and grade the pupils by ages and advance-
ment, outline the instruction by years, and the modern graded
elementary school was at hand.

The transition to the graded elementary school came easily and
naturally. For half a century the course of instruction in the
evolving elementary state school had been in process of expan-
sion. Pestalozzi paved the way for its creation by changing the
purpose and direction, and greatly enlarging (p. 543) the field of

^ A common division was between the teacher who taught reading, religion, and
speUing, and the teacher who taught writing and arithmetic (R. 307). Writing be-
ing considered a difficult art, this was taught by a separate teacher, who often in-
cluded the abihty to teach arithmetic also among his accomplishments.

^ A good example of this may be found in the monitorial schools. The New York
Free School Society (p. 660), for example, reported in its Fourteenth Annual Report
(i8ig) that the children in its schools had pursued studies as follows:
297 children have been taught to form letters in sand.
615 have been advanced from letters in sand, to monosyllabic reading on

boards.
686 from reading on boards, to Murray's First Book.
335 from Murray's First Book, to writing on slates.
218 from writing on slates, to writing on paper.
341 to reading in the Bible.
277 to addition and subtraction.
153 to multipHcation and division.
60 to the compound of the four first rules.
20 to reduction.
24 to the rule of three.

758

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

instruction of the vernacular school. After him other new sub-
jects of study were added (see diagram, Figure 226), new and bet-
ter and longer textbooks were prepared (R. 351), and the school

Fig. 227. An "Usher" and His Class

The usher, or assistant teacher, is here shown with a class in one of the
small recitation-rooms, off the large schoolroom.

term was gradually lengthened. The way in time became clear,
earliest in the German lands and in a few American cities, but by
about 1850 in most leading nations, for that simple reorganiza-
tion of school work which would divide the school into a number
of classes, or forms, or grades, and give one to each teacher to
handle. When this point had been reached, which came about
1850 to i860 in most nations, but earlier in a few, the modern
type of town or city graded elementary school was at hand.
Teaching had by this time become an organized and a psychologi-
cal process; graded courses of study began to appear; professional
school superintendents began to be given the direction and super-
vision of instruction; and the modern science of school organiza-
tion and administration began to take shape. From this point on
the further development of the graded elementary public school
has come through the addition of new materials of instruction,
and by changing the direction of the school to adapt it better to
meeting the new needs of society brought about by the scientific,
industrial, social, and political revolutions which we, in previous

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 759

chapters, have described. A few of the more important of these
additions and changes in direction we shall now briefly describe.

II. NEW IDEAS FROM HERBARTIAN SOURCES

The work of Herbart. Taking up the problem as Pestalozzi
left it, a German by the name of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-
1841) carried it forward by organizing a truer psychology for the
whole educational process, by erecting a new social aim for in-
struction, by formulating new steps in method, and by showing
the place and the importance of properly organized instruction in
history and literature in the education of the child. Though the
two men were entirely different in type, and worked along en-
tirely different lines, the connection between Herbart and Pesta-
lozzi was, nevertheless, close. ^

The two men, however, approached the educational problem
from entirely different angles. Pestalozzi gave nearly all his long
life to teaching and human service, while Herbart taught only as
a traveling private tutor for three years, and later a class of
twenty children in his university practice school. Pestalozzi was
a social reformer, a visionary, and an impractical enthusiast, but
was possessed of a remarkable intuitive insight into child nature.
Herbart, on the other hand, was a well-trained scholarly thinker,
who spent the most of his life in the peaceful occupation of a pro-
fessor of philosophy in a German university.^ It was while at
Konigsberg, between 18 10 and 1832, and as an appendix to his
work as professor of philosophy, that he organized a small prac-
tice school, conducted a Pedagogical Seminar, and worked out his
educational theory and method. His work was a careful, schol-
arly attempt at the organization of education as a science, carried
out amid the peace and quiet which a university atmosphere al-
most alone affords. He addressed himself chiefly to three things:
(i) the aim, (2) the content, and (3) the method of instruction.

The aim and the content of education. Locke had set up as

^ Herbart had visited Pestalozzi at Burgdorf, in 1799, just after graduating from
Jena and while acting as a tutor for three Swiss boys, and had written a very sympa-
thetic description of his school and his theory of instruction. Herbart was one of the
first of the Germans to understand and appreciate " the genial and noble Pesta-
lozzi."

- The son of a well-educated public oflTicial, Herbart was himself educated at the
Gymnasium of Oldenburg and the University of Jena. After spending three years as
a tutor, he became, at the age of twenty -six, an under teacher at the University of
Gottingen. At the age of thirty-three he was called to succeed Kant as professor of
philosophy at Konigsberg, and from the age of fifty -seven to his death at sixty-five
he was again a professor at Gottingen.

76o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

the aim of education the ideal of a physically sound gentleman.
Rousseau had declared his aim to be to prepare his boy for life
by developing naturally his inborn capacities. Pestalozzi had
sought to regenerate society by means of education, and to pre-
pare children for society by a ^'harmonious training" of their
"faculties." Herbart rejected alike the conventional-social edu-
cation of Locke, the natural and unsocial education of Rousseau,
and the ''faculty-psychology" conception of education of Pesta-
lozzi. Instead he conceived of the mind as a unity, instead of be-
ing divided into "faculties," and the aim of education as broadly
social rather than personal. The purpose of education, he said,
was to prepare men to live properly in organized society, and
hence the chief aim in education was not conventional fitness,
natural development, mere knowledge, nor personal mental
power, but personal character and social morality. This being
the case, the educator should analyze the interests and occupa-
tions and social responsibilities of men as they are grouped in or-
ganized society, and, from such analyses, deduce the means and
the method of instruction. Man's interests, he said, come from
two main sources — his contact with the things in his environ-
ment (real things, sense-impressions), and from his relations with
human beings (social intercourse) . His social responsibilities and
duties are determined by the nature of the social organization of
which he forms a part.

Pestalozzi had provided fairly well for the first group of con-
tacts, through his instruction in objects, home geography, num-
bers, and geometric form. For the second group of contacts
Pestalozzi had developed only oral language, and to this Herbart
now added the two important studies of literature and history,
and history with the emphasis on the social rather than the politi-
cal side. Two new elementary-school subjects were thus devel-
oped, each important in revealing to man his place in the social
whole. History in particular Herbart conceived to be a study of
the first importance for revealing proper human relationships,
and leading men to social and national "good-will."

The chief purpose of education Herbart held to be to develop
personal character and to prepare for social usefulness (R. 355).
These virtues, he held, proceeded from enough of the right kind of
knowledge, properly interpreted to the pupil so that clear ideas as
to relationships might be formed. To impart this knowledge in-
terest must be awakened, and to arouse interest in the many kinds

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 761

of knowledge needed, a "many-sided" development must take
place. From full knowledge, and with proper instruction by the
teacher, clear ideas or concepts might be formed, and clear ideas
ought to lead to right action, and right action to personal charac-
ter - — the aim of all instruction. Herbart was the first writer on
education to place the great emphasis on proper instruction, and
to exalt teaching and proper teaching-procedure instead of mere
knowledge or intellectual discipline. He thus conceived of the
educational process as a science in itself, having a definite content
and method, and worthy of special study by those who desire to
teach.

Herbartian method. With these ideas as to the aim and con-
tent of instruction, Herbart worked out a theory of the instruc-
tional process and a method of instruction (R. 356). Interest he
held to be of first importance as a prerequisite to good instruc-
tion. If given spontaneously, well and good; but, if necessary,
forced interest must be resorted to. Skill in instruction is in part
to be determined by the ability of the teacher to secure interest
without resorting to force on the one hand or sugar-coating of the
subject on the other. Taking Pestalozzi's idea that the purpose
of the teacher was to give pupils new experiences through contacts
with real things, without assuming that the pupils already had
such, Herbart elaborated the process by which new knowledge is
assimilated in terms of what one already knows, and from his
elaboration of this principle the doctrine of apperception — that
is, the apperceiving or comprehending of new knowledge in terms
of the old — has been fixed as an important principle in educa-
tional psychology. Good instruction, then, involves first putting
the child into a proper frame of mind to apperceive the new
knowledge, and hence this becomes a corner-stone of all good
teaching method.

Herbart did not always rely on such methods, holding that the
"committing to memory" of certain necessary facts often was
necessary, but he held that the mere memorizing of isolated facts,
which had characterized school instruction for ages, had little
value for either educational or moral ends. The teaching of mere
facts often was very necessary, but such instruction called for a
methodical organization of the facts by the teacher, so as to make
their learning contribute to some definite purpose. This called
for a purpose in instruction; the organization of the facts neces-
sary to be taught so as to select the most useful ones; the connec-

762 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion of these so as to establish the principle which was the purpose
of the instruction; and training in systematic thinking by apply-
ing the principle to new problems of the type being studied. The
carrying-out of such ideas meant the careful organization of the
teaching process and teaching method, to secure certain prede-
termined ends in child development, instead of mere miscella-
neous memorizing and school-keeping.

The Herbartian movement in Germany. Herbart died in 184 1,
without having awakened any general interest in his ideas, and
they remained virtually unnoticed until 1865. In that year a pro-
fessor at Leipzig, Tuiskon Ziller (1817-1883), published a book
setting forth Herbart's idea of instruction as a moral force. This
attracted much attention, and led to the formation (1868) of a
scientific society for the study of Herbart's ideas. Ziller and his
followers now elaborated Herbart's ideas, advanced the theory of
culture-epochs in child development, the theory of concentration
in studies,' and elaborated the four steps in the process of in-
struction, as described by Herbart, into the five formal steps
of the modern Herbartian school.

In 1874 a pedagogical seminary and practice school was organ-
ized at the University of Jena, and in 1885 this came under the
direction of Professor William Rein, a pupil of Ziller's, who de-
veloped the practice school according to the ideas of Ziller. A
detailed course of study for this school, filling two large volumes,
was worked out, and the practice lessons given were thoroughly
planned beforehand and the methods employed were subjected to
a searching analysis after the lesson had been given.

Herbartian ideas in the United States. For a time, under the

inspiration of Ziller and Rein, Jena became an educational center

to which students went from many lands. Frpm the work at Jena

Herbartian ideas have spread which have modified elementary

educational procedure generally. In particular did the work at

Jena make a deep impression in the United States. Between 1885

and 1890 a number of Americans studied at Jena and, returning.

brought back to the United States this Ziller-Rein-Jena brand of

Herbartian ideas and practices.^ From the first the new ideas

met with enthusiastic approval.

^ Charles De Garmo's Essentials of Method, published in 1889, marked the be-
ginning of the introduction of these ideas into this country. In 1892 Charles A.
McMurry published his General Method, and in 1897, with his brother, Frank, pub-
lished the Method in the Recitation. These three books probably have done more to
popularize Herbartian ideas and mtroduce them into the normal schools and col-
leges of the United States than all other influences combined. Another important

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NEW CONCEPTIONS. OF EDUCATION 763

New methods of instruction in history and Hterature, and a
new psychology, were now added to the normal-school profes-
sional instruction. Though this psychology has since been out-
grown (R. 357), it has been very useful in shaping pedagogical
thought. New courses of study for the training-schools were now
worked out in which the elementary-school subjects were divided
into drill subjects, content subjects, and motor-activity subjects.^
Apperception, interest, correlation, social purpose, moral educa-
tion, citizenship training, and recitation methods became new
terms to conjure with. P'rom the normal schools these ideas
spread rapidly to the better city school systems o^ the time, and
soon found their way into courses of study everywhere. Practice
schools and the model lessons in dozens of normal schools were re-
modeled after the pattern of those at Jena, and for a decade Her-
bartian ideas and the new child study vied with one another for
the place of first importance in educational thinking. The Her-
bartian wave of the nineties resembled the Pestalozzian enthu-
siasm of the sixties. Each for a time furnished the new ideas in
education, each introduced elements of importance into the ele-
mentary-school instruction, each deeply influenced the training of
teachers in normal schools by giving a new turn to the instruction
there, and each gradually settled down into its proper place in
educational practice and history.

The Herbartian contribution. To the Herbartians we are in-
debted in particular for important new conceptions as to the
teaching of history and literature, which have modified all our
subsequent procedure; for the introduction of history teaching in
some form into all the elementary-school grades ; for the emphasis
on a new social point of view in the teaching of history and geog-
raphy; for the new emphasis on the moral aim in instruction; for a
new and a truer educational psychology; and for a better organi-
zation of the technique of classroom instruction. In particular

influence was the "National Herbart Society," founded in 1892 by students return-
ing from Jena, in imitation of the similar German society.

^ The studies which have come to characterize the modern elementary school
may now be classified under the following headings:

Drill subjects

Content subjects

Expression subjects

Reading

Literature

Kindergarten Work

Writing

Geography

Music

Spelling

History

Manual Arts

Language

Civic Studies

Domestic Arts

Arithmetic

Manners and Conduct

Plays and Games

Nature Study

School Gardening

Agriculture

Vocational Subjects

764 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Herbart gave emphasis to that part of educational development
which comes from without — environment acting upon the child

— as contrasted with the emphasis Pestalozzi had placed on men-
tal development from within and according to organic law. With
the introduction of normal child activities, which came from
another source about this same time, the elementary-school cur-
riculum as we now have it was practically complete, and the ele-
mentary school of 1850 was completely made over to form the
elementary school of the beginning of the twentieth century.

III. THE KINDERGARTEN, PLAY, AND MANUAL ACTIVITIES

To another German, Friedrich Froebel (i 782-1852), we are in-
debted, directly or indirectly, for three other additions to ele-
mentary education — the kindergarten, the play idea, and hand-
work activities.

Origin of the kindergarten. Of German parentage, the son of a
rural clergyman, early estranged from his parents, retiring and
introspective by nature, having led a most unhappy childhood,
and apprenticed to a forester without his wishes being consulted,
at twenty- three Froebel decided to become a schoolteacher and
•visited Pestalozzi in Switzerland. Two years later he became the
tutor of three boys, and then spent the years 1808-10 as a student
and teacher in Pestalozzi's Institute at Yverdon. During his
years there Froebel was deeply impressed with the great value of
music and play in the education of children, and of all that he
carried away from Pestalozzi's institution these ideas were most
persistent. After serving in a variety of occupations — student,
soldier against Napoleon, and curator in a museum of mineralogy

— he finally opened a little private school, in 181 6, which he con-
ducted for a decade along Pestalozzian lines. In this the play
idea, music, and the self-activity of the pupils were uppermost.
The school was a failure, financially, but while conducting it
Froebel thought out and published (1826) his most important
pedagogical work — The Education of Man.

Gradually Froebel became convinced that the most needed re-
form in education concerned the early years of childhood. His
own youth had been most unhappy, and to this phase of education
he now addressed himself. After a period as a teacher in Switzer-
land he returned to Germany and opened a school for little chil-
dren in which plays, games, songs, and occupations involving self-
activity were the dominating characteristics, and in 1840 he hit

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 765

upon the name Kindergarten for it. In 1843 his Mutter- und
Kose-Lieder, a book of fifty songs and games, was published.
This has been translated into almost all languages.

Spread of the kindergarten idea. After a series of unsuccessful
efforts to bring his new idea to the attention of educators, Froebel,
himself rather a feminine type, became discouraged and resolved
to address himself henceforth to women, as they seemed much
more capable of understanding him, and to the training of teach-
ers in the new ideas. Froebel was fortunate in securing as one of
his most ardent disciples, just before his death, the Baroness
Bertha von Marenholtz Bulow-Wendhausen (1810-93), who did
more than any other person to make his work known. Meeting,
in 1849, the man mentioned to her as "an old fool," she under-
stood him, and spent the remainder of her life in bringing to the
attention of the world the work of this unworldly man who did
not know how to make it known for himself. In 185 1 the Prus-
sian Government, fearing some revolutionary designs in the new
idea, and acting in a manner thoroughly characteristic of the po-
litical reaction which by that time had taken hold of all German
official life, forbade kindergartens in Prussia. The Baroness then
went to London and lectured there on Froebel's ideas, organizing
kindergartens in the English "ragged schools." Here, by con-
trast, she met with a cordial reception. She later expounded
Froebelian ideas in Paris, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, Belgium,
and (after i860, when the prohibition was removed) in Germany.
In 1870 she founded a kindergarten training-college in Dresden.
Many of her writings have been translated into English, and pub-
lished in the United States.

Considering the importance of this work, and the time which
has since elapsed, the kindergarten idea has made relatively
small progress on the continent of Europe. Its spirit does not
harmonize with autocratic government. In Germany and the
old Austro-Hungary it had made but little progress up to 19 14.
Its greatest progress in Europe, perhaps, has been in democratic
Switzerland.^ In England and France, the two great leaders in
democratic government, the Infant-School development, which
came earlier, has prevented any marked growth of the kinder-

^ Next, perhaps, would come Italy, which is strongly democratic in spirit. In
the cities of Holland one finds many privately supported kindergartens, but the ^
State has not made them a part of the school system. In Norway and Sweden the
kindergarten practically does not exist. The kindergarten will always do best
among seif-governing peoples, and seldom meets with favor from autocratic power.

766 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

garten. In England, though, the Infant School has recently been
entirely transformed by the introduction into it of the kinder-
garten spirit.^ In France, infant education has taken a some-
what different direction. ^

In the United States the kindergarten idea has met with a most
cordial reception. In no country in the world has the spirit of the
kindergarten been so caught and apphed to school work, and
probably nowhere has the original kindergarten idea been so ex-
panded and improved.^ The first kindergarten in the United
States was a German kindergarten, established at Watertown,
Wisconsin, in 1855, by Mrs. Carl Schurz, a pupil of Froebel.
During the next fifteen years some ten other kindergartens were
organized in German-speaking communities. The first English-
speaking kindergarten was opened privately in Boston, in i860,
by Miss Elizabeth Peabody. In 1868 a private training-college
for kindergartners was opened in Boston, largely through Miss
Peabody's influence, by Madame Matilde Kriege and her daugh-
ter, who had recently arrived from Germany. In 1872 Miss
Marie Boelte opened a similar teacher-training school in New
York City, and in 1873 her pupil. Miss Susan Blow, accepted the
invitation of Superintendent WiUiam T. Harris, of St. Louis, to go
there and open the first public-school kindergarten in the United
States.''

^ "In the best English Infant Schools a profound revolution has taken place in
recent years. Formal lessons in the 3 Rs have disappeared, and the whole of the
training of the little ones has been based on the principles of the kindergarten as
enunciated by Froebel. Much of the old routine still remains; nevertheless there is
no part of the English educational system so brimful of real promise as the work
that is now being done in the best Infant Schools." (Hughes, R. E., The Making of
Citizens (1902), p. 40.)

2 In France, the Infant School or kindergarten is known as the Maternal School.
Pupils are received at two years of age, and carried along until six. In the lower
division the school is largely in the nature of a day nursery, but in the upper division
many of the features of the kindergarten are found.

^ Since Froebel's day we have learned much about children that was then un-
known, especially as to the muscular and nervous organization and development of
children, and with this new knowledge the tendency has been to enlarge the "gifts"
and change their nature, to introduce new "occupations," elaborate the kindergar-
ten program of daily exercises, and to give the kindergarten more of an out-of-door
character. Especially has the work of Dewey (p. 780) and the child-study special-
ists been important in modifying kindergarten procedure.

4 By 1880 some 300 kindergartens and 10 kindergarten training-schools, mostly
private undertakings, had been opened in the cities of thirty of the States of the
Union. By iSqo philanthropic kindergarten associations to provide and support
kindergartens had been organized in most of the larger cities, and after that date
cities rapidly began to adopt the kindergarten as a part of the public-school system,
• and thus add, at the bottom, one more rung to the American educational ladder.
To-day there are approximately 9000 public and 1500 private kindergartens in the
cities of the United States, and training in kindergarten principles and practices is
now given by many of the state normal sghoolSr

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 767

To-day the kindergarten is found in some form in nearly all
countries in the world, having been carried to all continents by
missionaries, educational enthusiasts, and interested govern-
ments.^ Japan early adopted the idea, and China is now begin-
ning to do so.

The kindergarten idea. The dominant idea in the kindergar-
ten is natural but directed self-activity, focused upon educational,
social, and moral ends. Froebel believed in the continuity of a
child's life from infancy onward, and that self-activity, deter-
mined by the child's interests and desires and intelligently di-
rected, was essential to the unfolding of the child's inborn capaci-
ties. He saw, more clearly than any one before him had done,
the unutilized wealth of the child's world; that the child's chief
characteristic is self-activity; the desirability of the child finding
himself through play; and that the work of the school during
these early years was to supplement the family by drawing out
the child and awakening the ideal side of his nature. To these
ends doing, self-activity, and expression became fundamental to
the kindergarten, and movement, gesture, directed play, song,
color, the story, and human activities a part of kindergarten
technique. Nature study and school gardening were given a
prominent place, and motor-activity much called into play. Ad-
vancing far beyond Pestalozzi's principle of sense-impressions,
Froebel insisted on motor-activity and learning by doing (R. 358).

Froebel, as well as Herbart, also saw the social importance of
education, and that man must realize himself not independently
amid nature, as Rousseau had said, but as a social animal in coop-
eration with his fellowmen. Hence he made his schoolroom a
miniature of society, a place where courtesy and helpfulness and
social cooperation were prominent features. This social and at
times reverent atmosphere of the kindergarten has always been a
marked characteristic of its work. To bring out social ideas many
dramatic games, such as shoemaker, carpenter, smith, and
farmer, were devised and set to music. The "story" by the
teacher was made prominent, and this was retold in language,
acted, sung, and often worked out constructively in clay, blocks,
or paper. Other games to develop skill were worked out, and
use was made of sand, clay, paper, cardboard, and color. The

^ In 1918, for example, according to a recent Report to the Zionist Board of Edu-
cation in the United States, there were over 5300 children in kindergartens in Pales-
tine, 125 kindergarten teachers there, and a College for Kindergarten Teachers had
been organized in the Holy Land to train additional teachers.

768 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

''gifts" and "occupations" which Froebel devised were intended
to develop constructive and aesthetic power, and to provide for
connection and development they were arranged into an organ-
ized series of playthings. Individual development as its aim,
motor-expression as its method, and social cooperation as its
means were the characteristic ideaS of this new school for little
children (R. 358).

The contribution of the kindergarten. Wholly aside from the
specific training given children during the year, year and a half,
or tv/o years they spend in this type of school, the addition of the
kindergarten to elementary-school work has been a force of very
large significance and usefulness. The idea that the child is
primarily an active and not a learning animal has been given new
emphasis, and that education comes chiefly by doing has been
given new force. The idea that a child's chief business is play has
been a new conception of large educational value. The elimina-
tion of book education and harsh discipline in the kindergarten
has been an idea that has slowly but gradually been extended up-
ward into the lower grades of the elementary school.

To-day, largely as a result of the spreading of the kindergarten
spirit, the world is coming to recognize play and games at some-
thing like their real social, moral, and educational values, wholly
aside from their benefits as concern physical welfare, and in many
places directed play is being scheduled as a regular subject in
school programs. Music, too, has attained new emphasis since
the coming of the kindergarten, and methods of teaching music
more in harmony with kindergarten ideas have been introduced
into the schools.

Instruction in the manual activities. Froebel not only intro-
duced constructive work — paper-folding, weaving, needlework,
and work with sand and clay and color — into the kindergarten,
but he also proposed to extend and develop such work for the up-
per years of schooling in a school for hand training which he out-
lined, but did not establish. His proposed plan included the ele-
ments of the so-called manual-training idea, developed later, and
he justified such instruction on the same educational grounds
that we advance to-day. It was not to teach a boy a trade, as
Rousseau had advocated, or to train children in sense-perception,,
as Pestalozzi had employed all his manual activities, but as a
form of educational expression, and for the purpose of developing
creative power within the child. The idea was advocated by a

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 769

number of thinkers, about 1850 to i860, but the movement took
its rise in Finland, Sweden, and Russia.

The first country to organize such work as a part of its school
instruction was Finland, where, as early as 1858, Uno Cygnaeus
(18 10-1888) outlined a course for manual training involving
bench and metal work, wood-carving, and basket-weaving. In
1866 Finland made some form of manual work compulsory for
boys in all its rural schools, and in its training-colleges for male
teachers. In 1872 the government of Sweden decided to intro-
duce sloyd work into its schools, partly to counteract the bad
physical and moral effects of city congestion, and partly to re-
vivify the declining home industries of the people. A sloyd
school was established at Naas, in 1872, to train teachers, and in
1875 a second school, known as a "Sloyd Seminarium," was be-
gun. The summer courses of these two schools were soon training
teachers from many nations. In 1877 sloyd work was added to
the Folk School instruction of Sweden. At first the old native
sloyd occupations were followed, such as carpentering, turning,
wood-carving, brush-making, book-binding, and work in copper
and iron, but later the industrial element gave way to a well-
organized course in educational tool work for boys from twelve to
fifteen years of age, after the Finnish plan.

Spread of the manual-training idea. France was the first of
the larger European nations to adopt this new addition to ele-
mentary-school instruction, a training-school being organized at
Paris in 1873, ^-nd, in 1882, the instruction in manual activities
was ordered introduced into all the primary schools of France.
It has required time, though, to provide work rooms and to realize
this idea, and it is still lacking in complete accomplishment. In
England the work was first introduced in London, about 1887.
The government at once accepted the idea, encouraged its spread,
and began to aid in the training of teachers. By 1900 the work
was found in all the larger cities, and included cooking and sewing
for girls, as well as manual work for boys. The training for girls .
goes back still farther, and was an outgrowth of the earlier
"schools of industry" established to train girls for domestic serv-
ice (R. 241). By 1846 instruction in needlework had been begun
in earnest in England. In German lands needlework was also
an early school subject, while some domestic training for girls
had been provided in most of the cities, before 1914. Manual
training for boys, though, despite much propaganda work, had

770 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

made but little headway up to that time. As in the case of the
kindergarten, the initiative and self-expression aspects of the
manual- training movement made no appeal to those responsible
for the work of the people's schools, and, in consequence, the
manual activities have in German lands been reserved largely for
the continuation and vocational schools for older pupils.

In the United States the manual-training and household-arts
ideas have found a very ready welcome. Curious as it may seem,
the first introduction to the United States of this new form of in-
struction came through the exhibit made by the Russian govern-
ment at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, showing the work in
wood and iron made by the pupils at the Imperial Technical In-
stitute at Moscow. This, however, was not the Swedish sloyd,
but a type of work especially adapted to secondary-school in-
struction. In consequence the movement for instruction in the
manual activities in the United States, unlike in other nations,
began as a highly organized technical type of high-school instruc-
tion,^ while the elementary-school sloyd and the household arts
for girls came in later. This type of technical high school has
since developed rapidly in this country, has rendered an impor-
tant educational service, and is a peculiarly American creation.
In Europe the manual-training idea has been confined to the ele-
mentary school, and no institution exists there which parallels
these costly and well- equipped American technical secondary
schools.

The introduction of manual work into the elementary schools
came a little later, and a little more slowly. As early as 1880 the
Workingmen's School, founded by the Ethical Culture Society of
New York, had provided a kindergarten and had extended the
kindergarten constructive- work idea upward, in the form of sim-
ple wqodworking, into its elementary school. In the public
schools, experimental classes in elerrientary-school woodworking
were tried in one school in Boston, as early as 1882, the expense
being borne privately. In 1888 the city took over these classes.

^ The Saint Louis Manual Training High School, founded in 1880 in connection
with Washington University, first gave expression to this new form of education,
and formed a type for the organization of such schools elsewhere. Privately sup-
ported schools of this type were organized in Chicago, Toledo, Cincinnati, and
Cleveland before 1886, and the first public manual-training high schools were estab-
lished in Baltimore in 1884, Philadelphia in 1885, and Omaha in 1886. The shop-
work, based for long on the "Russian system," included wood-turning, joinery, pat-
tern-making, forging, foundry and machine work. The first high school to provide
sewing, cooking, dressmaking, and millinery for girls was the one at Toledo, estab-
lished in 1886, though private classes had been organized earlier in a number of cities.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 771

In 1886 a teacher was brought to Boston from Sweden to intro-
duce Swedish sloyd, and a teacher- training school which has been
very influential was established there, in 1889. In 1876 Massa-
chusetts permitted cities to provide instruction in sewing, and
Springfield introduced such instruction in 1884, and elementary-
school instruction in knife work in 1886.

From these beginnings the movement spread,^ though at first
rather slowly. By 1900 approximately forty cities, nearly all of
them in the North Atlantic group of States, had introduced work
in manual training and the
household arts into their ele-
mentary schools, but since
that time the work has been
extended to practically all
cities, and to many towns
and rural communities as
well.

Contribution of the man-
ual-activities idea. These
new forms of school work
were at first advocated on
the grounds of formal dis-
cipline — that they trained
the reasoning, exercised the
powers of observation, and
strengthened the will. The
'' exercises," true to such
a conception, were quite
formal and uniform for all.
With the breakdown of the "faculty psychology," and the
abandonment in large part of the doctrine of formal discipline in
the training of the mind, the whole manual- training and house-
hold-arts work has had to be reshaped. As the writings of Pesta-
lozzi, Herbart, and Froebel were studied more closely, and with
the new light on child development gained from child-study and
the newer psychology, these new subjects came to be conceived of

^ A few of the earlier adaptations of the idea may be given. In 1882 Montclair,
New Jersey, introduced manual training into its elementary schools, and in 1885
the State of New Jersey first oiTered state aid to induce the extension of the idea.
In 1885 Philadelphia added cooking and sewing to its elementary schools, having
done so in the girls' high school five years earlier. In 1888 the City of New York
added drawing, sewing, cooking, and woodworking to its elementary-school course
of study.

Fig. 228.
Redirected Manual Training

A boy mending his shoe instead of making a
mortice-joint

^']2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

in their proper light as means of individual expression, and to be
extended to new forms, materials, colors, and new practical and
artistic ends. To-day the instruction in manual work and the
household arts in all their forms has been further changed to
make of them educational instruments for interpreting the fields
of art and industry and home-life in terms of their social signifi-
cance and usefulness. Through these two new forms of educa-
tion, also, the pupils in the elementary schools have been given
training in expression and an insight into the practical work of
life impossible in the old textbook type of elementary school. In
the kindergarten, manual work, and the household arts, Froebel's
principle of education through directed self-activity and self-ex-
pression has borne abundant fruit.

In the hands of French, English, and American educators the
original manual-arts idea has been greatly expanded. In France
some form of expression has been worked out for all grades of the
primary school, and the work has been closely connected with art
and industry on the one hand and with the home-life of the people
on the other. In England the project system as applied to indus-
try, and the household arts with reference to home-life, have been
emphasized. In the United States the work has been individual-
ized perhaps more than anywhere else, applied in many new di-
rections — clay, leather, cement, metal — and used as a very
important instrument for self-expression and the development of
individual thinking.

IV. THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY

The gradual extension of the interest in science. A very prom-
inent feature of world educational development, since about the
middle of the nineteenth century, has been the general introduc-
tion into the schools of the study of science. It is no exaggeration
of the importance of this to say that no addition of new subject-
matter and no change in the direction and purpose of education,
since that time, has been of greater importance for the welfare of
mankind, or more significant of new world conditions, than has
been the emphasis recently placed, in all divisions of state school
systems, on instruction in the principles and the applications of
science.

From the days of Francis Bacon (p. 390) on, the study of science
has been making slow but steady progress. The early history of
modern science we traced in chapter xvii. During the seven-

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 773

teenth century English scholars were most prominent in the fur-
ther development, due largely to the greater tolerance of new ideas
there, and the University of Cambridge early attained to some
reputation (p. 423) as a place where instruction in the new scien-
tific studies might be found. After the middle of the eighteenth
century, in large part due to the illuminating work of Voltaire (p.
485), a great interest in science arose among the French. In the
Revolutionary days we accordingly find the French creating im-
portant scientific institutions (p. 518), and Napoleon gave fre-
quent evidence of his deep interest in scientific studies.^ This
interest the French have since retained.

From France this new interest in science passed quickly to the
Germans. The new mathematical and physical studies had
early found a home at the new University of Gottingen (p. 555),
and largely under French influences scientific studies were later
introduced into all the German universities. Early in the nine-
teenth century the German universities took the lead as centers
for the new scientific studies (p. 576) — a lead they retained
throughout the century. In England the universities had, by
the nineteenth century, lost much of their seventeenth-century
prominence in science, and had settled down into teaching col-
leges, instead of developing, as had the German universities, into
institutions for scientific research. Compared with the reformed
German universities, actuated by the new scientific spirit, the
English universities of the mid-nineteenth century presented a
very unfavorable ^ aspect (R. 359). In the United States, book
instruction in the sciences came in near the close of the eighteenth
century, but the first laboratory instruction in our colleges was
not begun until 1846, and our real interest in science teaching
dates from an even later period. Until the coming of German in-
fluences, after the middle of the century, the American college ^
largely followed English models and practices.

1 In 1802 Napoleon provided for instruction in natural history, astronomy,
chemistry, physics, and mineralogy in the scientific course of the lycees, and in 1814
enlarged this instruction. He also established numerous technical and military
schools, with instruction based on mathematics and science.

2 The Royal Commissioners which reported on the condition of the University of
Oxford, in 1850, said: "It is generally acknowledged that both Oxford and the coun-
try at large suffer greatly from the absence of a body of learned men devoting their
lives to the cultivation of. science, and to the direction of academical education.
The fact that so few books of profound research emanate from the University of Ox-
ford materially impairs its character as a seat of learning, and consequently its hold
on the respect of the nation."

* Book instruction in the new sciences goes back, in the universities of most lands,
to the late eighteenth century, but laboratory instruction is a much more recent

774 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Yet, as we pointed out earlier, the early nineteenth century wit-
nessed a vast expansion of scientific knowledge, and by i860 the
main keys of modern science (p. 727) were in the hands of scholars
everywhere. The great early development of scientific study had
been carried on in a few universities or had been done by inde-
pendent scholars, and had influenced but little instruction in the
colleges or the schools below.

Science instruction reaches the schools but slowly. The text-
book organization of this new scientific knowledge, for teaching
purposes, and its incorporation into the instruction of the schools,
took place but slowly.

I . The elementary schools. The greatest and the earliest success
was made in German lands. There the pioneer work of Basedow
(p. 534) and the Philanthropinists had awakened a widespread
interest in scientific studies. In Switzerland, too, Pestalozzi
had developed elementary science study and home geography,
and, when Pestalozzian methods were introduced into the schools
of Prussia, the study of elementary science (Realien) soon became
a feature of the Volksschule instruction. From Prussia it spread
to all German lands. In England the Pestalozzian idea was in-
troduced into the Infant Schools,^ though in a very formal fash-
ion, under the heading of object lessons. In this form elementary
science study reached the United States, about i860, though
a decade later well-organized courses in elementary science in-
struction began to be introduced into the American elementary
schools.-

After the political reaction following the Napoleonic wars had
set in, on the continent of Europe, all thought-provoking studies
were greatly curtailed in the people's schools. In England, for

development. Chemistry was the first science to develop, being the mother of sci-
ence instruction, and probably the first chemical laboratory in the world to be
opened to students was that of Liebig at Giessen, in 1826. The first American uni-
versity to provide laboratory instruction in chemistry was Harvard, in 1846. The
instruction in science in most of the vmiversities, up to at least 1850, was book in-
struction. (See schedule of studies for University of Michigan, R. 331.) The first
American university to be founded on the German model was Johns Hopkins, in
1876.

^ By Charles Mayo and his sister, who opened a private Pestalozzian school,
about 1825. Miss Mayo published her Lessons on Objects, explaining the method,
and this became very popular in England after about 1830. Both the Mayos
were prominent in the Infant-School movement, which adopted a formalized type
of Pestalozzian procedure.

2 In 187 1 Dr. William T. Harris, then Superintendent of City Schools in Saint
Louis, published a well-organized course for the orderly study of the different
sciences. This attracted wide attention, and was in time substituted for the
scattered lessons on objects which had preceded it. This in turn has largely given
way, in the lower grades, to nature study.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 775

other reasons, object lessons did not make any marked headway,
and as late as 1865 practically nothing relating to the great new
world of scientific knowledge had as yet been introduced into the
private and religious elementary schools (R. 360) which, up to
that time, constituted England's chief dependence for the ele-
mentary instruction of her people.

2. The secondary schools. In the secondary schools the earliest
work of importance in introducing the new scientific subjects was
done by the Germans and the French. In Germ_an lands the
Realschule obtained an early start (1747; p. 420), and the instruc-
tion in mathematics and science it included ^ had begun to be
adopted by the German secondary schools, especially in the
South German States, before the period of reaction set in. Dur-
ing the reign of Napoleon the scientific course in the French Ly-
cees was given special prominence. After about 181 5, and con-
tinuing until after 1848, practical and thought-provoking studies
were under an official ban in both countries, and classical studies
were specially favored.^ Finally, in 1852 m France and in 1859
in Prussia, responding to changed political conditions and new
economic demands, both the scientific course in the Lycees and
the Realschulen were given official recognition, and thereafter
received increasing state favor and support. The scientific idea
also took deep root in Denmark. There the secondary schools
were modernized, in 1809, when the sciences were given an im-
portant place, and again in 1850, when many of the Latin schools
were transformed into Realskoler.

In the United States the academies and the early high schools
both had introduced quite an amount of mathematics and book-
science,^ and, after about 1875, the development of laboratory in-
struction in science in the growing high schools took place rather
rapidly. Fellenberg's work in Switzerland (p. 546) had also
awakened much interest in the United States, and by 1830 a

^ At the time of Professor Bache's visit, in 1838, the instruction included Latin,
French, English, German, history, rehgion, music, drawing, mathematics, natural
history, physics, chemistry, and geography.

2 Scientific instruction in the lycees was not in favor in France after 1815, and
in 1840 it was materially reduced, on the ground that it was injuring classical
studies.

3 Astronomy, botany, chemistry, and natural philosophy had been prominent
studies in the American academies. Between about 1825 and 1840 was the
great period of their introduction. The first American high school (Boston, 182 1)
provided for instruction in geography, navigation and surveying, astronomy, and
natural philosophy. By 1850 the rising high schools were incorporating scientific
studies quite generally. The instruction was still textbook instruction, but some
lecture-table demonstrations had begun to be common.

^-j-l^i HISTORY OF EDUCATION

number of Schools of Industry and Science had begun to appear.^
These made instruction in mathematics and science prominent
features of their work.

After the Napoleonic wars, England attained to the hrst place
as an industrial and commercial nation. This led to a continual
agitation on the part of manufacturers for some science and art
instruction. In 1853, Parliament created a State Department of
Science and Art (p. 638), and the promotion of science and art
education by government grants was now begun. Though the
nation had been the first to be transformed by the industrial
revolution, and its foreign trade by 1850 reached all parts of the
world, the secondary schools of England had remained largely un-
touched by the change. They were still mainly the Renaissance
Latin grammar schools they had been ever since Dean Colet
(15 10) marked out the lines for such instruction by founding his
reformed grammar school at St. Pauls (p. 275). Their courses of
instruction contained little that was modern, and in their aims
and purposes they went back to the days of the Revival of Learn-
ing for their inspiration (R. 361).

The challenge of Herbert Spencer. By the middle of the nine-
teenth century the scientific and industrial revolutions had pro-
duced important changes in the conditions of living in all the then
important world nations. Particularly in the German States,
France, England, and the United States had the effects of the
revolutions in manufacturing and living been felt. In conse-
quence there had been, for some time, a growing controversy be-
tween the partisans of the older classical training and the newer
scientific studies as to their relative worth and importance, both
for intellectual discipline and as preparation for intelligent living,
and by the middle of the nineteenth century this had become
quite sharp. The ''faculty psychology," upon which the theory
of the discipline of the powers of the mind by the classics was
largely based, was attacked, and the contention was advanced
that the content of studies was of more importance in education
than was method and drill. The advocates of the newer studies
contended that a study of the classics no longer provided a suita-
ble preparation for intelligent living, and the question of the rela-
tive worth of the older and newer studies elicited more and more
discussion as the century advanced.

1 The Oneida School of Science and Industry, the Genesee Manual-Labor School,
the Aurora Manual-Labor Seminary, and the Rensselaer School, all founded in the
State of New York, between 1825 and 1830, were among the most important of
these earlv institutions.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION -j'^^i

Ym.

229. Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903)

In 1859 one of England's greatest scholars, Herbert Spencer,
brought the whcle question to a sharp issue by the publication of
a remarkably incisive essay on "What Knowledge is of Most
Worth? " In this he declared that the purpose of education was
to "prepare us for complete living," and that#the only way to
judge of the value of an educational
course was first to classify, in the
order of their importance,^ the lead-
ing activities and needs of life, and
then measure the course of study
by how fully it offers such a prepa-
ration. Doing so (R. 362), and ap-
plying such a test, he concluded that
of all subjects a knowledge of science
(R. 363) "was always most useful for
preparation for life," and therefore
the type of knowledge of most worth.
In three other essays ^ he recom-
mended a complete change from the
classical type of training which had
dominated English secondary education since the days of the
Renaissance. Still more, instead of a few being educated by a
"cultural discipline" for a life of learning and leisure, he urged
general instruction in science, that all might receive training and
help for the daily duties of life.

These essays attracted wide attention, not only in England but
in many other lands as well. They were a statement, in clear and
forceful English, of the best ideas of the educational reformers for
three centuries. In his statement of the principles upon which
sound intellectual education should be based he merely enunci-
ated theses for which educational reformers had stood since the
days of Ratke and Comenius. In his treatment of moral and

^ Spencer's classification of life activities and needs, in the order of their impor-
tance, was (R. 362) :

1. Those ministering directly to self-preservation.

2. Those which secure for one the necessities of fife, and hence minister indi-

rectly to self-preservation.

3. Those which have for their end the rearing and discipline of offspring.

4. Those involved in the maintenance of proper social and political relations.

5. Those which fill up the leisure part of Ufe, and are devoted to the gratification

of tastes and feelings.
2 All were republished in book form, in 1 86 1, under the title of Education; Intel-
lectual, Moral, and Physical. The volume contains four essays: What Knowledge
is of Most Worth?; Intellectual Education; Moral Education; and Physical Educa-
tion. The first essay served as an introduction to the other three.

778

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

physical education he voiced the best ideas of John Locke. Spen-
cer's great service was in giving forceful expression to ideas
which, by i860, had become current, and in so doing he pushed to
the front anew the question of educational values. The scientific
and industrial resolutions had prepared the way for a redirection
of national education, and the time was ripe in England, France,
German lands, and the United States for such a discussion. As a
result, though the questions he raised are still in part unsettled, a
great change in assigned values has since been effected not only in
these nations, but in most other nations and lands which have
drawn the inspiration for their educational systems from them.
Though his work was not specially original, we must nevertheless
class Herbert Spencer as one of the great writers on educational
aims and purposes, and his book as one of the great influences
in reshaping educational practice. He gave a new emphasis
to the work of all who had preceded him, and out of the discus-
sion which ensued came a new and a greatly enlarged estimate
as to the importance of science study in all divisions of the
school.

The new educational purpose. It is perhaps not too much to
say that out of Spencer's gathering-up and forceful statement of

the best ideas of his time, and the
discussion which followed, a new
conception of the educational pur-
pose as adjustment to the life one is
to live — physical, economic, social,
moral, political — was clearly formu-
lated, and a new definition of a lib-
eral education was framed. The
former found expression in a rather
rapid introduction of science-study
into the elen^entary school, the sec-
ondary school, and the college, after
about 1865, in the school systems
of all progressive nations, and the
subsequent extension of the scientific
method to such new fields as history, poHtics, government, and
social welfare. The latter — the new definition of a liberal edu-
cation — was wonderfully well stated in an address (1868) by the
English scientist, Thomas Huxley, when he said : ^

1 "A Liberal Education," in his Science and Education, p. 86.

-..r'"J^'-*v

Fig. 230.

Thomas H.

(1825-95)

Huxley

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 779

That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so
trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does
with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable
of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal
strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to
be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge
the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the
great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws of her opera-
tions; one who, no stun ted. ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose pas-
sions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a
tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of Na-
ture or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself.

Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a liberal education;
for he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony with Nature. He
will make the best of her, and she of him. They will get on together
rarely: she as his ever-beneficent mother; he as her mouthpiece, her
conscious self, her minister and interpreter.

The inter-relation between the movement for the study of the
sciences and the other movements for the improvement of in-
struction which we have so far described in this chapter, was
close. Pestalozzi had emphasized instruction in geography and
the study of nature; Froebel had given a prominent place to na-
ture study and school gardening; the manual-arts work tended to
exhibit industrial processes and relationships; and the scientific
emphasis on content rather than drill was in harmony with the
theories of all the modern reformers. Still more, the scientific
movement was in close harmony with the new individualistic
tendency of the early part of the nineteenth century, and with the
movements for the improvement of individual and national wel-
fare which have been so prominent a characteristic of the latter
half of the century.

V. SOCIAL MEANING OF THESE CHANGES

A century of progress. Pestalozzi, true to the individualistic
spirit of the age in which he lived and worked, had seen education
as an individual development, and the ends of education as in-
dividual ends. The spirit of the French Revolutionary period
was the spirit of individualism. With the progress of the Indus-
trial Revolution and the consequent rise of new social problems,
the emphasis was gradually shifted from the individual to society
— from the single man to the man in the mass. The first educa-
tional thinker of importance to see and clearly state this new con-
ception in terms of the school was Herbart. Seeing the educa-

78o HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tional purpose in far clearer perspective than had those who had
gone before him, he showed that education must have for its
function the preparation of man to hve in organized society, and
that character and social morality, rather than individual devel-
opment, must in consequence be the larger aims. Froebel, pos-
sessed of something of the same insight, and seeing clearly the
educational importance of activity and expression, had opened up
for children a wealth of new contacts with the world about them
in the new type of educational institution which he created. His
principles, he said, when thoroughly worked out and applied to
education ''would revolutionize the world." He did not com-
plete the full educational organization he had planned, but in the
hands of the Swedes and Finns similar ideas were worked out in
practical form and made a part of school work. Applying Froe-
bel's idea to instruction in the old trades and industries, declining
in importance in the face of the rise of the factory system, they
evolved the manual-training activities, and these have since been
made important tools for giving to young people some intelligent
ideas as to the industrial relationships and economic problems of
our complex modern life.

Since this early pioneer work changes in school work have been
numerous and of far-reaching importance. The methods and
purpose of instruction in^the older subjects have been revised;
new studies, which would serve to interpret to the young the in-
dustrial and social revolutions of the nineteenth century, have
beert introduced; the expression-subjects — the domestic arts,
music, drawing, clay-modehng, color work, the manual arts, na-
ture study, gardening — have given a new direction to school
work; and the study of science and the vocations has attained to a
place of importance previously unknown. During the past half-
century the school has been transformed, in the principal world
nations, from a disciplinary institution where drill in mastering
the rudiments of knowledge was given, into an instrument of de-
mocracy calculated to train young people for living, for useful
service in the ofhce and shop and home, and to prepare them for-
intelligent participation in the increasingly complex social and
poHtical and industrial life of a modern world. This transforma-
tion of the school has not always been easy (R. 365) ? but the
vastly changed conditions of modern life have demanded such a
transformation in all progressive nations.

The contribution of John Dewey. The foremost American in-

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 781

terpreter, in terms of the school, of the vast social and industrial
changes which have marked the nineteenth century, is John
Dewey^ (1859- ). Better perhaps than anyone else he has
thought out and stated a new educational philosophy, suited to
the changed and changing conditions of human living. His work,
both experimental and theoretical, has tended both to re-psy-
chologize (R. 364) and socialize education; to give to it a practical

Fig. 231. a Reorganized Kindergarten

Drawn from a photograph showing the reconstruction of the kindergarten activities,
as worked out by Dewey at Chicago.

content, along scientific and industrial lines; and to interpret to
the child the new social and industrial conditions of modern soci-
ety by connecting the activities of the school closely with those of
real life.

Starting with the premises that " the school cannot be a prepa-
ration for social life except as it reproduces the typical conditions
of social life"; that ^'industrial activities are the most influential
factors in determining the thought, the ideals, and the social or-
ganization of a people " ; and that " the school should be life, not a

^ P'or many years head of the School of Education at the University of Chicago,
but more recently Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University, New York City.

782 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

preparation for living"; Dewey for a time conducted an experi-
mental school, for children from four to thirteen years of age, to
give concrete expression to his educational ideas. These, first
consciously set forth by Froebel, were: ^

1 . That the primary business of the school is to train in cooperative
and mutually helpful living. . . .

2. That the primary root of all educational activity is in the in-
stinctive, impulsive attitudes and activities of the child, and not
in the presentation and application of external material.

3. That these individual tendencies and activities are organized and
directed through the uses made of them in keeping up the cooper-
ative living . . . taking advantage of them to reproduce, on the
child's plane, the typical doings and occupations of the larger,
maturer society into which he is finally to go forth; and that it is
through production and creative use that valuable knowledge is
clinched.

The work of this school ^ was of fundamental importance in di-
recting the reorganization of the work of the kindergarten along
diiTerent and larger lines, and also has been of significance in re-
directing the instruction in both the social subjects — history
(R. 366), literature, etc. — and the manual, domestic, and artis-
tic activities of the school. In his subsequent writings he may be
said to have stated an important new philosophy for the school in
terms of modern social, political, and industrial needs.

The Dewey educational philosophy. Believing that the public
school is the chief remedy for the ills of organized society, Pro-
fessor Dewey has tried to show how to change the work of the
school so as to make it a miniature of society itself. Social effi-
ciency, and not mere knowledge, he has conceived to be the end,
and this social efficiency is to be produced through participation
in the activities of an institution of society, the school. The dif-
ferent parts of the school system thus become a unified institu-
tion, in which children are taught how to live amid the con-
stantly increasing complexities of modern social and industrial
life.

Education, therefore, in Dewey's conception, involves not
merely learning, but play, construction, use of tools, contact with
nature, expression, and activity; and the school should be a place
where children are working rather than listening, learning life by
living life, and becoming acquainted with social institutions and

^ Dewey, John, in Elementary School Record, p. 142.

^ Described in The Elementary School Record, a series of nine monographs, making
a volume of 241 pages. University of Chicago Press, 1900.

NEW COxNCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 783

industrial processes by studying them. The work of the school
is in large part to reduce the complexity of modern life to such
terms as children can understand, and to introduce the child to
modern life through simplified experiences. Its primary business
may be said to be to train children in cooperative and mutually
helpful living. The virtues of a school, as Dewey points out, are
learning by doing; the use of muscles, sight and feeling, as well as
hearing; and the employment of energy, originality, and initia-
tive. The virtues of the school in the past were the colorless,
negative virtues of obedience, docility, and submission. Mere
obedience and the careful performance of imposed tasks he holds
to be not only a poor preparation for social and industrial efh-
ciency, but a poor preparation for democratic society and govern-
ment as well. Responsibility for good government, under any
democratic form of organization, rests with all, and the school
should prepare for the political life of to-morrow by training its
pupils to meet responsibilities, developing initiative, awakening
social insight, and causing each to shoulder a fair share of the
work of government in the school.

We have now before us the great contributions to a philosophy
for the educational process made since the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. Many other workers in different lands, but
more particularly in German lands, France, Italy, England, and
the United States, have added their labors to the expansion and re-
direction of the school. They are too numerous to mention and,
though often nationally important, need not be included here.
Still more, the contributions of Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel,
Spencer, Dewey, and their followers and disciples are so inter-
woven in the educational theory and practice of to-day that it is
in most cases impossible to separate them from one another.^

^ A very good example of this is to be found in the work of Colonel Francis W.
Parker (183 7-1902) in the United States. It was he who introduced Germanized
Pestalozzian-Ritter methods of teaching geography; he who strongly advocated the
Herbartian plan for concentration of instruction about a central core, which he
worked out for geography; he who insisted so strongly on the Froebelian principle of
self-expression as the best way to develop the thinking process; he who advocated
science instruction in the schools; and he who saw educational problems so clearly
from the standpoint of the child that he, and the pupils he trained, did much to
bring about the reorganization in elementary education which was worked out in the
United States between about 1875 and 1900.

784 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How do you explain the long-continued objection to teacher-training?

2. Contrast "oral and objective teaching" with the former "individual in-
struction."

3. Show how complete a change in classroom procedure this involved.

4. Show how Pestalozzian ideas necessitated a " technique of instruction."

5. Why is it that Pestalozzian ideas as to ]|anguage and arithmetic instruc-
tion have so slowly influenced the teaching of grammar, language, and
arithmetic?

6. How do you explain the dechne in importance of the once-popular mental
arithmetic?

7. Show how child study was a natural development from the Pestalozzian
psychology and methodology.

8. Explain what is meant by the statements that Herbart rejected:

(a) The conventional-social ideal of Locke.

(b) The unsocial ideal of Rousseau.

g. Explain what is meant by saying that Herbart conceived of education as
broadly social, rather than personal.

10. Show in what ways and to what extent Herbart:

(a) Enlarged our conception of the educational process.

(b) Improved the instruction content and process.

11. Explain why Herbartian ideas took so much more quickly in the United
States than did Pestalozzianism.

12. State the essentials of the kindergarten idea, and the psychology behind
it.

13. State the contribution of the kindergarten idea to education.

14. Show the connection between the sense impression ideas of Pestalozzi,
the self-activity of Froebel, and the manual activities of the modern ele-
mentary school.

15. Explain why scientific studies came into the schools so slowly, up to
about i860, and so very rapidly after about that time.

16. Explain the particularly long resistance to the introduction of scientific
studies by industrial England.

17. State the comparative importance of content and drill in education.

18. Does the reasoning of Herbert Spencer appeal to you as sound? If not,
why not?

19. Show how the argument of Spencer for the study of science was also an
argument for a more general diffusion of educational advantages.

20. Would schools have advanced in importance as they have done had the
industrial revolution not taken place? Why?

21. Why is more extended education called for as "industrial hfe becomes
more diversified, its parts narrower, and its processes more concealed"?

22. Point out the social significance of the educational work of John Dewey.

23. Point out the value, in the new order of society, of each group of school
subjects listed in footnote i on page 763.

24. Contrast the virtues of a school before Pestalozzi's time and those of a
modern school.

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections illustrative
of the contents of this chapter are reproduced:
344. Bache: The German Seminaries for Teachers.

NEW CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 785

345. Bache: A German Teachers' Seminary Described.

346. Bache: A French Normal School Described.

347. Barnard: Beginnings of Teacher-Training in England.

348. Barnard: The Pupil-Teacher System Described.

349. Clinton: Recommendation for Teacher-Training Schools.

350. Massachusetts: Organizing the First Normal Schools.

(a) The Organizing Law.

(b) Admission and Instruction in.

351. Early Textbooks: Examples of Instruction from

(a) Davenport: History of the United States.

(b) Morse: Elements of Geography — Map.
(f) Morse Elements of Geography.

352. Murray: A Typical Teacher's Contract.

353- Bache: The Elementary Schools of Berlin in 1838.

354. Providence: Grading the Schools of.

355. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas.

356. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas Applied.

357. Titchener: Herbart and Modern Psychology.

358. Marenholtz-Biilow: Froebel's Educational Views.

359. Huxley: English and German Universities Contrasted.

360. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Elementary Education in Eng-
land.

361. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Secondary Education in England.

362. Spencer: What Knowledge is of Most Worth?

363. Spencer: Conclusions as to the Importance of Science.

364. Dewey: The Old and New Psychology Contrasted.

365. Ping: Difficulties in Transforming the School.

(a) Relating Education to Life.

(b) The Old Teacher and the New System.

366. Dewey: Socialization of School Work illustrated by History.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Contrast the instruction in a German Teachers' Seminary (345) or a
French normal school (346) of 1838, as described by Bache, with that of
an American normal school of to-day.

2. What do the beginnings of teacher-training in England (347, 348) indi-
cate as to conceptions then existing as to the educational process?

3. Show, by comparison, that the beginnings of the American normal school
were German, rather than English in origin.

4. Just what educational conditions does Governor Clinton (349) indicate
as existing in New York State, in 1827?

5. Contrast the instruction in the early Massachusetts normal schools (350)
with that in the German (345) and French (346) of about the same
time.

6. What do the three professional courses reproduced (345, 346, 350 b) in-
dicate as to the development of pedagogical work by about 1840?

7. Compare the textbook types, given in 351, with modern textbooks in
equivalent subjects.

8. Just what light on school teaching, in 1841, does the teacher's contract
given (352) throw?

Q. State the steps in the evolution of a graded system of schools (353, 354).
10. State the essentials of Herbart's educational ideas (355, 356), and the
nature of the advances made over his predecessors.

786 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

11. State the essentials of FroebeFs educational ideas, as explained by the
Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow (358).

12. Explain the difference between the universities of the two nations (359).

13. Contrast elementary education in England (360) with that in the
United States at the same period.

14. Would you add anything else to Spencer's requirements to prepare for
complete living? What? W^hy?

15. How do you explain science being "written against in our theologies and
frowned upon from our pulpits" (363) when it is of such importance as
Spencer concludes?

16. Contrast the old and the new psychology (357, 364).

17. Have the difficulties experienced in the transformation of instruction in
China (365) been essentially different than with us? How?

18. Apply Dewey's idea as to the socialization of history (366) to instruc-
tion in geography.

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

Barnard, Henry. National Education in Europe.
*Bowen, H. C. Froebel and Education through Self-Activity.

Compayre, G. Herbart and Educatioti by Instruction.
*De Garmo, Chas. Herbart and the Herbartians.

Dewey, John. The School and Social Progress. (Nine numbers.)
*Dewey, John. The School and Society.
Gordy, J. P. Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United
States. Circular of Information, United States Bureau of Education,
No. 8, 1891.
Hollis, A. P. The Oswego Movement.
*Jordan, D. S. " Spencer's Essay on Education"; in Cosmopolitan Maga-
zine, vol. XXIX, pp. 135-49. (Sept. 1902.)
Judd, C. H. The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Ger-
many. (Bulletin 35, 1914, United States Bureau of Education.)
Monroe, Will S. History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United
States.
*Parker, S. C. History of Modern Elementary Education.
Ping Wen Kuo. The Chinese System of Public Education.
Spencer, Herbert. Education ; Intellectual, Moral, and Physical.
Vanderwalker, N. C. , The Kindergarten in American Education.

CHAPTER XXIX
NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS

I. POLITICAL

The enlarged conception of public education. The new ideas as
to the purpose and functions of the State promulgated by Eng-
lish and French eighteenth-century thinkers, and given concrete
expression in the American and French revolutions near the close
of the century, imparted, as we have seen, a new meaning to the
school and a new purpose to the education of a people. In the
theoretical discussion of education by Rousseau and the empirical
work of Pestalozzi a new individualistic theory for a secular
school was created, and this Prussia, for long moving in that di-
rection, first adopted as a basis for the state school system it early
organized to serve national ends. The new American States,
also long moving toward state organization and control, early
created state schools to replace the earlier religious schools ; while
the French Revolution enthusiasts abolished the religious school
and ordered the substitution of a general system of state schools
to serve their national ends.

From these beginnings, as we have seen, the state-school idea
has in course of time spread to all continents, and nations every-
where to-day have come to feel that the maintenance of a more or
less comprehensive system of state schools is so closely connected
with national welfare and progress as to be a necessity for the
State (R. 367). In consequence, state ministries for education
have been created in all the important world nations; state and
local school officials have been provided generally to see that the
state purpose in creating schools is carried out; state normal
schools for the preparation of teachers have been establishe(>,
comprehensive state school codes have been enacted or educa-
tional decrees formulated; and constantly increasing expendi-
tures for education are to-day derived by taxing the wealth of the
State to educate the children of the State.

Change from the original purpose. The original purpose in the
establishment of schools by the State was everywhere to pro-
mote literacy and citizenship. Under all democratic forms of
government it was also to insure to the people the elements of

788 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

learning that they might be prepared for participation in the
functions of government.^ This is well expressed in the quota-
tions given (p. 525) from early American statesmen as to the need
for the education of public opinion and the diffusion of knowledge
among the people. The same ideas were expressed by French
writers and statesmen of the time, and by the English after the
passage of the Reform Bills of 1832 and 1867 (p. 642). With the
gradual extension of the franchise to larger and larger numbers of
the people, the extension of educational advantages naturally had
to follow. The education of new citizens for " their political and
civil duties as members of society and freemen '' became a neces-
sity, and closely followed each extension of the right to vote. In
all democratic governments the growing complexity of modern
political society has since greatly enlarged these early duties of
the school. To-day, in modern nations where general manhood
suffrage has come to be the rule, and still more so in nations
which have added female suffrage as well, the continually in-
creasing complexity of the political, economic, and social prob-
lems upon which the voters are expected to pass judgment is such
that a more prolonged period of citizenship education is necessary
if voters are to exercise, in any intelligent manner, their functions
of citizenship. In nations where the initiative, referendum, and
recall have been added, the need for special education along po-
litical, economic, and social lines has been still further empha-
sized.

At first instruction in the common-school branches, with in-
struction in morals or religion added, was regarded as sufficient.
In States, such as the German, where religious instruction was re-
tained in the schools, this has been made a powerful instrument
in moulding the citizenship and upholding the established order.
The history of the different nations has also been used by each as
a means for instilling desired conceptions of citizenship, and some
work in more or less formal civil government has usually been
added. To-day all these means have been proven inadequate for
democratic peoples. In consequence, the work in civil govern-
ment is being changed and broadened into institutional and com-
munity civics; the work of the elementary school is being social-
ized, along the lines advocated by Dewey; and instruction in
economic principles and in the functions of government is being

^ For long the knowledge-conception dominated instruction, it being firmly
believed by the advocates of schools that knowledge and virtue were somewhat
synonymous terms.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 789

introduced into the secondary schools. Instead of being made
mere teaching institutions, engaged in promoting Uteracy and
diffusing the rudiments of learning among the electorate, schools
are to-day being called upon to grasp the significance of their
political and social relationships, and to transform themselves
into institutions for improving and advancing the welfare of the
State (R. 368).

The promotion of nationality. In Prussia the promotion of na-
tional solidarity was early made an important aim of the school.
This has in time become a common national purpose, as there has
dawned upon statesmen generally the idea that a national spirit
or culture is "an artificial product which transcends social, reli-
gious, and economic distinctions," and that it "could be manu-
factured by education" (R. 340). In consequence of this dis-
covery the school has been raised to a new position of importance
in the national life, and has become the chief means for develop-
ing in the citizenship that national unity and national strength so
desirable under present-day world conditions. In the German
States, where this function of the school has in recent times been
perverted to carry forward mperialistic national ends (R. 342) ; in
France, where it has been intelligently used to promote a rational
type of national strength (R. 341); in Italy, where divergent ra-
cial types are being fused into a new national unity; in Cuba,
Porto Rico, and the Philippines (R. 343) where the United States
has used education to bring backward peoples up to a new level of
culture, and to develop in them firm foundations of national
solidarity; in China (R. 335) where an ancient people, speaking
numerous dialects, is making the difficult transition from an old
culture to the newer western civilization ; and in Algiers and Mo-
rocco, where the spirit of French nationality is being fused into
dark-skinned tribesmen - — everywhere to-day, where public edu-
cation has really taken hold on the national life, we find the school
being used for the promotion of national solidarity and the incul-
cation of national ideals and national culture. To such an extent
has this become true that practically all the pressing problems of
the school to-day, in any land, find their ultimate explanation in
terms of the new nineteenth- century conceptions of political na-
tionality.

Since the development of world trade routes following long rail
and steamship lines, along which people as well as raw materials
and manufactured articles pass to and fro, the entrance of new and

790 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

diverse peoples into distant national groups has created a new
problem of nationalization that before the early nineteenth cen-
tury was largely unknown. Previous to the nineteenth century
the problem was confined almost entirely to peoples conquered
and annexed by the fortunes of war. To-day it is a voluntary
migration of peoples, and a migration of such proportions and
from such distant and unlike civilizations that the problem of as-
similating the foreigner has become, particularly in the English-
speaking nations and colonies, to which distant and unrelated
peoples have turned in largest numbers,^ a serious national prob-
lem. The migration of 32,102,671 persons to the United States,
between 1820 and 19 14, from all parts of the world, has been a
movement of peoples compared with which the migrations of the
Germanic tribes — Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Goths, Visigoths, Van-
dals, Suevi, Danes, Burgundians, Huns — into the old Roman
Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries pale into insignificance.
No such great movement of peoples was ever known before in his-
tory, and the assimilative power of the American nation has not
been equal to the task. The World War revealed the extent of
the failure to nationalize the foreigner who has been permitted
to come, and brought the question of '' Americanization" to the
front as one of the most pressing problems connected with Ameri-
can national education. With the world in flux racially as it now
is, the problem of the assimilation of non-native peoples is one
which the schools of every nation which offers political and eco-
nomic opportunity to other peoples must face. This has called
for the organization of special classes in the schools, evening and
adult instruction, community-center work, nationalization pro-
grams, compulsory attendance of children, state oversight of
private and religious schools, and other forms of educational un-
dertakings undreamed of in the days when the State first took
over the schools from the Church the better to promote literacy
and citizenship.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution. The effects of the great
industrial and social changes which we have previously described
are written large across the work of the school. As the civiliza-
tion in the leading world nations has increased in complexity, and

1 It is to democratic England and the United States, and to the English self-
governing dominions, that the greatest flood of emigrants from less advanced civili-
zations have gone. South America has also experienced a large recent immigration,
but this has been mainly of peoples from the Latin races, and hence easier of assimi-
lation.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 791

the ramifications of the social and industrial fife have widened,
the school has been called upon to broaden its work, and develop
new types of instruction to increase its effectiveness. An educa-
tion which was entirely satisfactory for the simpler form of social
and industrial life of two generations ago has been seen to be ut-
terly inadequate for the needs of the present and the future. It
is the far-reaching change in social and industrial and home-life,
brought about by the Industrial Revolution, which underlies most
of the pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. As
the industrial life of nations has become more diversified, its
parts narrower, and its processes more concealed, new and more
extended training has been called for to prepare young people for
the work of life ; to reveal to them something of the intricacy and
interdependence of modern political and industrial and social
groups; and to point out to them the importance of each one's
part in the national political and industrial organization. With
the ever-increasing subdivision and specialization of labor, the
danger from class subdivision has constantly increased, and more
and more the school has been called upon to instill into all a po-
litical and social consciousness that will lead to unity amid in-
creasing diversity, and to concerted action for the preservation
and improvement of the national life.

More education than formerly has also been demanded to en-
able future citizens to meet intelligently national and personal
problems, and with the widening of the suffrage and the spread of
democratic ideas there has come a necessary widening of the edu-
cational ladder, so that more of the masses of the people may
climb. Even in nations having the continental-European two-
class school system, larger educational opportunities for the
masses have had to be provided. This has come through the pro •
vision of middle schools, continuation schools, higher primary
schools, and people's high schools,^ as in Germany, France (see
diagram, p. 598), the Scandinavian countries (p. 713; R. 370),
and Japan (p. 720). In nations having an American-type educa-
tional ladder, it has led to the multiplication of secondary schools
and secondary-school courses, that a larger and larger percentage
of the people may be prepared better to meet the increasingly
complex and increasingly difficult conditions of modern political,
social, and industrial life. In the more advanced and more dem-

_ ^ See a good article on this development by I. L. Kandel, in the Educational Re-
view for November, 1919, entitled "The Junior High School in European Sys-
tems."

792 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

ocratic nations we also note the establishment of systems of eve-
ning schools, adult instruction, university extension, science and
art instruction in special centers, the multiplication of libraries,
and the increasing use of the lecture, the stereopticon, and the
pubhc press, for the purpose of keeping the people informed. No
nation has done more to extend the advantages of secondary edu-
cation to its people than has the United States; France has been
especially prominent in adult instruction; England has done note-
worthy work with university extension and science and art instruc-
tion; while the United States has carried the library movement
farther than any other land. All these, again, are extensions of
educational opportunity to the masses of the people in a manner
undreamed of a century ago.

University expansion. The modern university first attained its
development in Prussia (pp. 553-55), while in England and in the
nations which drew their inspiration from her, the teaching college,
with its narrow range of studies and disciplinary instruction (R.
331), continued to dominate higher education until past the middle
of the nineteenth century (R. 359) . The old universities of France,
aside from Paris, were virtually destroyed in the days of the Rev-
olution, and their re-creation as effective teaching and research
institutions has been a relatively recent (1896) event. The uni-
versities of Italy and Spain ceased to be effective teaching in-
stitutions centuries ago, and only recently have begun to give
evidences of new life.

Within the past three quarters of a century, and in many na-
tions within a much shorter period of time, the university has
very generally experienced a new manifestation of popular favor,
and is to-day looked upon as perhaps the most important part,
viewed from the standpoint of the future welfare of the State, of
the entire system of public instruction maintained by the State.
In it the leaders for the State are trained; in it the thinking which
is to dominate government a quarter-century later is largely done;
out of it come the creative geniuses whose work, in dozens of
fields of human endeavor, will mould the political, social, and sci-
entific future of the nation (R. 369). Every government depend-
ing upon a two-class school system must of necessity draw its
leaders in the professions, in government, in pure and applied sci-
ence, and in many other lines from the small but carefully se-
lected classes its universities train. In a democracy, depending
entirely upon drawing its future leaders from among the mass,

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 793

the university becomes an indispensable institution for the train-
ing of leaders and for the promotion of the national welfare. In a
democratic government one of the highest functions of a univer-
sity is to educate leaders and to create the standards for democ-
racy.

The university has, accordingly, in all lands, recently experi-
enced a great expansion. The German universities have been
prominent modern institutions for a century and a half. Realiz-
ing, as no other people have done, their value in developing skilled
leaders for the State, promoting the national welfare, integrating
the Empire, and as centers for building up among students of
other nationalities a good- will toward Germany, large sums have
been spent on their further development since 187 1. Within the
past quarter-century new and strong French universities have
been created,^ and old universities in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
Greece have been awakened to a new life. The English universi-
ties have been made over, since 1870, and new municipal univer-
sities in Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds, Manchester, Birmingham, Liv-
erpool, and London have set new standards in English higher edu-
cation. The universities of Scotland, Holland, Switzerland, and
the Scandinavian countries have also recently attained to world
prominence. In Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, the
Philippines, India, Egypt, Palestine, Algiers, and South Africa,
new universities have been created to advance the national wel-
fare. The South American nations have also established a num-
ber of promising new foundations, and given new life to older
ones. Often nations swinging out into the current of western
civilization have developed their universities before popular edu-
cation really got under way.

In no country has the development of university instruction
been more rapid than in the United States and Canada. New
and important state universities are to-day found in most of the
American States and Canadian Provinces, some States maintain-
ing two. These have been relatively recent creations to serve
democracy's needs, and upon the support of these state universi-
ties large and increasing sums of money are spent annually.- In

* Paris, for example, has become the greatest university in Europe, exceeding
Berlin (1914) in students by approximately 25 per cent and in expenditures 40 per
cent.

2 "The rise of these great universities is the most epoch-making feature of our
American civilization, and they are to become more and more the leaders and the
makers of our civilization. They are of the people. When a state university has
gained solid ground, it means that the people of a whole state have turned their

794 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

no nation of the world, too, has private benevolence created and
endowed so many private universities of high rank as in the
United States, ^ and these have fallen into their proper places as
auxiliary agents for the promotion of the national welfare in gov-
ernment, science, art, and the learned professions.

From small collegiate institutions with a very limited curricu-
lum, a century ago, stimulated in part by the German example
and in part responding to new national needs, universities to-day,
in all the leading world nations, have developed into groups of
well-organized professional schools, ministering to the great num-
ber of special needs of modern life and government. The univer-
sity development since the middle of the nineteenth century has
been greater than at any period before in world history, and with
the spread of democracy, dependent as democracy is upon mass
education to obtain its leaders, the university has become "the
soul of the State" (R. 369). The university development of the
next half-century, the world as a whole considered, may possibly
surpass anything that we have recently witnessed.

The state school systems as organized. We now find state
school systems organized in all the leading world nations. In
many the system of public instruction maintained is broad and
extensive, beginning often with infant schools or kindergartens,
continuing up through elementary schools, middle schools, con-
tinuation schools, secondary schools, and normal schools, and cul-
minating in one or more state universities. In addition there are
to-day, in many nations, state systems of scientific and technical
schools and institutions, and vocational schools and schools for
special classes, to which we shall refer more in detail a little fur-
ther on. The support of all these systems of public instruction
to-day comes largely from the direct or indirect taxation of the
wealth of the State. Being now conceived of as essential to the
welfare and progress of the State, the State yearly confiscates a
portion of every man's property and uses it to maintain a service
deemed vital to its purposes.

The sums spent to-day on education by modern States seem

faces toward the light; it means that the whole system of state schools has been
welded into an effective agent for civilization. Those who direct the purposes of
these great enterprises of deniocracy cannot be too often reminded that the highest
function of a university is to furnish standards for a democracy." (Pritchett,
Henry S., in Atlantic Monthly.)

1 The gifts and bequests for colleges and universities in the United States, from
1871 to 1916, totaled $647,536,608, and by 1920 probably have reached $750,000-
cxx>.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 795

enormous, compared with the sums spent for education under
conditions existing a century ago. In England, for example,
where the first national aid was granted, in 1833, in the form of a
parliamentary grant of £20,000 (approximately $100,000), the
parliamentary grants for elementary schools had reached approxi-
mately £12,000,000 by 1910, with an additional national aid for
universities of over £1,100,000. The year following the World
War the grants were £32,853,111. In France a treasury grant
of 50,000 francs (approximately $10,000) was first made for pri-
mary schools, in 18 16. This was doubled in 1829, and in 1831 was
raised to a million francs. By 1850, the state aid for primary edu-
cation had reached 3,000,000 francs; by 1870, 10,000,000 francs;
by 1880, 30,000,000; and by 1914, approximately 220,000,000
francs. In addition the State was paying out 25,000,000 francs
for secondary schools, and 10,000,000 francs for universities.
In the United States the total expenditures for maintenance
only of pubHc elementary and secondary schools was $69,107,612,
in 1870-71; had reached $214,964,618 by the end of the nine-
teenth century; and was $640,717,053 in 191 5-16, with an addi-
tional $101,752,542 for universities. By 1920 the total expendi-
tures for the maintenance of public elementary, secondary, and
higher education in the United States will probably total a billion
dollars. These rapidly increasing expenditures merely record the
changing political conception as to the national importance of en-
larging the educational opportunities and advantages of those
who are to constitute and direct the future State.

II. SCIENTIFIC

In no phase of the remarkable educational development made
by nations, since the middle of the nineteenth century, has there
been a more important expansion of the educational service than
in the creation of schools dealing with the applications of science
to the affairs of the national life. Still more, no extension of in-
struction into new fields has ever yielded material benefits, in-
creased productivity, alleviated suffering, or multiplied comforts
and conveniences as has this new development in applied scientific
education during the past three quarters of a century.

Science instruction in the schools. At first this new work
came in, as we have seen (p. 774), but slowly, and its introduction
into the secondary schools of France, Germany, England, the
United States, and other nations for a time met with bitter opposi-

796 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tion from the partisans of the older type of intellectual training.
In Germany it was not until after Emperor William II came to
the throne (1888) that the Realschulen really found a warm parti-
san, he demanding (1890), in the name of the national welfare,
that the secondary schools "depart entirely from the basis that
has existed for centuries — the old monastic education of the
Middle Ages" — and that "young Germans and not young
Greeks and Romans " be trained in the schools (R. 368). During
his reign the Realschulen (six-year course) and Oherrealschulen
(nine-year course) were especially favored, while permission to
found additional Gymnasien became hard to obtain. The scien-
tific course in the French Lycees similarly did not prosper until
after the coming of the Third Republic (1871) and the rise of
modern scientific and industrial demands. In England it was not
until after 1870 that the endowed secondary schools began to in-
clude science instruction, and laboratory instruction in the sci-
ences began to be introduced into the secondary schools of the
United States at about the same time. In the United States, too,
the first manual-training high school was not established until
1880, but by 1890 the creation of such schools was clearly under
way. Other nations — Switzerland, Holland, the Scandinavian
countries — also began to include laboratory science instruction
in the work of their secondary schools at about the same time.
The decade of the seventies witnessed a rising interest in instruc-
tion in science which carried such work into the secondary schools
of all progressive nations. To-day, in nearly all lands, we find
secondary-school courses in science, or special secondary schools
for scientific instruction, occupying a position of at least equal
importance with the older classical courses or schools. As science
instruction has become organized, and a knowledge of the princi-
ples of science has become diffused, object lessons, Realien, nature
study, or elementary science instruction has very generally been
put into the elementary or people's schools for the younger pu-
pils. As a result, young people finishing the elementary schools
to-day know more relating to the laws of the universe,' and the
applications of these laws to human life and industry, than did
distinguished scholars two centuries ago.

All this work in the elementary schools, middle schools, people's
high schools, secondary schools, or special technical schools of
middle or secondary grade has been of much value in diffusing
scientific knowledge and scientific methods of thinking and work-

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 797

ing among large numbers of people, as well as in revealing to
many the possibilities of a scientif^ career. The great and im-
portant development of scientific instruction, however, since about
i860, has been in the fields of advanced applied science or techni-
cal education, and has taken place chiefly in new and higher spe-
cialized schools and research foundations. The fields in which
the greatest scientific advances have been made, and to which we
shall here briefly refer, have been engineering, agriculture, and
medicine.

The beginnings of technical education. The beginnings of
technical education were made earliest in P>ance, Germany, and
the United States, and in the order named. France and German
lands, but particularly France, inherited through the monasteries
what survived of the old Roman skills and technical arts. In the
building of bridges, roads, fortifications, aqueducts, and imposing
public buildings, the Romans had shown the possession of en-
gineering ability of a high order. Some of this knowledge was re-
tained by the monks of the early Middle Ages, as is evidenced by
the monasteries they erected and the churches they built. Later
it passed to others, and is evidenced in the great cathedrals and
town halls of Europe, and particularly of northern France.

In military and civil engineering the French were also the true
successors of the Romans. ' As early as 1747 a special engineering
school for bridges and highways {Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees) had
been created, and a little later a special school to train mining en-
gineers {Ecole des Mines) was added. These were the first of the
world's higher technical schools. After the Revolution, the new
need for military and medical knowledge, as well as the general
French interest in applied science, led to the creation of a large
number of important higher technical institutions (list, p. 518),
most of which have persisted to the present and been enlarged
and extended with time. Napoleon also created a School of Arts
and Trades (R. 282), and a number of military schools (p. 590).

In German lands there was early founded a series of trade
schools/ which have in time been developed into important tech-
nical universities. After the creation of the Imperial German
Empire, in 187 1, these schools were especially favored by the

^ The oldest was Charlottenburg (1799), Darmstadt (1822), Carlsruhe (1825),
Munich (1827), Dresden (1828), Nuremberg (1829), Stuttgart (1829), Cassel (1830),
Hanover (1831), Augsburg (1833), and Brunswick (1835). A similar school, which
later developed into a technical university, was founded at Prague, in Bohemia, in
1806.

798 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

government, and their work was raised to a rank equal to that of
the older universities. To tjje excellent training given in these
institutions the German leadership in applied science and indus-
try, before 1914, was largely due/ It has been the particular
function of these technical universities to apply scientific knowl-
edge to the industries and the arts, and to show the technical
schools beneath and the directors of German industries how further
to apply it (R. 371). Of their work a recent Report - well says:

While in other countries the development of science has been aca-
demic, in Germany every new principle elaborated by science has
revolutionized some industry, modified some manufacturing process,
or opened up an entirely new field of commercial exploitation. In the
chemical industries of Germany . . . there is one trained university
chemist for every forty working-people. It is important to realize
that the development of Germany's manufactures and commerce has
depended not upon the establishment of any monopoly in the domain
of science, not upon any special advancement of science within her own
boundaries, but primarily upon the practical utilization of the results
of scientific research in Germany and other countries.

The creation of the United States Military Academy, at West
Point, in 1802, marks the American beginnings in technical edu-
cation. In 1824 the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute was begun,
largely as a manual-labor school after the Fellenberg plan, to give
instruction '4n the applications of science to the common pur-
poses of life," and about 1850 this developed into one of the ear-
liest of our four-year engineering colleges. In 1846 the United
States organized a college for naval engineering, at Annapolis, to
do for the Navy what West Point had done for the Army. In 186 1
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was founded, opening
its doors in 1865. This was the first of a number of important
new engineering colleges, and eight others had been established,
by private funds, before 1880.

The development in England came a little later. Good en-
gineering schools have since been developed in connection with

^ The German technical training "produces an engineer who is not only older in
years, but also more mature in experience and in judgment than the average gradu-
ate of an engineering college in America. Whether or not it would be wise to adopt
— so far as that would be possible — German methods in the schools and colleges
of the United States, it m*ust nevertheless be recognized that those methods have
given Germany a leadership in applied science and in industry which she will keep
unless the educational authorities of other nations find some way of producing men
of like calibre." (Munroe, James P., "Technical Education"; in Monroe's Cyclo-
pedia of Education.)

2 Report of Commimon on National Aid to Vocational Education, Washington,
1914, p. 90.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 799

the new municipal universities, while good engineering colleges
have also been created at Oxford and Cambridge, as well as at the
Scottish and Irish universities.

The new impulses to development. During the first six dec-
ades of the nineteenth century, France, the German States, and
the United States were slowly moving toward the creation of
special schools for technical education. After about i860 the
movement increased with great rapidity. A number of events
contributed to this change in rate of development, the most im-
portant of which were:

1. The development attained by pure science, by about i860. (See
chapter xxvii, part 11, p. 723.)

2. The Industrial Revolution (p. 728), which changed nations from
an agricultural to an industrial status, opened up the possibilities
of vast world trade, and created enormous demands for techni-
cally trained men to supervise and develop the rapidly growing
industries of nations.

3. The London Exhibition of 185 1, which displayed to the world the
applications of science to trade, manufacturing, and the arts,
made in particular by England. This opened the eyes of Europe
and America to the possibilities of technical education, and led to
the creation, in 1853, of a national Department of Science and
Art (p. 638) for England. This began the stimulation, by money
grants, of technical education and instruction in drawing, and
exerted from the first an important influence on English educa-
tion.

4. The passage by the Congress of the United States of the Morrill
Land-Grant-College Act, in 1862, which provided for the creation
of colleges of engineering, military science, and agriculture, in
each of the American States.

5. The militarily successful wars of Prussia against Denmark, in
1864; Austria, 1866; and France, 1870-71. These revealed to
other nations the importance of sound military and engineering
education for a nation, and so tremendously stimulated German
technical education that the new nation soon arose, in many
lines, to a position of world industrial leadership (369).

6. The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, which re-
peated the work of the London Exhibition of 1851, and gave a
new meaning to the scientific and engineering education then de-
veloping in the new American Land-Grant Colleges.

7. The work of Virchow in Germany (1856) in developing pathology;
of Pasteur in France, after 1859, in establishing the germ theory
of disease; the English surgeon Lister, about the same time, in de-
veloping antiseptic surgery; and the new work of physiologists
and chemists. Combined these have remade medical science,
and have opened up immense possibihties for benefiting man-
kind.

8oo HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Following these important stimuli to activity, the important
nations of the world began the earnest development of technical
education, and later medical education, with the result that this
new development has affected educational practice all over the
world. The new ideas have spread to all continents, and to-day
the call for technical education comes not only from the older na-
tions and such new countries as Canada, Australia, South Africa,
and the South American States, but from such ancient and back-
ward civilizations as Japan, China, Siam, the PhiHppines, the
East Indies, Egypt, Persia, and Turkey.

In consequence to-day numerous and expensive engineering
colleges and research institutions are maintained by the impor-
tant world nations. To-day the trained engineer goes to work his
wonders in all corners of the globe, and his task has become pri-
marily that of organizing and directing men in the work of con-
trolling the forces and materials of nature so that they may be
made to benefit the human race. So rapid has been the develop-
ment that, out of the earlier comprehensive type of engineering,
to-day dozens of specialized types of engineering education and
specialization have been evolved, covering such related fields as
civil, mechanical, mining, metallurgical, electrical, architectural,
chemical, electro-chemical, marine, naval, sanitary, biological,
and public-health engineering. No longer can a nation hope to
develop its resources, care properly for the modern needs of its
people, or be counted among the important industrial or agricul-
tural nations if it neglects the development of technical educa-
tion.

Science applied to agriculture. France also was the direct in-
heritor, through the monks, of the old Roman agricultural knowl-
edge and skills, though up to the nineteenth century no attempt
to organize agricultural instruction took place anywhere in Eu-
rope. The earliest effort in that direction was a proposal made in
1775 by Abbe Rosier, in France, to Turgot, then Minister of Fi-
nance, on "A Plan for a National School of Agriculture." Noth-
ing coming of the proposal, the Abbe submitted the proposal to
the National Assembly, in 1789, and the same idea was later pre-
sented to Napoleon, but without results. The first person to give
practical form to the idea was Fellenberg (p. 546), who conducted
his manual-labor agricultural institute at Hofwyl, from 1806 to
1844, and inaugurated a plan of educational procedure which was
soon afterwards copied in Switzerland, France, the South German

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 8oi

States, England, and the United States. One of the earliest in-
stitutions to be established outside of Switzerland was the Insti-
tute of Agriculture and Forestry, founded by the Agricultural
Society of Wurtemberg, in 1817, at Hohenheim, near Stuttgart.

The earliest schools to teach agriculture in France were the
Royal Agronomic Institution at Grignon (1827); the Institute at
Coetbo (1830), and the Agricultural School at San Juan (1833).
By 1847 twenty-five agricultural schools were in operation in
France, to several of which orphan asylums and penal colonies
were attached. In 1848 the French Government reorganized the
instruction in agriculture and gave it a national basis. It ordered
the creation of a farm school in each department of France; a
number of higher schools for agricultural instruction at central
places; and a National Agronomic Institute for more advanced
instruction. A treasury grant of 2,500,000 francs to establish the
system was voted. In 1873 elementary instruction in agriculture
was ordered given in all village and rural elementary schools.

In the United States a number of agricultural societies were
formed early in the century, and a private school of agriculture
was opened in Maine, in 182 1, and another in Connecticut, in
1824. With the opening-up of the new West to farming and the
change of the East to manufacturing, after about 1825, the agita-
tion for agricultural education for a time died out, reappearing in
Michigan, in 1850. In that year a new constitution was adopted
which required the legislature to create a State School of Agricul-
ture, and in 1857 the Michigan Agricultural College opened its
doors. Two years later a "Farmers' High School," which later
became the Pennsylvania State College, was opened in central
Pennsylvania. In 1862, in the midst of the greatest civil war in
history, the American Congress passed the very important Mor-
rill Act, which provided for the creation of a college to teach agri-
culture, mechanic arts, and military science in each of the Ameri-
can States. It was a decade before many of these institutions
opened, and for a time they amounted to but little. They had
but few students, little money, and the instruction was very ele-
mentary and but poorly organized. Cornell University, in Nev/
York State, was one of the first (1868) of the new institutions to
get under way and find its work. The Centennial Exposition
(1876) gave the needed emphasis to the engineering courses, and
by 1880 these were well established. The agricultural courses did
not flourish for two decades longer, and the military science not

8o2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

until the World War. Despite feeble beginnings, the result of the
aid given by the national government has in time proved very
valuable, and to-day very large sums of money are being appro-
priated by the American States and Territories for instruction in
engineering, agriculture, home economics, and related sciences,
and large numbers of students are now enrolled for this technical
training.

The recent new interest in agricultural education. Since the
latter part of the nineteenth century agricultural education has
awakened new interest in many lands. The German States have
created many schools for instruction in agriculture and forestry.
Denmark has regenerated the rural life of the nation (R. 370) by
its ''People's High Schools" and its special schools for instruction
in agriculture. Italy has recently made special efforts to extend
agricultural instruction to its people. Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand have established agricultural schools. In Algiers,
Morocco, Japan, China, the Philippines, and India, good begin-
nings in agricultural education have been made.

As agricultural knowledge has been worked out and classified,
and agricultural instruction has become organized, it has become
possible to relegate some of the more elementary instruction to
the school below. This was done in European nations before
it took place in the United States. In 1888 the first American
agricultural high school was established in Minnesota. By
1898 there were ten such schools in the United States, but since
1900 the development has been very rapid. By 1920 probably
a thousand high schools were offering instruction in agriculture,
while elementary instruction in agriculture had been introduced
into the rural and village schools of practically every American
agricultural State.

The agricultural schools, colleges, and experimental stations
established by the national, state, and local educational authori-
ties of different nations have added another new division to the
work of public .education, and one which is both very costly and
very remunerative. Out of the work of these schools has come a
vast quantity of usefiil knowledge, and hundreds of important
applications of science to farm and home life. Old breeds in stock
and grains have been improved, new breeds have been derived,
and productivity has been greatly increased. Through the
teachings of home economics the farmer's home is being trans-
formed, while the applications of science made in these schools

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 803

are modifying almost every phase of agricultural life and rural
living.

Medicine and sanitary science. Closely related to sanitary,
biological, and public-health engineering has been the enormous
recent development of medicine and surgery. Within half a
century instruction in these subjects has been entirely trans-
formed, and large and costly laboratories and hospitals are now
required for the work. There has also been much specialization
in medical training, within recent years, and especially has pre-
ventive medicine been developed. Extending the newly found
biological and medical knowledge to the animal and vegetable
worlds has resulted in a similar development of veterinary medi-
cine ^ and plant pathology. A combination of medical knowledge
with engineering and chemistry has produced the sanitary engi-
neer, while medical knowledge and applied biology has produced
the public-health expert.-

So important, too, has the control of all kinds of disease be-
come, now that people, animals, insects, plants, and goods move
so freely along the great trade routes of the world, that nations
everywhere feel the necessity, now that scientific research has re-
vealed to questioning man the methods of transmission of the dis-
eases which once decimated armies and cities, destroyed stocks,
and ruined harvests, of developing ample quarantine service and
medical staffs to cope with diseases — human, animal, and plant
— from without, and to control those which arise within. Na-
tions too poor as yet to provide such service for themselves are to-
day having such provision made for them by other nations, or by
great national foundations,^ so that other lands may be protected
from the ravages of their diseases and the economic wealth of all

^ The first veterinary school in the world was established at Lyons, France, in
1762; the second at Alfort, a suburb of Paris, in 1766; the third at Berlin, in 1792;
and the fourth at London, in 1793.

2 The development of scientific training for nursing, begun by the Germans near
the end of their wars with Napoleon, is another example of the creation of a new pro-
fession through the application of science. This was carried to new levels by Miss
Florence Nightingale, who began work in London, in i860, after her experiences in
the Crimean War of 1854-56, and has been greatly improved since 1870 as a result
of the new medical knowledge and methods which have come in since that time.
The provision of training for nurses, and the certification of doctors and nurses for
practice, are other new developments in the field of state education. Similarly is
the training and certification of dentists, veterinarians, and pharmacists, all of which
are nineteenth-century additions.

^ The work of the Rockefeller Foimdation, an American Foundation organized
to promote "the well-being of mankind throughout the world," in spending miUions
to provide China with a modern system of western medical education and hospital
service, is perhaps the greatest example of a scientifically organized service ever
rendered by the people of one nation to those of another.

8o4

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

may be increased. The element of Christian charity has also en-
tered into the service, the labors of Dr. Grenfell in Labrador, and
the work of the Rockefeller medical and surgical boat traveling

Fig. 232. The Peking Union Medical College

A well-equipped center for instruction in western medicine, endowed by the Rocke-
feller Foundation. A similar school is being created at Shanghai, in central China.
Existing medical schools at two other points, and nineteen hospitals scattered over
the Republic, have also been aided by this American foundation. In addition,
many medical missionaries, Chinese physicians, and nurses have been sent to the
United States for study. To improve health standards and living conditions
throughout the world is the purpose of the work of the Foundation, which now has
work under way on every continent.

among the Philippine Islands and its hookworm work on every
continent, being good examples of such Christian effort.

Applied science the nation's protector. To-day applied science
stands everywhere as the nation's protector. Applied in sanita-
tion and preventive medicine it has reduced the death rate, pro-
longed life, and protects homes from many hidden dangers. In
the engineering fields it has transformed the face of the earth and
all our ways of living and doing business. Applied to industry it
builds factories and railways, and works out new processes to
eliminate wastes, improve production, and utilize by-products.
Thousands of labor-saving inventions owe their origin to a new
truth worked out in some laboratory, and applied in another.
Applied chemistry has wrought wonders in advancing industry,
protecting the public welfare, eliminating unnecessary labor, and
making life richer for all.

To-day the engineer with his railway and irrigating dam and

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 805

power plant in the desert has replaced the monk as the vanguard
of the forces of civilization. The scientist in his laboratory in
part replaces armies and navies as the protector of the nation's
safety. The scientifically trained Red Cross nurse is fast replac-
ing the unskilled devotion of the older Sister of Charity. The
doctor and the surgeon at the medical mission are carrying a very
practical type of Christian civilization into far-away lands. The
laboratory expert in the quarantine station has succeeded the
priest with bell and book in keeping pestilence away from the
land. The public-health officer in the little town, and the sanitary
engineer in the city, protect the health and happiness of millions
of homes. The plant pathologist and veterinarian guard the
crops and herds from which food and clothing are derived. The
scientific experts in plant and animal industries work steadily to
improve breeds and increase yields. When one compares present-
day scientific knowledge with that represented in the thirteenth-
century Encyclopaedia of Bartholomew Anglicus (R. 77); our
modern knowledge of diseases with the theories as to disease ad-
vanced by Hippocrates (p. 197), and taught for so many centuries
in Christian Europe; our modern knowledge of bacterial trans-
mission with the mediaeval theories of Divine wrath and diabolic
action; our modern ability to annihilate time and space compared
with early nineteenth-century conditions; or modern applied sci-
ence with the very limited technical knowledge possessed by the
guilds of the later Middle Ages — the stories of Aladdin and his
wonderful lamp seem to have been even more than realized in our
practical everyday life.

Engineering, agriculture, and modern medicine stand as three
of the great applications of modern science to human affairs, and
as three of the most important and costly additions to state edu-
cational effort made since the time when nations began to accept
the political philosophy of the eighteenth-century reformers and
to take over the school from the Church, because by so doing the
interests of the State could better be advanced thereby.

III. VOCATIONAL

What is vocational education? In a certain sense, all education
is vocational, in that it aims to prepare one for some vocation in
life. In Greece and Rome education was vocational, in that it
prepared one to be a citizen in the State. During the Middle
Ages education was to prepare for a vocation in the Church.

806 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Later the vocation of a scholar appeared, and still later that of a
gentleman. In modern times a large range of state services have
been opened up as vocations. Since the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, with the extension of educational advantages to
increasing numbers of the people, preparation for more intelligent
living and citizenship have come to be new motives in education.
To-day we no longer use the term vocational education in this
rather general sense, but restrict its use to -the specific training
of individuals for some useful employment. Training for law,
medicine, the ministry, teaching, engineering, scientific agricul-
ture, nursing, and commerce are examples of vocational education
in its higher ranges. The development of education along these
lines has previously been described. In this division of this chap-
ter we shall use the term in a still more common and still more re--
stricted sense, as meaning the training of the younger people of a
State to do well certain specific things, by teaching them processes
and the practical applications of knowledge, chiefly science and
art, to the work of the vocation they expect to follow to earn
their living. The Report of the American Commission on National
Aid to Vocational Education (19 14) defined vocationa.1 education
(p. 16) as follows:

Wherever the term "vocational education" is used in this Report,
it will mean, unless otherwise explained, that form of education whose
controlling purpose is to give training of a secondary grade to persons
over fourteen years of age, for increased efficiency in useful employ-
ment in the trades and industries, in agriculture, in commerce and
commercial pursuits, and in callings based upon a knowledge of home
economics. The occupations included under these are almost endless
in number and variety.

The need for vocational education. Used in this sense voca-
tional education is an application of technical knowledge, worked
out in the higher schools, to the ordinary vocations of a modern
industrial world. . As such it is a product of the Industrial Revolu-
tion and the breakdown of the age-old system of apprenticeship
training,^ and represents another of the important recent exten-

1 "Large-scale production, extreme division of labor, and the all-conquering
march of the machine, have practically driven out the apprenticeship system
through which, in a simpler age, young helpers were taught, not simply the tech-
nique of some single process, but the 'arts and mysteries of a craft' as well. The
journeyman and the artisan have given way to an army of machine workers, per-
forming over and over one small process at one machine, turning out one small part
of the finished article, and knowing nothing about the business beyond their narrow
and Hmited task." {Report of the Commission on National Ai4 to Vocational E'ducct-
tion, voi. I, pp. 19-20.)

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 807

sions of educational advantages to the masses of the people who
labor with their hands to earn their daily bread.

Besides further democratizing education by extending its ad-
vantages to those who work in the shop and the ofl&ce and on the
farm, vocational education tends to correct many of the evils of
modern industrial life. It puts the worker in possession of a great
body of scientific knowledge relating to his work which shops and
offices cannot give, and it keeps him, for several years after he be-
comes a wage earner and at a very impressionable period of his
life, under the directing care of the school. It thus tends "to
counteract the specialization and routine of the workshop, which
wears out his body before nature has completed its development
in form and power, blunts the intelligence which the school had
tried to awaken, shrivels up his heart and imagination, and de-
stroys his spirit of work."

Vocational education in Europe and the United States. For al-
most half a century the leading nations of western Europe, in a
effort to readjust their age-old apprenticeship system of training
to modern conditions of manufacture, and to develop new na-
tional prestige and strength, have given careful attention to the
education of such of their children as were destined for the voca-
tions of the industrial world. Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
and France have been leaders, with Germany most prominent of
all.^ No small part of the great progress made by that country in
securing world-wide trade,' before the World War, was due to the
extensive and thorough system of vocational education worked
out for German youths (R. 371). In commercial education, too,
the Germans, up to 19 14, led the world. Even more, they were
the only great national group which had done much to develop
commercial training. Next to Germany probably came the
United States. The marked economic progress of Switzerland
during the past quarter- century has likewise been due in large
part to that type of education which would enable her, by skillful

^ "In no country will you find the problem taken up in so thorough a manner; in
no covintry will you find an attempt made to cover, by means of industrial schools,
the occupations of everyone, from the lowly laborer to the director of the great
manufacturing establishment. The State provided industrial training for every per-
son who will be better off with it than without it. No occupation is too humble to
receive the attention of the German authorities; and the opinion prevails there that
science and art have a place in every occupation known to man." (Cooley, E. CI.,
in Report to the Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 2.)

^ For example, the foreign trade of Germany, in 1880, was $31 per capita of the
total population, and that of the United States was $32. Thirty years later, in
1910, Germany's foreign trade had increased to $62 per capita, and that of the
United States to only $37.

8o8

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

artisanship, to make the most of her very limited resources.
France has profited greatly, during the past half-century also,
from vocational education along the lines of agriculture and in-
dustrial art. In Denmark, agricultural education has remade
the nation (R. 370), since the days of its humiliation and spolia-
tion at the hands of Prussia. England, though keenly sensitive to
German trade competition, made only very moderate efforts in
the direction of vocational education until Germany plunged the
world in war in an effort more quickly to dominate commercially.
Now, in the Fisher Education Act of 191 8 (p, 649), England has
at last laid foundations for a great national system of vocational
education. Japan, also, recently laid large plans for a national
system of vocational training.

In the United States but little attention was given to educating
young people for the vocations of Hfe until about 1905-10, though

modern manufacturing condi-
tions had before this largely
destroyed the old apprentice-
ship type of training. En-
dowed with enormous natural
resources; not being pressed
for the means of subsistence
by a rapidly expanding popu-
lation on a limited land area ;
able to draw on Europe for
both cheap manual labor and
technically educated workers ;
largely isolated and self-suffi-
cient as a nation; lacking a
merchant marine; not being
thrown into severe competi-
tion for international trade;
and able to sell its products ^ to
nations anxious to buy them
and willing to come for them in their own ships; the people of the
United States did not, up to recently, feel any particular need for
anything other than a good common-school education or a general
high-school education for their workers. The commercial course
in the high school, the manual- training schools and courses, and

^ Chiefly raw products — a prodigal waste of natural resources. What every
nation should do is to work up its raw products at home, and sell finished goods
rather than raw products — "sell brains, rather than materials." (R. 370.)

Fig. 233. The Destruction of the
Trades in Modern Industry

Under the old conditions of apprenticeship
a boy learned all the processes and became
a tailor. To-day, in a thoroughly organized
clothing factory, thirty-nine different per-
sons perform different specialized opera-
tions in the manufacture of a coat.

NEW TENDENCIES ANr3 EXPANSIONS 809

some instruction in drawing and creative art were felt to be
about all that it was necessary to provide.

The National Commission on Vocational Education. Largely
since 19 10, due in part to expanding world commerce and in-
creasing competition in world trade ; in part to a national realiza-
tion that the battles of the future are to be largely commercial
battles; and in part to the dawning upon the American people of
the conception, first thought out and put into practice by Impe-
rial Germany (R. 371), that that nation will triumph in foreign
trade, with all that such triumph means to-day in terms of the
happiness and welfare of its citizenship (R. 372), which puts the
greatest amount of skill and brains into what it produces and
sells.

After a number of sporadic efforts in different parts of the
country, ^ and the introduction of a number of bills into Congress
which failed to secure passage, the favorite English plan was fol-
lowed and a Presidential Commission was appointed (19 13) to in-
quire into the matter, and to report on the desirability and feasi-
bility of some form of national aid to stimulate the development
of vocational education. The Commission made its report in
1 9 14, and submitted a plan for gradually increasing national aid
to the States to assist them in developing and maintaining what
will virtually become a national system of agricultural, trade,
commercial, and home-economics education.

The Commission's findings. The Commission found that
there were, in 19 10, in round numbers, 12,500,000 persons en-
gaged in agriculture in the United States, of whom not over one
per cent had had any adequate preparation for farming; and that
there were 14,250,000 persons engaged in manufacturing and
mechanical pursuits, not one per cent of whom had had any op-
portunity for adequate training.- In the whole United States
there were fewer trade schools, of all kinds, than existed in the lit-
tle German kingdom of Bavaria, a State about the size of South
Carolina; while the one Bavarian city of Munich, a city about the

^ The first trade school in the United States was estabHshed privately, in New
York City, in 1881. By 1900 some half-dozen had been similarly established in dif-
ferent parts of the country. In 1902 a trade school for girls was founded in New
York City, which did pioneer work. In 1906 Massachusetts created a State Com-
mission on Industrial Education, and later provided for the creation of industrial
schools. In 1907 Wisconsin enacted the first trade-school law, and New' York State
followed in 1909.

2 Germany before 19 14 formed an interesting contrast to such conditions. There
few untrained youths were to be found, and the nation, before 19 14, was rapidly
pioving toward universal vocational education.

8io

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

size of Pittsburgh, had more trade schools than were to be found
in all the larger cities of the United States, put together. The
Commission further found that there were 25,000,000 persons in

100%

Years of Age

17 18

Fig. 234. School attendance of American Children, Fourteen
TO Twenty Years of Age

Based on an estimate made by the United States Bureau of Education in
1907 (Bulletin No. i, p. 29), and based on conditions then existing, but
probably still approximately true. In evening schools all classes were
counted — public, private, Y.M.C. A., Y.W.C.A., etc. Public and pri-
vate day schools, both elementary and secondary, also were counted.

the nation, eighteen years of age or over, engaged in farming,
mining, manufacturing, and mechanical pursuits, and in trade
and transportation, and of these the Report said:

If we assume that a system of vocational education, pursued through
the years of the past, would have increased the wage-earning capacity
of each of these persons to the extent of only ten cents a day, this
would have made an increase of wages for the group of $2,500,000 a
day, or $750,000,000 a year, with all that this would mean to the
wealth and life of the nation.

This is a very moderate estimate, and the facts would probably show
a difference between the earning power of the vocationally trained and
the vocationally untrained of at least twenty-five cents a day. This
would indicate a waste of wages, through lack of training, amounting
to $6,250,000 every day, or $1,875,000,000 for the year.

The Commission estimated that a million new young people
were required annually by our industries, and that it would need
three years of vocational education, beyond the elementary-school

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 8ii

age, to prepare them for efficient service. This would require
that three milHon young people of elementary-school age be con-
tinually enrolled in schools offering some form of vocational train-
ing. This was approximately three times the number of young
people then enrolled in all public and private high schools in the
United States, and following any kind of a course of study. In
addition, the untrained adult workers then in farming and in-
dustry also needed some form of adult or extension education
to enable them to do more effective work. The Commission
further pointed out that there were in the United States, in 1910,
7,220,298 young people between the ages of fourteen and eighteen
years, only 1,032,461 of whom were enrolled in a high school of any
type, public or private, day or evening (Fig. 234), and few of
those enrolled were pursuing studies of a technical type.

American beginnings; meaning of the work. In 191 7 the
American Congress made the beginnings of what is destined to
develop rapidly in^o a truly national system of vocational educa-
tion for the boys and girls of secondary-school age in the United
States. This new addition to the systems of public instruction
now provided is one which in time will bring returns out of all
proportion to its costs. Without it the national prosperity and
happiness would be at stake, and the position the United States
has attained in the markets of the world could not possibly be
maintained (R. 372).

This new American legislation is based on the best continental
European experience, and is somewhat typical of recent national
legislation for similar objects elsewhere. It is to include voca-
tional training for agriculture, the trades and industries, com-
merce, and home economics.^ A certain portion of the money
appropriated annually by the national government is to be used
for making or cooperating in studies and investigations as to
needs and courses in agriculture, home economics, trades, indus-
tries, and commerce. The courses must be given in the public

^ As illustrative of the general character of the vocations to be trained for, a few
of the more common ones may be mentioned:

In agriculture: The work of general farming, orcharding, dairying, poultry-raising,
truck gardening, horticulture, bee culture, and stock-raising.

In the trades and industries : The work of the carpenter, mason, baker, stonecutter,
electrician, plumber, machinist, toolmaker, engineer, miner, painter, typesetter,
linotype operator, shoecutter and laster, tailor, garment maker, straw-hat maker,
weaver, and glove maker.

In commerce and commercial pursuits: The work of the bookkeeper, clerk, stenog-
rapher, typist, auditor, and accountant.

In home economics : The work of the dietitian, cook and housemaid, institution
manager, and household decorator.

8i2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

schools; must be for those over fourteen years of age and of less
than college grade ; and must be primarily intended for those who
are preparing to enter or who have entered (part-time classes) a
trade or a useful industrial pursuit.

As nation after nation becomes industrialized, as all except the
smallest and poorest nations are bound to become in time, voca-
tional education for its workers in the field, shop, and office will be
found to be another state necessity. Only the State can ade-
quately provide this, for only the State can finance or properl}'
organize and integrate the work of so large and so important an
undertaking. Though costly, this new extension of state educa-
tional effort will be found to be a wise business investment for
every industrial and commercial nation. Considered nationally,
the workers of any nation not provided with vocational education
will find themselves unable to compete with the workers of other
nations which do provide such specialized training.

IV. SOCIOLOGICAL

A new estimate as to the value of child life. As we saw in
chapter xviii, which described the opportunities for and the kind
of schooling developed up to the middle of the eighteenth century,
but little of what may be called formal education had been pro-
vided up to then for the great mass of children, even in the most
progressive nations. We also noted the extreme brutality of the
school. Such was the history of childhood, so far as it may be said
to have had a history at all, up to the rise of the great humanita-
rian movement early in the nineteenth century.^ . Neglect, abuse,
mutilation, excessive labor, heavy punishments, and often virtual
slavery awaited children everywhere up to recent times. The
sufferings of childhood at home were added to by others in the
school (p. 455) for such as frequented these institutions.

After the coming of mills and manufacturing the lot of children
became, for a time, worse than before. The demand for cheap
labor led to the apprenticing of children to the factories to tend
machines, instead of to a master to learn a trade, and there they

1 "The snail's pace at which the race has moved toward humanitarianism is
indicated by Payne's estimate (p. 6) that the race is perhaps two hundred and
forty thousand years old, civiUzed man a few hundred years old, and a humanitarian-
ism large enough to have any real concern in any organized fashion for the protec-
tion of children scarcely fifty years old. The fact that organizations in great num-
ber, laws, penalties, and constant vigilance are still everywhere needed to secure for
children their inherent rights is evidence enough that we have still a long way to go
before we reach the golden age." (Waddel, C. W., An Introduction to Child Psy-
chology, p. 5.)

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 8i

became virtual slaves and their treatment was most inhuman.^
Conditions were worse in England than elsewhere, not because
the English were more brutal than the French or the Germans, but
because the Industrial Revolution began earlier in England and
before the rise of humanitarian influences. England was a manu-
facturing nation decades before France, and longer still before
Germany. By the time Germany had changed from an agricul-
tural to a manufacturing nation (after 1871), the new humani-
tarianism and new economic conditions had placed a new value on
child life and child welfare.

Since about 1850 an entirely new estimate has come to be placed
on the importance of national attention to child welfare, though
the beginnings of the change date back much earlier. As we have
seen (p. 325), England early began to care for the children of its
poor. In the Poor- Relief and Apprenticeship Law of 1601 (R.
174) England organized into law the growing practice of a century
(p. 326) and laid the basis for much future work of importance.
In this legislation, as we have seen, the foundations of the Massa-
chusetts school law of 1642 were laid. In the Virginia laws of
1643 and 1646 (R. 200 a) and the Massachusetts law of 1660, pro-
viding for the apprenticeship of orphans and homeless children,
the beginnings of child-welfare work in the American Colonies
were made.

Many of the Catholic religious orders in Europe had for long
cared for and brought up poor and neglected children, and in 1729
the first private orphanage in the new world was established by
the Ursulines (p. 346) in New Orleans. The first pubHc orphan-
age in America was established in Charleston, South Carolina,
in 1790; the first in England at Birmingham, in 181 7; and in 1824
the New York House of Refuge was founded. The latter was the
forerunner of the juvenile reformatory institutions established
later by practically all of the American States. These have de-
veloped chiefly since 1850. To-day most of the American States
and governments in many other lands also provide state homes

^ "As late as 1840 children of ten to fifteen years of age and younger were driven
by merciless overseers for ten, twelve, sixteen, even twenty hours a day in the lace
mills. Fed the coarsest food, in ways more disgusting than those of the boarding
schools described by Dickens, they slept, when they had opportunity, often in re-
lays, in beds that were constantly occupied. They lived and toiled, day and night,
in the din and noise, filth and stench, of the factory that coined their life's blood into
gold for their exploiters. Sometimes with chains about their ankles, to prevent
their attempts to escape, they labored until epidemics, disease, or premature death
brought welcome relief from a slavery that was forbidden by law for negro slaves in
the colonies." (Payne, G. H., The Child in Human Progress.)

8i4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

for orphan and neglected children, where they are clothed, fed,
cared for, educated, and trained for some useful employment.

Child-labor legislation. One of the best evidences of the new
nineteenth-century humanitarianism is to be found in the large
amount of child-labor legislation which arose, largely after 1850,
and which has been particularly prominent since 1900.

Under the earlier agricultural conditions and the restricted de-
mand for education for ordinary life needs, child labor was not
especially harmful, as most of it was out of doors and under rea-
sonably good health conditions. With the coming of the factors-
system, the rise of cities and the city congestion of population,
and other evils connected with the Industrial Revolution, the whole
situation was changed. Humanitarians now began to demand
legislation to restrict the evils that had arisen. This demand
arose earliest in England, and resulted in the earliest legislation
there.

The year 1802 is important in the history of child-welfare work
for the enactment, by the English Parliament, of the first law to
regulate the employment of children in factories. This was
known as the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act (R. 373).
This Act, though largely ineffectual at the time, ordered impor-
tant reforms which aroused public opinion and which later bore
important fruit. By it the employment of work-house orphans
was limited; it forbade the labor of children under twelve, for
more than twelve hours a day; provided that night labor of chil-
dren should be discontinued, after 1804; ordered that the children
so employed must be taught reading and writing and ciphering,
be instructed in religion one hour a week, be taken to church
every Sunday, and be given one new suit of clothes a year ; ordered
separate sleeping apartments for the two sexes, and not over two
children to a bed ; and provided for the registration and inspection
of factories. This law represents the beginnings of modern child-
labor legislation. It was 1843 before any further child-labor
legislation of importance was enacted, and 1878 before a compre-
hensive child-labor bill was finally passed. In the United States
the first laws regulating the employment of children and provid-
ing for their school attendance were enacted by Rhode Island in
1840, and Massachusetts in 1842. Factory legislation in other
countries has been a product of more recent forces and times.

To-day important child-labor legislation has been enacted by
all progressive nations, and the leading world nations have taken

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 815

advanced ground on the question. All recent thinking is opposed
to children engaging in productive labor. With the rise of organ-
ized labor, and the extension of the suffrage to the laboring man,
he has joined the humanitarians in opposition to his children be-
ing permitted to labor. From an economic point of view also, all
recent studies have shown the unprofitableness of child labor and
the large money-value, under present industrial conditions, of a
good education. As a result of much agitation and the spread of
popular education, it has at last come to be a generally accepted
principle (R. 374) that it is better for children and better for soci-
ety that they should remain in school until they are at least four-
teen years of age, and be specially trained for some useful type of
work. Now shown to be economically unprofitable, and for long
morally indefensible, child labor is now rapidly being superseded
by suitable education and the vocational training and guidance of
youth in all progressive nations.

Compulsory school-attendance legislation. The natural corol-
lary of the taxation of the wealth of the State to educate the chil-
dren of the State, and the prohibition of children to labor, is the
compulsion of children to attend school that they may receive the
instruction and training which the State has deemed it wise to
tax its citizens to provide.

Except in the German States, compulsory education is a rela-
tively recent idea, though in its origins it is a child of the Protes-
tant Reformation theory as to education for salvation. Luther
and his followers had stood for the education of all, supported by
(R. 156) and enforced by (R. 158) the State. This idea of the edu-
cation of all to read the Bible took deep root, as we have seen, with
both Lutherans and Calvinists. In 161 9 the little Duchy of Wei-
mar made the school attendance of all children, six to twelve
years of age, compulsory, and the same idea was instituted in
Gotha by Duke Ernest (p. 317), in 1642; the same year that the
Massachusetts General Court ordered the Selectmen of the towns
to ascertain if parents and the masters of apprentices (R. 190)
were training their children ''in learning and labor" and '' to read
and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of
the country." This latter law is remarkable in that, for the first
time in the English-speaking world, a legislative body represent-
ing the State ordered that all children should be taught to read.
Five years later (1647) the Massachusetts Court ordered the es-
tabUshment of schools (R. 191) better to enforce the compulsion,

8i6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

and thus laid the foundations upon which the American public-
school systems have since been built. In Holland, the Synod of
Dort (1618) had tried to institute the idea of compulsory educa-
tion (R. 176), and in 1646 the Scotch Parliament had ordered the
compulsory establishment of schools (R. 179).

In German lands the compulsory-attendance idea took deep
root, and in consequence the Germans were the first important
modern nation to enforce, thoroughly, the education of all. In
171 7 King Frederick William I issued (p. 555) the first compul-
sory-education law for Prussia, ordering that '' hereafter wherever
there are schools in the place the parents shall be obliged, under
severe penalties, to send their children to school, . . . daily in
winter, but in summer at least twice a week." He further ordered
that the fees for the poor were to be paid ^'from the community's
funds." Finally Frederick the Great organized the earlier pro-
cedure into comprehensive codes, and made (1763, R. 274, § 10;
1765, R. 275 d) detailed provisions relating to the compulsion to
attend the schools. In the Code of 1794 (p. 565) the final legisla-
tive step was taken when it was ordered that ''the instruction in
school must be continued until the child is found to possess the
knowledge necessary to every rational being." By the middle of
the eighteenth century the basis was clearly laid in Prussia for
that enforcement of the compulsion to attend schools which, by
the middle of the nineteenth century, had become such a notable
characteristic of all German education. The same compulsory
idea early took deep root among the Scandinavian peoples. In
consequence the lowest illiteracy in Europe, at the beginning of
the nineteenth century, was to be found (see map, p. 714) among
the Finns, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Germans.

The compulsory-attendance idea died out in America, in the
Netherlands, and in part in Scotland. In England and in the
Anglican Colonies in America it never took root. In France the
idea awaited the work of the National Convention, which (1792)
ordered three years of education compulsory for all. War and
the lack of interest of Napoleon in primary education caused the
requirement, however, to become a dead letter. The Law of 1833
provided for but did not enforce it, and real compulsory education
in France did not come until 1882. In England the compulsory
idea received but little attention until after 1870, met with much
opposition, and only recently have comprehensive reforms been
provided. In the United States the new beginnings of compul-

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 817

sory-attendance legislation date from the Rhode Island child-
labor law of 1840, and the first modern compulsory-attendance
law enacted by Massachusetts, in 1852. By 1885, fourteen
American States and six Territories had enacted some form of
compulsory-attendance law. Since 1900 there has been a general
revision of American state legislation on the subject, with a view
to increasing and the better enforcement of the compulsory-at-
tendance requirements, and with a general demand that the
National Congress should enact a national child-labor law.

As a result of this legislation the labor of young children has
been greatly restricted; work in many industries has been pro-
hibited entirely, because of the danger to life and health ; compul-
sory education has been extended in a majority of the American
States to cover the full school year; poverty, or dependent par-
ents, in many States no longer serves as an excuse for non-attend-
ance; often those having physical or mental defects also are in-
cluded in the compulsion to attend, if their wants can be provided
for; the school census has been changed so as to aid in the location
of children of compulsory school- attendance age; and special offi-
cers have been authorized or ordered appointed to assist school
authorities in enforcing the compulsory-attendance and child -
labor laws. Having taxed their citizens to provide schools, the
different States now require children to attend and partake of the
advantages provided. The schools, too, have made a close study
of retarded pupils, because of the close connection found to exist
between retardation in school and truancy and juvenile delin-
quency.

One result of this legislation. One of the results of all this
legislation has been to throw, during the past quarter of a cen-
tury, an entirely new burden on schools everywhere. ' Such legis-
lation has brought into the schools not only the truant and the in-
corrigible, who under former conditions either left early or were
expelled, but also many children who have no aptitude for book
learning, and many of inferior mental qualities who do not profit
by ordinary classroom procedure. Still more, they have brought
into the school the crippled, tubercular, deaf, epileptic, and blind,
as well as the sick, needy, and physically unfit. By steadily rais-
ing the age at which children may leave school, from ten or twelve
up to fourteen and sixteen, schools everywhere have come to con-
tain many children who, having no natural aptitude for study,
would at once, unless specially handled, become a nuisance in the

8i8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

school and tend to demoralize schoolroom procedure. These laws
have thrown upon the school a new burden in the form of public
expectancy for results, whereas a compulsory-education law can-
not create capacity to profit from education. Under the earlier
educational conditions the school, unable to handle or educate
such children, dealt with them much as the Church of the time
dealt with religious delinquents. It simply expelled them or let
them drop from school, and no longer concerned itself about them.
To-day the public expects the school to retain and get results
with them. Consequently, within the past twenty -five years the
whole attitude of the school toward such children has undergone a
change; many different kinds of classes and courses, that might
serve better to handle them, have been introduced; and an at-
tempt has been made to salvage them and turn back to society as
many of them as possible, trained for some form of social and per-
sonal usefulness.

The education of defectives. Another nineteenth- century ex-
pansion of state education has come in the provision now gener-
ally made for the education of defectives. To-day the state
school systems of Christian nations generally make some provi-
sion for state institutional, care, and often for local classes as well,
for the training of children who belong to the seriously defec-
tive classes of society. This work is almost entirely a product of
the new humanitarianism of modern times. Excepting the edu-
cation of the deaf, seriously begun a little earlier, all effective
work dates from the first half of the nineteenth century. At first
the feasibility of all such instruction was doubted, and the work
generally was commenced privately. Out of successes thus
achieved, public institutions have been built up to carry on, on a
large scale, what was begun privately on a small scale. It is now
felt to be better for the State, as well as for the unfortunates
themselves, that they be cared for and educated, as suitably and
well as possible, for self-respect, self-support, and some form of
social and vocational usefulness. In consequence, the compul-
sory-attendance laws of the leading world States to-day require
that defectives, between certain ages at least, be sent to a state
institution or be enrolled in a public-school class specialized for
their training.

Beginnings of the work. Up to the middle of the eighteenth
century a number of private efforts at the education of the deaf
are on record, all dating however from the pioneer work of a Span-

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 819

Fig. 235.

Abbe de l'^^pee

(1712-89)

ish Benedictine, in 1578. In 1760 a new era in the education of
the deaf was begun when Abbe de I'Epee opened a school at Paris
for the oral instruction of poor deaf mutes,
and Thomas Braidwood (17 15-1806) be-
gan similar work at Edinburgh. A few
years later (1778) a third school was opened
at Leipzig. This last was established
under the patronage of the Elector of
Saxony, and was the first school of its
kind in the world to receive government
recognition. The Paris school was taken
over as a state institution by the Consti-
tuent Assembly, in 1 791. In England the
instruction of the deaf remained a private
and a family monopoly until 18 19. In
181 7 the first school in America was opened,
at Hartford, Connecticut, by the Rever-
end Thomas H. Gallaudet, and Massa-
chusetts, in 1819, sent the first pupils paid
for at state expense to this institution. In 1823 Kentucky cre-
ated the first state school for the training of the deaf established

in the new world, and
Ohio the second, in
1827.

The education of
the blind began in
France, in 1784; Eng-
land, in 1 791; Aus-
tria, in 1804; Prussia,
in 1806; Holland, in
1 808 ; Sweden, in 1 8 1 o ;
Denmark, in 181 1;
Scotland, in 181 2; in
B OS ton and New York ,
in 1 83 2 ; and in Phila-
delphia, in 1833. All
were private institu-
tions, and general in-
terest in the education of the blind was awakened later by exhibit-
ing the pupils trained. The first book for the blind was printed
in Paris, in 1786. The first kindergarten for the blind was estab-

FiG. 236. Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet

TEACmNG THE D^AF AND DUMB

From a bas-relief on the monument of Gallaudet,
erected by the deaf and dumb of the United States,
in the grounds of the American Asylum, at Hartford,
Connecticut.

820

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

lished in Germany, in 1861 ; the first school for the colored blind,
by North Carolina, in 1869.

Before the nineteenth century the feeble-minded and idiotic
were the laughing-stock of society, and no one thought of being
able to do anything for them. In 181 1 Napoleon ordered a cen-
sus of such individuals, and in 181 6 the first school for their train-
ing was opened at Salzburg, Austria. The school was unsuccess-
ful, and closed in 1835. The real beginning of the training of the
feeble-minded was made in France, by Edouard Seguin, "The
Apostle of the Idiot," in 1837, when he began a life-long study of
such defectives. By 1845 three or four institutions had been
opened in Switzerland and Great Britain for their study and
training, and for a time an attempt was made to effect cures.
Gallaudet had tried to educate such children at Hartford, about
1820, and a class for idiots was established at the Blind Asylum in
Boston, in 1848. The interest thus aroused led to the creation of

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Normal
Schools

Special State
Institutions for

Colleges

and

Universities

Agricultural
Schools

Industrial
Schools

Feeble
Minded

Cripples
Dependents

Incorripribles

Blind

Idiots

Orphans
Neglected

Penitentiary
for First
Offenders

Deaf

Fig. 237. Educational Institutions maintained by the State
z'Vs state institutions, other than public schools.

the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth,
in 1 85 1, the first institution of its kind in the United States. In
1867 the first city school class to train children of low-grade in-
telligence was organized in Germany, and all the larger cities of
Germany later organized such special classes. Norway followed
with a similar city organization, in 1874; and England, Switzer-
land, and Austria, about 1892. The first American city to organ-
ize such classes was Providence, Rhode Island, in 1893. Since
that time special classes for children of low-grade mentahty have

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 821

become a common feature of the large city school systems in most
American cities.

In 1832 the first attempt to educate crippled children, as such,
was made in Munich. The model school in Europe for the educa-
tion of cripples was established in Copenhagen, in 1872. The
work was begun privately in New York City, in 1861, and first
publicly in Chicago, in 1899. The London School Board first be-
gan such classes in England, in 1898.

Dependents, orphans, children of soldiers and sailors, and in-
corrigibles of various classes represent others for whom modern
States have now provided special state institutions. To-day a
modern State fmds it necessary to provide a number of such spe-
cialized institutions, or to make arrangements with neighboring
States for the care of its dependents, if it is to meet what have
come to be recognized as its humanitarian educational duties.
The more important of these special state institutions are shown
in the diagram given in Fig. 237.

Public playgrounds and play directors, vacation schools, juve-
nile courts, disciplinary classes, parental schools, classes for moth-
ers, visiting home-teachers and nurses, and child-welfare societies
and officers, are other means for caring for child life and child wel-
fare which have all been begun within the past half-century. The
significance of these additions lies chiefly in that the history of the
attitude of nations toward their child life is the history of the rise
of humanitarianism, altruism, justice, order, morality, and civili-
zation itself.

The education of superior children. All the work described
above and relating to the work of defectives, delinquents, and
children for some reason in need of special attention and care has
been for those who represent the less capable and on the whole
less useful members of society — the ones from whom society
may expect the least. They are at the same time the most costly
wards of the State.

Wholly within the second decade of the present century, and
largely as a result of the work of the French psychologist Alfred
Binet (1857-1911) we are now able to sort out, for special atten-
tion, a new class of what are known as superior, or gifted children,
and to the education of these special attention is to-day here and
there beginning to be directed. Educationally, it i§ an attempt to
do for democratic forms of national, organization what a two-class
school system does for monarchical forms, but to select intellec-

822

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Net A verage Worth of a Person

tual capacity from the whole mass of the people, rather than from
a selected class or caste. We know now that the number of chil-
dren of superior ability is approximately as large as the number of
the feeble in mind, and also that the future of democratic govern-
ments hinges largely upon the proper education and utilization of
these superior children. One child of superior intellectual capac-
ity, educated so as to utilize his talents, may confer greater bene-
fits upon mankind, and be educationally far more important, than
a thousand of the feeble-minded children upon whom we have
recently come to put so much educational effort and expense.
Questions relating to the training of leaders for democracy's serv-
ice attain new significance in terms of the recent ability to meas-
ure and grade intelligence, as also do questions relating to grad-
ing, classification in school, choice of studies, rate of advance-
ment, and the vocational guidance of children in school.

The new interest in health. Another new expansion of the
educational service which has come in since the middle of the

nineteenth century, and which has
recently grown to be one of large
significance, is work in the medical
inspection of schools, the supervision
of the health of pupils, and the new
instruction in preventive hygiene.
This is a product of the scientific
and social and industrial revolu-
tions which the nineteenth century
brought, rather than of humanita-
rian influences, and represents an
application of newly discovered scientific knowledge to health
work among children. Its basis is economic, though its results
are largely physical and educational and social (R. 375).

The discovery and isolation of bacteria; the vast amount of
new knowledge which has come to us as to the transmission and
possibilities for the elimination of many diseases; the spread of
information as to sanitary science and preventive medicine; the
change in emphasis in medical practice, from curative to preven-
tive and remedial; the closer crowding together of all classes of^
people in cities; the change of habits for many from life in the;
open to life in the factory, shop, and apartment; and the growing
realization of the economic value to the nation of its manhood;
and womanhood; have all alike combined with modern humani-i

Age

Worth

$90

950

2000

4000

30
40

4100
3650

50
60

2900
1650

70
-80

15
— 700

(Calculations by Dr. William Farr, former-
ly Registrar of Vital Statistics for Great
Britain. Based on pre-war values.)

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 823

tarianism and applied Christianity to make progressive nations
take a new interest in child health and proper child development.
European nations have so far done much more in school health
work than has the United States, though a very commendable
beginning has been made here.

Medical inspection and health supervision. Medical inspec-
tion of schools began in France, in 1837, though genuine medical
inspection, in a modern sense, was not begun in France until 1879.
The pioneer country for real work was Sweden, where health ofh-
cers were assigned to each large school as early as i868. Norway
made such appointments optional in 1885, and obligatory in 1891.
Belgium began the work in 1874. Tests of eyesight were begun
in Dresden in 1867. Frankfort-on-Main appointed the first Ger-
man school physician in 1888. England first employed school
nurses in 1887; and, in 1907, following the revelations as to low
physical vitality growing out of the Boer War, adopted a manda-
tory medical-inspection and health-development act applying to
England and Wales, and the year following Scotland did the same.
Argentine and Chili both instituted such service in 1888, and
Japan made medical inspection compulsory and universal in
1898.

In the United States the work was begun voluntarily in Boston,
in 1894, following a series of epidemics. Chicago organized medi-
cal inspection in 1895, New York City in 1897, and Philadelphia
in 1898. From these larger cities the idea spread to the smaller
ones, at first slowly, and then very rapidly. The first school
nurse in the United States was employed in New York City, in
1902, and the idea at once proved to be of great value. In 1906
Massachusetts adopted the first state medical inspection law. In
191 2 Minnesota organized the first "State Division of Health
Supervision of Schools" in the United States, and this plan has
since been followed by other States.

From mere medical inspection to detect contagious diseases, in
which the movement everywhere began, it was next extended to
tests for eyesight and hearing, to be made by teachers or physi-
cians, and has since been enlarged to include physical examina-
tions to detect hidden diseases and a constructive health-program
for the schools. The work has now come to include eye, ear, nose,
throat, and teeth, as well as general physical examinations; the
supervision of the teaching of hygiene in the schools, and to a cer-
tain extent the physical training and playground activities; and a

824 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

constructive program for the development of the health and phys-
ical welfare of all children. All this represents a further exten-
sion of the public-education idea.

V. THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION

An important recent development in the field of public educa-
tion, and in a sense an outgrowth of all the preceding recent de-
velopment which we have described, has been the organization of
collegiate and university instruction in the history, theory, prac-
tice, and administration of education. Still more recent has been
the organization of Teachers' Colleges and Schools of Education
to give advanced training in educational research and in the solu-
tion of the practical problems of school organization and adminis-
tration. So important has this recent development become that
no history of educational progress would be complete without at
least a brief mention of this recent attempt to give scientific or-
ganization to the educational process.

Early beginners. Though the teachers' seminaries had been
organized in Germany and other northern lands toward the close
of the eighteenth century, the normal school in France early in the
nineteenth, and the training-college in England and the normal
school in the United States by the close of the first third of that
century, the work in these remained for a long time almost en-
tirely academic in nature and elementary in character. This was
also true of the superior normal school for training teachers for
the lycees of France.

The reason for this is easy to find. The writings of the earlier
educational reformers were little known; the contributions of
Herbart and Froebel had not as yet been popularized; there was
no organized psychology of the educational process, and no psy-
chology better than that of John Locke ; the detailed Pestalozzian
procedure had not as yet been worked out in the form of teaching
technique; the history of the development of educational theory
or of educational practice had not been written; and almost no
philosophy of the educational purpose had been formulated which
could be used in the training-schools. In consequence the train-
ing of teachers, both for elementary and secondary instruction,^

^ An exception to this statement is to be found in the work of the Pedagogical
Seminars, organized in the German universities in the second decade of the nine-
teenth century, which were intended for the professional training of German uni-
versity students for teaching in the German secondary schools. (See footnote i,
page 573-)

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 825

was almost entirely in academic subjects, with some talks on
school-keeping and class organization and management added,
and at times a little philosophy as to educational work, such as
habit-formation, morality, thinking, and the training of the will.
Educational journalism did not begin in either Europe or America
until near the close of the first quarter gf the nineteenth century,
and it was 1850 before it attained any significance, and 1840 to
1850 before any important pedagogical literature arose. ^

New influences. In 1843 there appeared, in Germany, the
first two volumes of a very celebrated and influential History of
Education, by a professor of miner-
alogy in the University of Erlangen, by
the name of Karl Georg von Raumer.
As a young man in Paris (1808-09),
studying the great mineral collections
found there, he read and was deeply
stirred by Fichte's "Address to the
German Nation" (p. 567). As a re-
sult he went to Yverdon, in 1809, and
spent some months in studying the
work in Pestalozzi's Institute. This
interest in education he never lost,
and thereafter, as professor of miner-
alogy at Halle and Erlangen, he also
gave lectures on pedagogy {Uher Pdda-
gogik). The outgrowth of these lec-
tures was his four- volume History of Pedagogy from the Revival
of Classical Studies to our own Time} The work was done
with characteristic German thoroughness, and for long served
as a standard organization and text on the history of the devel-
opment of educational theory and practice since the days of
the Revival of Learning. The work of von Raumer stimulated
many to a study of the writings of the earlier educational re-

^ When the first teachers' training-school in America was opened at Concord,
Vermont, by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, in 1823, it included, besides a three-year
academy-type academic cqurse, practice teaching in a rural school in winter, and
some lectures on the '' Art of Teaching.'' Without a professional book to guide him,
and relying only upon his experience as a teacher, Hall tried to tell his pupils how to
organize and manage a school. To make clear his ideas he wrote out a series of
Lectures on SchooJkeeping., which some friends induced him to publish. This, the
first professional book in English issued in America for teachers, appeared in 1829.

2 Geschichte der Pddagogik vom W iederaufblilhen klassicher Studien his auf nnsere
Zeit. Vols. I and 11, 1843; vol. in, 1847; vol. iv, 1855. Much of this was translated
into other languages. Barnard's American Journal of Education, begun in 1855,
published a translation of much of von Raumer's work for American readers.

Fig. 238

Karl Georg von Raumer

(1783-1865)

826 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

formers, and numerous books and papers on educational history
and theory soon began to appear. Most important, for Ameri-
can students, was Henry Barnard's monumental American
Journal of Education, begun in 1855, and continued for thirty-
one years. This is a great treasure-house of pedagogical litera-
ture for American educators.

After 1850 the organization of a technique of instruction for the
elementary-school subjects took place rapidly, in the normal
schools of all lands, as it had earlier in the German teachers' semi-
naries. By 1868 the study of the new Herbartian psychology and
educational theory was well under way in Germany, and by 1890
in the United States. By 1875 the kindergarten, with its new
theory of child life, was also beginning to make itself felt in both
Europe and America. Between 1850 and 1875 Weber, Lotze,
Fechner, and Wundt laid the foundations for a new psychology
(R. 357), and in 1878 Wundt opened the first laboratory for the
experimental study of psychology at the University of Leipzig.
In 1890 William James published his two- volume work on Prin-
ciples of Psychology, a book so original and lucid in treatment that
it at once gave a new teaching organization to modern psychol-
ogy. After about 1880, the extension of education upward and
outward in the United States, a ad the rapid development of state
school systems which had by that time begun, began to make
new demands for better scientific and legal and administrative
organization, and this gave rise to a new type of educational
literature.

After von Raumer's work, probably the greatest single stimu-
lative influence of the mid-nineteenth century was that exerted by
the marked successes of the Prussian armies in a series of short
but very decisive wars. Against Denmark (1864) and Austria
(1866), but in particular in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71,
the Prussian armies proved irresistible. These military opera-
tions attracted new attention to education, and "the Prussian
schoolmaster has triumphed" became a common world saying.
This, coupled with the remarkable national development of
United Germany which almost immediately set in, caused pro-
gressive nations to turn to the study of education with increased
interest. The English and Scottish universities now began to es-
tabhsh lectureships in the theory and history of education, ^ and

* In 1876 S. S. Laurie (1829-1909) was elected to one of the first chairs in educa-
tion in Great Britain, that of "Professor of the Theory, History, and Practice of
P2ducation" in the University of Edinburgh.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 827

the first university chairs in education in the United States were
founded.

The university study of education. In no country in the world
have the universities, within the past three decades, given the
attention to the study of Education — a term that in Enghsh-
speaking lands has replaced the earlier and more limited "Peda-
gogy"— that has been given in the United States.^ After the
United States the newer universities of England probably come
next. Up to 1890 less than a dozen chairs of education had been
established in all the colleges of the United States, and their work
was still largely limited to historical and philosophical stuclies of
education, and to a type of classroom methodology and school
management, since almost entirely passed over to the normal
schools. By 1920 there were some four hundred colleges in the
United States giving serious courses on educational history and
procedure and administration, many of them maintaining large
and important professional Schools of Education for the more
scientific study of the subject, and for the training of leaders
for the service of the nation's schools.

In the great advances which have taken place in the organiza-
tion of education, during these three decades, no institution in the
world has exerted a more important influence than has "Teachers
College," Columbia University, in the City of New York, which
was organized in 1887 ^s "The New York College for the Training
of Teachers," but since 1890 has been affiliated with Columbia
University, under its present name. This institution has been a
model copied by many others over the world ; has trained a large
percentage of the leaders in education in the United States; and
has been particularly influential with students from England, the
English self-governing dominions, China, and South America.

To-day, in all the state universities and in many non-state in-
stitutions in the United States, we find well -organized Teachers'
Colleges engaged in a work which two decades ago was being at-

^ ^ Probably the first lectures on Pedagogy given in any American college were
given in 1S32, in what is now New York University. From 1850 to 1855 the city
superintendent of schools of Providence, Rhode Island, was Professor of Didactics,
in Brown University. In i860 a course of lectures on the "Philosophy of Educa-
tion, School Economy, and the Teaching Art" was given to the seniors of the Uni-
versity of Michigan. In 1873 a Professorship of Philosophy and Education was es-
tablished in the University of Iowa. This was the first permanent chair created
in America. In 1879 a Department of the Science and Art of Teaching was created
at the University of Michigan. In 188 1 a Department of Pedagogy was created at
th& University of Wisconsin, and in 1884 similar departments at the University of
North Carolina and at Johns Hopkins University.

828 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

tempted by but a few institutions anywhere. In the municipal
universities of England, in Canada, in Japan and China, and in
other democratic lands, we find the beginnings of a similar devel-
opment of the scientific study of education. In these Schools or
Colleges for the scientific study of education the best thinking on
the problems of the reorganization and administration of educa-
tion, and the most new and creative work, has been and is being
done.^

The problems of the present. Pestalozzi dreamed that he
might be able to psychologize instruction and reduce all to an
orderly procedure, which, once learned, would make one a master
teacher. What he was not able to accomplish he died thinking
others after him would do. The problem of education has had,
with time, no such simple and easy solution. Instead, with the
development of state school systems, the extension of education
in many new directions to meet new needs, and the application to
the study of education of the same scientific methods which have
produced such results in other fields of human knowledge, we
have come to-day to have hundreds of problems, many of which
are complex and difficult and which influence deeply the welfare
of society and the State. That these problems, even with time,
will receive any such simple solution as that of which Pestalozzi
dreamed, may well be doubted. In the days of church control,
memoriter instruction, and a school for religious ends, education
was a simple matter; to-day it partakes of the difficulty and com-
plexity which characterize most of the problems of modern world
States. In consequence of this important change in the character
of education a great number of important problems in educational
organization, practice, and procedure now face us for solution.

Space can here be taken to mention only the more prominent of
these present-day educational problems. On the administrative
side is a whole group of problems relating to forms of organiza-
tion: the proper educational relationships between the State and
its subordinate units; the development of a state educational
policy: the types of instruction the State must provide, and com-
pel attendance upon; questions of taxation and support, compul-
sory attendance, and child labor; the training and oversight of
teachers for the service of the State; problems of child health and
welfare; the provision of adequate and professional supervision;

^ In education, as in other lines of work, the statement of Richard H. Quick that
the distinctive function of a university is not action, but thought, has been exempli-
fied.

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 829

the provision of continuation schools, and of industrial and voca-
tional training; the supervision of school buildings for health and
sanitary control; and the relation of the State to private and
parochial education. The problem of how to produce as effective
and as thorough education for leadership with a one-class school
system as with a two-class; the opening-up of opportunity for
youth of brains in any social class to rise and be trained for serv-
ice; the selection and proper training of those of superior intelli-
gence; the elimination of barriers to the advancement of children
of large intellectual endowment; and what best to do with those
of small intellectual capacity, form another important group of
present-day educational problems. Vocational training and
technical education, and the relation and the proper solution of
these questions to national happiness and prosperity and human
welfare, form still another important group. The many ques-
tions which hinge upon instruction ; the elimination of useless sub-
ject-matter; the best organization of instruction; proper aims and
ends ; moral and civic training ; the most economical organization
of school work ; the saving of time ; and what are desirable educa-
tional reorganizations, all these form a group of instructional
problems of large significance for the future of public education.
Still more in detail, but of large importance, are the questions re-
lating to the scientific measurement of the results of instruction;
the erection of attainable goals in teaching; and the introduction
of scientific accuracy into educational work. Still another im-
portant group of problems relates to the readjustment of inherited
school organization and practices, the better to meet the changed
and changing conditions of national life — social, industrial, po-
litical, religious, economic, scientific — brought about by the in-
dustrial and social and scientific and political revolutions which
have taken place.

These represent some of the more important new problems in
education which have come to challenge us since the school was
taken over from the Church and transformed into the great con-
structive tool of the State. Their solution will call for careful in-
vestigation, experimentation, and much clear thinking, and be-
fore they are solved other new problems will arise. So probably
it will ever be under a democratic form of government; only in
autocratic or strongly monarchical forms of government, where
the study of problems of educational organization and adjust-
ment are not looked upon with favor, can a school system to-day

830 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

remain for long fixed in type or uniform in character. Education
tD-day has become intricate and difficult, requiring careful pro-
fessional training on the part of those who would exercise intelli-
gent control, and so intimately connected with national strength
and national welfare that it may be truthfully said to have be-
come, in many respects, the most important constructive under-
taking of a modern State.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Show that education must be extended and increased in efficiency in
proportion as the suffrage is extended, and additional political functions
given to the electorate. Illustrate.

2. Trace the changes in the character of the instruction given in the schools,
parallehng such changes.

3. Explain the difference in use of the schools for nationality ends in Ger-
many and France.

4. Of what is the recent development of evening, adult, and extension edu-
cation an index?

5. Show why university education is more important in national life to-day
than ever before in history.

6. Compare the rate of development of universities during the nineteenth
century, and all time before the nineteenth. Of what is the difference in
rate an index?

7. Explain why Americans have been less successful in introducing science
instruction into their schools than have the Germans. Agriculture than
the French.

8. Explain the breakdown of the old apprenticeship education.

9. Explain the American recent rapid acceptance of the agricultural high
school, whereas the agricultural colleges for a long time faced opposition
and lack of interest and support.

10. Explain the continued emphasis of high-school studies leading to the pro-
fessions rather than the vocations, though so small a percentage of peo-
ple are needed for professional work.

11. In Germany this was largely regulated by the Government; show how it
would be much easier there than in the United States.

12. Show why European nations would naturally take up vocational training
ahead of the United States, Canada, Australia, or South America.

13. Explain the reasons for the new conceptions as to the value of childlife
which have come within the past hundred years, in all advanced nations.
Why not in the less advanced nations?

14. Show the relation between the breakdown of the apprentice system, the
Industrial Revolution, and the rise of compulsory school attendance.

15. Show that compulsory school attendance is a natural corollary to general
taxation for education.

16. How do you account for the relatively recent interest in the education of
defectives and delinquents? Of what is this interest an expression?

17. Does the obligation assumed to educate involve any greater exercise of
state authority or recognition of duty than the advancement of the
health of the people and the sanitary welfare of the State?

18. What additional unsolved problems would you add to the list given
on the preceding page ?

NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS 831

SELECTED READINGS

In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections illustrative
of the contents of this chapter are reproduced:

367. McKechnie, W. S.: The Environmental Influence of the State.

368. Emperor William II.: German Secondary Schools and National

Ends.

369. Van Hise, Chas. R.: The University and the State.

370. Friend: What the Folk High Schools have done for Denmark.

371. U.S. Commission: The German System of Vocational Education.

372. U.S. Commission: Vocational Education and National Prosperity.

373. de Montmorency : English Conditions before the First Factory-Labor

Act.

374. Giddings, F. R. : The New Problem of Child Labor.

375. Hoag, E. B., and Terman, L. M.: Health Work in the Schools.

QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS

1. Explain why it is now so important that the State properly environ (367)
its youth.

2. What were the actuating motives behind the German Emperor's speech
(368)? Was he right in his position as to the relation of the schools and
national needs and welfare?

3. Explain Van Hise's conception (369) that the university is "The Soul of
the State."

4. Does Denmark form any exception as to what might be done (370) in
any country, such as Russia? Mexico?

5. Show that the results justified the German emphasis (371) on vocational
training. How do you explain this German far-sightedness?

6. What will be the result when many nations (372) become highly skilled?

7. Show the growth of humanitarian influences by contrasting conditions in
England in 1802 (373), and conditions to-day.

8. Would the English 1802 conditions be found in anv Christian land to-
day? Why?

9. Show that the child-labor problem (374) is a product of the Industrial
Revolution.

10. Viewed in the hght of history, what would we say of the present opposi-
tion to health work (375) in the schools?

SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES

*Allen, E. A. "Education of Defectives"; in Butler, N. M., Education in
the United States, pp. 771-820.
Barnard, Henry. National Education in Europe.

*Commission on Natiojtal Aid to Vocational Education, Report, vol. i.
(Document 1004, H. R., 63d Congress, 2d session, Washington, 19 14.)
Cook, W. A. "A Brief Survey of the Development of Compulsory Edu-
cation in the United States"; in Elementary School Teacher, vol. 12,
PP- 331-35- (March, 1912.)
*Dean, A. D. The Worker and the State.
Eliot, C. W. Education for Efficiency.
Farrington, F. E. Commercial Education in Germany.
Foght, H. W. Rural Denmark and its Schools.

832 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Friend, L. L. The Folk High Schools of Denmark. (Bulletin No. 3, 19 14,
United States Bureau of Education.)
*Hoag, E. B., and Terman, L. M. Health Work in the Schools.
Kandel, I. L. "The Junior High School in European Systems"; in Edu-
cational Review, vol. 58, pp. 305-29. (Nov. 1919.)
*Munroe, J. P. New Demands in Education.
*Payne, G. H. The Child in Human Progress.
Smith, A. T., and Jesien, W. S. Higher Technical Education in Foreign
Countries. (Bulletin No. 11, 1917, United States Bureau of Educa-
tion.)
Snedden, D. S. Vocational Education.
*Terman, L. M. The Intelligence of School Children.
Waddle, C. W. Introduction to Child Psychology, chap. i.
Ware, Fabian. Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry.

CONCLUSION; THE FUTURE

We have now reached the end of the story of the rise and progress
of man's conscious effort to improve himself and advance the wel-
fare of his group by means of education. To one who has fol-
lowed the narrative thus far it must be evident how fully this con-
scious effort has paralleled the history of the rise and progress of
western civilization itself. Beginning first among the Greeks —
the first people in history to be "smitten with the passion for
truth," the first possessing sufficient courage to put faith in rea-
son, and the first to attempt to reconcile the claims of the State
and the individual and to work out a plan of " ordered liberty" —
a new spirit was born and in time passed on to the western world.
As Butcher well says (R. ii), "the Greek genius is the European
genius in its first and brightest bloom, and from a vivifying con-
tact with the Greek spirit Europe derived that new and mighty
impulse which we call Progress." Hellenizing first the Eastern
Mediterranean, and then taking captive her rude conqueror, the
Hellenization of the Roman and early Christian world was the
result.

Then followed the reaction under early Christian rule, and the
fearful deluge of barbarism which for centuries well-nigh extin-
guished both the ancient learning and the new spirit. Finally,
after the long mediaeval night, came "time's burst of dawn," first
and for a long time confined to Italy, but later extending to all
northern lands, and in the century of revival and rediscovery and
reconstruction the Greek passion for truth and the Greek courage
to trust reason were reawakened, and once more made the heri-
tage of the western world. Once again the Greek spirit, the spirit
of freedom and progress and trust in the power of truth, became
the impulse that was to guide and dominate the future. To fol-
low reason without fear of consequences, to substitute scientific
for empirical knowledge, to equip men for intelligent participa-
tion in civic life, to discover a rational basis for conduct, to unfold
and expand every inborn faculty and energy, and to fill man with
a restless striving after an ideal — these essentially Greek charac-
teristics in time came to be accepted by an increasing number of
modern men, as they had been by the thoughtful men of the an-
cient Greek world, as the law and goal of human endeavor. From

834 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

this point on the intellectual progress of the western world was
certain, though at times the rate seems painfully slow.

The great events which stand out in modern history — mile-
stones, as it were, along the road of the intellectual progress of
mankind in the recovery of the Greek spirit — were the revival
of the ancient learning, the Protestant appeal to reason, the re-
covery and vast extension of the old scientific knowledge, the as-
sertion of the rights of the individual as opposed to the rights of
the State, and the growth of a new humanitarianism, induced by
the teachings of Christianity, which has softened old laws and
awakened a new conception of the value of child and human life.
Out of these great historic movements have come modern schol-
arship, the inestimable boon of religious liberty, the firm estab-
lishment of the idea of the reign of law in an orderly universe, the
conception of government as in the interests of the governed, the
substitution of democracy and political equality for the rule of a
class or an autocratic power, and the assertion of the right to an
education at public expense as a birthright of every child. The
common school, the education of all, equality of rights and op-
portunity, full and equal suffrage, the responsibihty of all for the
advancement of the common welfare, and liberty under law have
been the natural consequences and the outcome of these great
struggles to set free and quicken the human spirit.

The Peace of Westphalia (^1648), which marked the close of a
century of effort to crush human reason and religious liberty with
violence and oppression, marked a turning-point in the history of
the world. Though religious intolerance and bigotry might still
persist in places for centuries to come, this Peace acknowledged
the futility of persecution to stamp out human inquiry, and
marked the downfall of intellectual media^valism. The work of
the political philosophers of the eighteenth century, the estab
lishment of a new political ideal by the leaders of the American
Revolution, and the drastic sweeping-away of ancient abuses in
Church and State in the Revolution in France, applied a new
spirit to government, ushered in the rule of the common man, and
began the establishment of democracy as the ruling form of gov-
ernment for mankind. The recent World War in Europe was in a
sense a sequel to what had gone before. One result of its out-
come, despite certain reactionary but temporary old-type gov-
ernments that the near future may see set up in places, has been
the' elimination of the mediaeval theory of the "divine right of

v_A^i^^^l^uoivyi^ , iili^ i' u i u ivijy

Ov3D

Fig. 239. The Established and Experimental Nations of Europe

The established nations are in white; the experimental nations shaded. After a
time Germany should become white also.

kings" from the continent of Europe, and the estabHshment of
the democratic type of government as the ruling type of the fu-
ture. Some of the nations for a time will be in a sense experi-
mental, as shown on the above map, and even well-governed Ger-
many must learn new forms and ways, but in time government of
and by and for the people is practically certain to become estab-
lished everywhere on the continent of Europe.

Still more, the outcome of the World War would seem to indi-
cate that democratic forms of government are destined in time to
extend to peoples everywhere who have the capacity for using
them. The great problem of the coming century, then, and per-
haps even of succeeding centuries, will be to make democracy a
safe form of government for the world. This can be done only by
a far more general extension of educational opportunities and ad-
vantages than the world has as yet witnessed. In the hands of an
uneducated proletariat democracy is a dangerous instrument. In
Russia, Mexico, and in certain of the Central American Republics

836 HISTORY OF EDUCATION

we see what a democracy results in in the hands of an uneducated
people. There, too often, the revolver instead of the ballot box is
used to settle public issues, and instead of orderly government
under law we have a reign of injustice and anarchy. Only by the
slow but sure means of general education of the masses in charac-
ter and in the fundamental bases of liberty under law can govern-
ments that are safe and intelligent be created. In a far larger
sense than anything we have as yet witnessed, education must be-
come the constructive tool for national progress.

The great needs of the modern world call for the general diffu-
sion among the masses of mankind of the intellectual and spiritual
and political gains of the centuries, which are as yet, despite the
great recent progress made in extending general education, the
possession of but a relatively small number of the world's popula-
tion. Among the more important of these are the religious spirit,
coupled with full religious liberty and tolerance; a clear recogni-
tion of the rights of minorities, so long as they do not impair the
advancement of the general welfare; the general diffusion of a
knowledge of the more common truths and applications of science,
particularly as these relate to personal hygiene, sanitation, agri-
culture, and modern industrial processes; the general education of
all, not only in the tools of knowledge, but in those fundamental
principles of self-government which lie at the basis of democratic
life; training in character, self-control, and in the ability to as-
sume and carry responsibility; the instilling into a constantly
widening circle of mankind the importance of fidelity to duty,
truth, honor, and virtue; the emphasis of the many duties and re-
sponsibilities which encompass all in the complex modern world,
rather than the eighteenth-century individualistic conception of
political and personal rights; the clear distinction between liberty
and license ; and the conception of liberty guided by law. In addi-
tion each man and woman should be educated for personal effi-
ciency in some vocation or form of service in which each can best
realize his personal possibilities, and at the same time render the
largest service to that society of which he forms a part.

The great needs of the modern world also call for that form of
education and training which will not merely impart literacy and
prepare for economic competence and national citizenship, but
which will give to national groups a new conception of national
character and international morahty and create new standards
of value for himian effort. National character and international

CONCLUSION; THE FUTURE 837

morality are always the outgrowth of the personality of a people,
and this in turn calls for the inculcation of humane ideals, the
proper discipline of the instincts, the training of a will to do right,
good physical vigor, and, to a large degree, the development of
individual efficiency and economic competence. Moral and reli-
gious instruction, as it has been given, will not suffice, because it
does not reach the heart of the problem. No nation has shown
more completely the utter futility of religious instruction to pro-
duce morality than has Germany, where the instruction of all in
the principles of religion has been required for centuries.

The problem of the twentieth century, then, and probably of
other centuries to come, is how the constructive forces in modern
society, of which the schools of nations should stand first, can
best direct their elTorts to influence and direct the deeper sources
of the life of a people, so that the national characteristics it is
desired to display to the world will be developed because the
schools have instilled into every child these national ideals. Many
forces must cooperate in such a task, but unless the schools of
nations become clearly conscious of national needs and of inter-
national purposes, become inspired by an ideal of service for the
welfare of mankind, substitute among national groups competi-
tion in the things of the spirit — art, architecture, music, sports,
education, letters, sanitation, housing, public works, and such
applications of science as minister to health and happiness — for
competition in the creation of material wealth, the piling-up of
armaments, the extension of national boundaries, and the present
overemphasis of a narrow nationalism, and direct the energies of
coming generations to the carrying-out of this new and larger
human service, nations must inevitably fail to reach the world
position they might otherwise have occupied, destructive inter-
national competition and warfare will continue, and the advance-
ment of world civilization and international well-being will be
greatly retarded thereby.

In this work of advancing world civilization, the nations which
have long been in the forefront of progress must expect to assume
important roles. It is their peculiar mission — for long clearly
recognized by Great Britain and France in their political rela-
tions with inferior and backward peoples; by the United States in
its excellent work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines; and
clearly formulated in the system of "mandatories" under the
League of Nations — to help backward peoples to advance, and

838

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

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to assist them in lifting themselves to a higher plane of world civi-
lization. In doing this a very practical type of education must
naturally play the leading part, and time, probably much time,
will be required to achieve any large results. Disregarding the

CONCLUSION; THE FUTURE 839

large need for such service among the leading world nations, the
map reproduced on the opposite page reveals how much of such
work still remains to be done in the world as a whole. ''The
White Man's Burden" truly is large, and the larger world tasks
of the twentieth century for the more advanced nations will be to
help other peoples, in distant and more backward lands, slowly
to educate therjiselves in the difficult art of self-government,
gradually establish stable and democratic governments of their
own, and in time to take their places among the enlightened and
responsible peoples of the earth.

At the bottom of all this work and service lies the new human-
liberty conceptions first worked out and formulated for the world
by little Greece. In time the ideas to which they gave expression
have become the heritage of what we know as our western civiliza-
tion, and the warp and woof of the intellectual and political life of
the modern world. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, and
of the new political and commercial and social forces of our time,
this western civilization, using education as its great constructive
tool, is now spreading to every continent on the globe. The task
of succeeding centuries will be to carry forward and extend what
has been so well begun; to level up the peoples of the earth,
as far as inherent differences in capacity will permit; and to ex-
tend, through educative influences, the principles and practices of
a Christian civilization to all. In establishing intelligent and in-
terested government, and in moulding and shaping the destinies
of peoples, general education has become the great constructive
tool of modern civilization. A hundred and fifty years ago edu-
cation was of but little importance, being primarily an instrument
of the Church and used for church ends. To-day general educa-
tion is an instrument of government, and is rightfully regarded
as a prime essential to good government and national progress.
With the spread of the democratic type the importance of the
school is enhanced, its control by the State becomes essential, its
continued expansion to include new types of schools and new
forms of educational opportunities and service a necessity, the
study of its organization and administration and problems be-
comes a necessary function of government, while the training
it can give is dignified and made the birthright of every boy
and girl.

}

INDEX

Abelard, 188-90, 196.

Academic des Armes, 404.

Academy, the, 44, 272; at Venice, 250, 265;
in Europe and America, 400, 418, 463, 524,
696-99.

Act, Five-Mile, 324; Roman Catholic relief,
490; of Conformity, 324, 400: of Suprem-
acy, 298,321,358.

Adams, John, 526.

Adelhard, 185.

Advisory Order of 1717, 555.

Africa, education in South, 717.

Agricola, 254, 271, 389.

Agriculture, beginnings of instruction in,
546; science applied to, 800; first schools
of, 801; a world movement, 802.

Agricultural Institute of Fellenberg, 546.

Albany, educational beginnings in, 662.

Albertus Magnus, 191.

Alcuin, 140, 163.

Aldus press, 250, 257.

Alexandria, importance of, in history, 47-49.

Alexandrian learning, 48, 381.

Alfred, King, 145-47.

Algebra, study of, begun, 280, 392.

Algemeine Landrecht, the, 565.

Algiers, education in, 741, 787.

Alhazen, 185.

Alphabet, origins of, 77.

Altenstein, Baron von, 581.

America, battles for schools in, 676; begins
constitutional government, 494; colonial
colleges in, 703; contributions to world
history, 496; educational ladder evolved,
708; eflfect of Revolutionary War on
schools, 654; Protestant settlement of, 356.

Anglican educational foundations, 319-26.

Anselm, 187.

Antoninus, St., 264.

Apprenticeship education, 210, 452; break-
down of, 734.

Aquinas, Thomas, 191, 227.

Argentine, The, education in, 717; school
system of, 718.

Aristotle, 42, 197, 225, 390; translations of,
185, 226.

Arithmetic, Gerbert's, 160; in Greece, 27;
in Middle Ages, 160, 280; in Rome, 65;
in Seven Liberal Arts, 158; first modern
texts in, 444.

Arnaul de Marviel, 243.

Arnold, Matthew, on Guizot, 599; on Na-
poleon, 604.

Astronomy, in Seven Liberal Arts, 160, 280.

Athenian education, the new, 39-50; the old,

23-37-
Athens, university of, 45.
Attica, ancient, 17-20.
Augustine, St., 96, 138, 198.
Austria, education in, 715, 716.
Austrian reformers, 475.
Austrian School Code of 1774, 562.
Averroes, 185.
Avicenna, 185, 198, 226.

Baccalaureus, in a mediaeval university,

222.
Bache, Alexander D., 752.
Bacon, Sir Francis, 390, 394, 405, 423.
Bacon, Roger, 227.
Bacteria, isolation of, 726.
Bagdad, Mohammedan learning at, 182.
Baines, Edward, on education, 641 .
Balfour Annexation Law of 191 2, 645.
Baltimore, educational beginnings in, 661.
Banking, revival of, 207.
Barbarian migrations, 109-23.
Barbarian tribes accept Christianity, 118-

21.
Barnard, Henry, 690, 753.
Basedow, J. B., 534-38.
Battles for education in U.S., 676.
Bede, Venerable, 139.
Bell, Andrew, 622-24.
Benedict, St., 99, 128.
Benedictines, 100, 128.
Berlin, University of, 574-77.
Bible, translation of, Into English, 289, 290;

into French, 289; into German, 310.
Bills of Rights, 498.
Binet, Alfred. 821.
Blind, education of, 819.
Blow, Susan, 766.
Boccaccio, 245.
Boethius, 163.

Bologna, law developed at, 192-97, 225.
Boston, first high school at, 699.
Boston Latin School, 361.
Brahe, Tycho, 387, 394.
Braidwood, Thomas, 819.
Brazil, education in, 717, 719.
Brethren of the Common Life, 271.
Britain, introduction of Christianity into,

119, 138; early learning in, 138.
British and Foreign School Society, 625.
British Museum founded, 492.
Brothers of the Christian Schools, 347-51,

515. 590, 596.

842

INDEX

Brougham, Lord, 625-31, 633, 636.
Budaeus, Guillaume, 268.
Billow, Baroness, 765.
Bunyan, John, 491.
Burgher class, rise of, 207.
Burgher school, 418, 419, 599.

Cadet years, in ancient Greece, 34.

Caesar de Bus, 346.

Cahiers of 1789, 512.

Calvin, John, 298, 330.

Calvinists, educational work of, 330-35.

Cambridge, and science study, 423.

Cambridge university, founding of, 218.

Campe, J. H., 538 f.

Campion, teaching of, 283.

Canada, education in, 716.

Canon Law organized, 196.

Capella, Martinus, 163.

Carter, James G., 700, 702.

Cassian, 99, 128.

Cassiodorus, 163.

Catechetical schools, 93.

Catechism, 311, 430, 437, 442.

Catechumenal instruction, 92.

Cathedral schools, 97, 152, 188.

Cathedral school at Paris, 189.

Cathedral school at York, 139.

Catherine II of Russia, 477, 511, 715.

Cato the Elder, 63.

Cavour, Count of, 609.

Caxton, work of, 256.

Certificates, first teachers', 176.

Cessatio, in mediaeval universities, 221.

Chalcondyles, Demetrius, 248.

Chalotais, Rene de la, 509.

Chancellor, in the university, 224.

Chantry schools, 152.

Charity school, religious, 449, 615; in New
Jersey, 682; in Pennsylvania, 680.

Charlemagne, his work, 140-45; his procla-
mations, 142-44.

Chemical laboratory, the first, 724.

Chemistry, beginnings of modern, 724.

Childhood, care of, 457, 630.

Child Labor, 738, 813-15.

Chih, education in, 718.

China, educational system of, 721, 789.

Chivalric commandments, 169.

Chivalric education, 164-69.

Chivalric ideals, 168.

Christianity, challenge of, 87; contribution
of, 82-100; influence of, on barbarians,
118, 121; rejects pagan learning, 94, 282,
429; where arose, 84.

Chrysoloras, Manuel, 247.

Church and elementary education, 344-51;
early organization of, 95; work of, in Mid-
dle Ages, 121.

Cicero, Petrarch discovers work of, 244, 265.

Ciceronian style, 274, 283, 398.

Cities, development of; in U.S., 667; new
problems arising in, 668.

Citizen-cadet, in Ancient Greece, 34.

City class, rise of, 204.

City life, revival of, 202.

City school societies in U.S., 660.

Clinton, De Witt, 660, 671, 751.

Colet, John, 254, 274, 275, 288.

College de France, 269.

Colleges in the U.S., 657; by i860, 704; by
1900, 705; colonial, 703.

Comenius, John Amos, 408-16.

Commerce, revival of, 205.

Communal colleges of France, 595.

Compulsory school attendance, 815-17; in
England, 644; in German lands, 552, 815;
in U.S., 816.

Concordat of Napoleon, 590.

Condorcet, 514, 516, 597.

Conic sections, 392.

Connecticut, Bernard in, 690; Law of 1650,
366.

Conservation of energy, 725.

Constance, Council of, 291.

Constantine accepts Christianity, 91.

Constantine, of Carthage, 199, 216.

Constituent Assembly of France, 512.

Constitutional government begins, in Amer-
ica, 494, 499, 522; in France, 500; in other
lands, 503.

Convention, National, of France, 515-18.

Convents, and their schools, 137, 150, 346.

Coote, Edmund, 443.

Copernicus, Nicholas, 386.

Council of Constance, 291.

Council of Trent, 303, 336.

Counting-board, Greek, 27; Roman, 65.

Court schools of Italy, 265-68.

Cousin, Victor, 597, 751.

Crippled children, education of, 821.

Crusade movement, 199-202.

Cuba, education in, 740, 789.

Curriculum, evolution of, elementary, 756,
780; grading of instruction in, 756; secon-
dary, 281.

Cygnaeus, Uno, 769.

Dalton, 724.

Dame School, in England, 447; in U.S., 665.

Dante, 242.

Dartmouth College decision, 706.

Darwin, Charles, 726.

Deaf, education of, 819.

Defectives, education of, 818-21.

Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, 491.

De Garmo, Charles, 722 f.

Demia, Father, 745.

Democracy, spread of idea, 503, 504.

Denmark, educational system of, 713.

Descartes, Rene, 394, 423.

Dewey, John, 780-83.

INDEX

843

Dialectic, in Seven Liberal Arts, 158; super-
sedes Grammar, 190, 280.

Diderot, 477, 482, 511.

Diesterweg, 570, 582.

Dilworth, Thos., 443, 444.

Directory, the, in France, 518.

Discipline, school, 455; by a Swabian school-
master, 455.

Disease, modern theory of, 383.

Dissenters allowed to establish schools, 438,

459-
Dominicans, 191 f.
Donatus, 156.
Dutch, early education among, 333-35.

Education a national tool, 739; problems of,
in the future, 838; present, 828-30; scien-
tific organization of, 824-30.

Educational societies, in England, 632; in
U.S., 659.

Egypt, education in, 741.

Eighteenth century', importance of, 471-72.

Elementarwerk of Basedow, 535.

Elementary school curriculum, evolution of,
756.

Elyot, Sir Thomas, 275.

Encyclopaedia, first modern, 492.

Engine, steam, 493.

England, Annexation Law of 1902, 645;
Department of Science and Art created,
776; early Christian learning in, 138; edu-
cational system evolved, 649; Fisher Edu-
cation Act of 1918, 649; progress since
1870, 645-50; pupil-teacher system in,
753; Reform Bill of 1832, 637; of 1867,
642; secondary education included in the
national system, 646; teacher training in,
627, 753-

English Bible, 289, 321.

English eighteenth-century educational ef-
forts, 614.

English grammar schools, 277, 278.

English Law of 1833, 638.

English Law of 1870, 642.

English liberty, beginnings of, 486.

English parliamentary battle for schools.
633-44.

English period of philanthropic eflfort, 622-
33-

English Prayer Book, 321.

fipee, Abbe de 1', 819.

Ephebic oath, the, 35.

Ephebic years, in ancient Greece, 35.

Episcopal schools, 97.

Erasmus, 274, 281, 288, 398.

Ernest, Duke, educational work of, 317, 417.

EucHd, translations of, 185, 186, 392.

Europe, illiteracy in, in 1900, 714.

Faculties, in a mediaeval university, 223-25;
in a modern university, 422.

Farraday, 724.

Fechner, 826.

Feeble-minded, education of, 820.

Fellenberg and his Institutions, 546, 800.

Female academies founded, 698.

Feudalism, 164.

Fichte, J. G., 545, 567, 574.

Finland, education in, 297, 713; manual
training in, 769.

Five-Mile Act, the, 324.

Florence, Medicean Library at, 251; revival
of banking at, 207; revival of study of
Greek at, 248.

Fourcroy, Count de, 590.

Fourier, Peter, 346.

France, creation of primary education in,
596-600; educational organization under
Napoleon, 590-96; eighteenth-century
conditions in, 478; higher schools created
by Napoleon, 593; Law of 1791, 512;
Law of 1793, 515; Law of 1795, 517; Law
of 1802, 590-92; Law of 1833, 597; Law
of 1850, 601; progress since 1870,602; re-
duction of illiteracy in, 602; revolution in
thinking, in i8th century, 484; revolu-
tionary pedagogy of, 508-19; school sys-
tem created, 598; special revolutionary
foundations, 518; University of, created,

593-
Franciscans, 191 f.
Francke's Institutions, 418.
Frederick Barbarossa, 216.
Frederick the Great, 474, 558-61.
Frederick WilHam I, 555.
Frederick William III, 565, 580.
Frederick William IV, 583.
Froebel, Fr., 764-68; Dewey's modification

of educational ideas of, 780-82.

Galen, 47, 185, 198, 226, 380, 382.

GaUleo, G., 388.

Gallaudet, Thos. R., 819.

Gaza, Theodorus, 248, 267.

General Land-Schule Reglement, 558.

Geneva, center of Calvinism, 299.

Genoa, center of commerce, 206.

Geographical discovery, revival of, 257.

Geography, in Seven Liberal Arts, 160, 280.

Geometry, in Seven Liberal Arts, 160, 280.

Gerbert, 160, 183.

Gerhard of Cremona, 185.

German education, development of. See

Prussia.
German educational propaganda abroad,

741.
German school organization, early, 312-19,

552.
Gesner, Conrad, 390.
Gesner, J. M., 555.
Gesner, Rector, 420.
Gilbert, William, 389.

844

INDEX

Ginnasio, of Italy, 609.

Girls, education of, in early Church, 100.

Gladstone and Law of 1870, 642.

Gotha, Duke Ernest's work in, 317, 417.

Gottingen, university of, 423.

Grading of school instruction, 756-59.

Grammar, at Rome, 67; in Seven Liberal

Arts, 15s, 279, 280.
Grammar schools, English, 277, 353, 461;

founded after the Reformation, 321-24.
Grammatist, school of, 26.
Gratian organizes Canon Law, 196, 226.
Greece, early education in, 21 ; golden age of,

39; land and government of, 15; our debt

to, 50, lOI.
Greek at Cambridge, 274, 289.
Greek Church, divides off, 103; in education

in East, 715.
Greek conquest of Eastern Mediterranean,

46.
Greek education, the old, 15-37; the new,

39-50; results under old, 36.
Greek higher education, spread and influence

of, 46.
Greek language and learning, preservation

of, 57-

Greek learning, in Syria, 180; forgotten, 138,
247; revival of, 247-49.

Greek universities, ancient, 47.

Gregorian calendar, 392.

Grocyn, WiUiam, 253, 274, 288.

Grote, Gerhard, 271.

Guarino da Verona, 266.

Guilds of Middle Ages, 209; university de-
grees in, 221.

Guizot, M., 598-600.

Gulliver's Travels, 491.

Gundling, at Halle, 554.

Gymnasia, German, 316, 353, 418, 554, 558;
reorganized, 572, 574, 577.

Gymnasial training in Ancient Greece, 32.

Gymnasium, ancient Greek, 33, 272;
Sturm's, 273.

Gymnastics in Greek education, 31, 41.

Halle, University of, 423, 553-55.

Hamilton, Alexander, 660.

Hanseatic League, 208.

Hardenburg, 567.

Haroun-al-Raschid, 182.

Harris, WilUam T., 766.

Harvard College, early history of, 367, 657,

702, 703; founding of, 363; Greek brought

to, 254.
Harvey, William, 389, 394.
Health, new interest in, 822.
Health supervision, 823.
Hebrew, revival of study of, 254, 269.
Hebrews, early, 84.
Hecker, Juhus, 421, 558, 562.
Hedge schools, 451.

Hegius, 271, 289.

Heidelberg, University of, founding of, 216,
220; center of humanistic learning, 254,
270.

Hellinization of Eastern Mediterranean, 46,
180-83; of Rome, 62.

Herbart, J. Fr., 759-64; contributions of, 763.

Herbartian ideas, in Germany, 762; in U.S.,
762.

Heretic, in Middle Ages, 291.

Hieronymians, 271.

High school, in U.S., battle to establish, 695-
702; first, 699; for agriculture, 802; Massa-
chusetts law of 1827, 700.

High schools, some early, 700.

Hippocrates, 185, 197, 226, 380, 389.

Hodder's Arithmetic, 444.

Holland, education in, 333, 712.

Home and Colonial Infant Society, 631, 753.

Horn Book, 440.

Huguenots, 299, 301, 356; in education, 333.

Humanism, a religious reform movement,
288; in France, 268; in England, 274; in
Germany, 269; rise and spread of, 252-54.

Humanistic course of .study, 267.

Humanistic reahsm, 397-401.

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, work of, in reor-
ganizing secondary education, 472-74;
in creating the University' of Berlin, 474-

.77-
lluss, John, 291.

Hu.xley, Thomas, 778; his definition of an
educated man, 779.

Idiotic, training of, 820.

Illinois, educational provisions of first con-
stitution, 671.

Illiteracy, in Europe by 1900, 714; in France,
602; in German lands, 583.

Individual instruction, 454.

Industrial revolution, 728, 736, 779; effects
of, on education, 736, 790.

Industry, revival of, in Middle Ages, 207.

Infant schools, in England, 630; in France,
600; in U.S., 664-66.

Innovators, ideas of, 406.

Inquisition, the, 384.

Institutes of France, 515.

Institutes of Justinian, 195,

Ireland, learning in early, 138.

Irnerius of Bologna, 195.

Isidore of Seville, 163.

Isocrates, 43.

Italy, beginnings of modern education in,
606; decline after the Renaissance, 605;
modern school system created, 608-12-
recent educational progress, 610; work u.
Sardinia and Cavour, 609.

James, WiUiam, 826.
Jansenists, 347.

INDEX

845

Japan, education in, 719; school system

created, 720.
Jay, John, 526, 660.
Jefferson, Thomas, 525.
Jerome, St., 99.
Jesuit colleges, 337.
Jesuit education, 336-44.
Jesuit methods, 341.
Jesuit school organization, 340.
Jesuit teachers, training of, 342.
Jesus, his teachings, 86.
Jesus, Society of, 336-44.
Jewish faith, early, 85.
Joseph II, 475.
Justinian, Institutes of, 195, 226.

Kalamazoo decision, 701.

Kant, Immanuel, 534, 537.

Kepler, Johann, 387, 394.

Kindergarten idea, 767; contribution of,
768; Dewey's reorganization of, 781; in
U.S., 766; origin of, 764; spread of, 765.

King's College (Columbia), 703.

Knight, the, 167.

Kno.x, John, 335.

Kriisi, Hermann, 545.

Lakanal, 516.

Lancaster, Joseph, 624-27.

Lancastrian system, in England, 627-30; in

U.S., 662-64.
Land grants for education, in U.S., 677.
Languages, rise of national, 242.
La Salle, educational work of, 347-51, 745.
Latin, importance of, in Middle Ages, 282.
Latin grammar schools, in England, 277,

321-24, 353, 461, 776; in New England,

361, 698; in Middle Ages, 307.
Law, canon, 196, 226.
Law, evolution of, as a study, 192-97, 226.
Leaving examinatitons esablished, 564.
Leeds Mercury on education, 641.
Lefevre, Jacques, 289.
Lehrerseminar, 563.
Lehrfreiheit und Lehrnfreiheit, 554.
Leonard and Gertrude, 539, 542.
Lepelletier le Saint-Fargeau, 516.
Libraries, early monastic, 135; university,

228, 231; first circulating, 492.
License to teach, first, 176; in Middle Ages,

222.
Liceo in Italy, 610.
Liebig, Justus von, 724.
Lily's Latin Grammar, 276, 281.
Linacre, WiUiam, 253, 274, 288.
Lister and antiseptics, 726.
Literature, in ancient Greek education, 29.
Living conditions, transformation of, in

19th century, 729-36.
Locke, John, 402, 433-37.
Logarithms, 392.

Lollards, the, 291.

Lombard League, the, 194.

Lombard, Peter the, 171, 191.

Lotze and modern psychology, 826.

Loyola, Ignatius, 336.

Luder, Peter, 254.

Ludi magister, the, 65.

Luther, Martin, 270; his Theses, 295; his

educational ideas, 306, 312-14.
Lutheran school organization, 312-19.
Lutheranism, 297, 300.
Lycees, creation of, under Law of 1802, 591,

595, 596, 603; instruction in, 601, 775.
Lyceum, the, 44, 272.
Lyell, Charles, 725.
Lyon, Mary, 698.

Macaulay, Lord, 640.

Madison, James, 525, 526.

Magellan, 260.

Malthus, Rev. F. R., 621.

Mandeville, Sir John, 258.

Mann, Horace, on Prussian Teachers' Sem-
inaries, 570; work in establishing normal
schools, 752; work in Massachusetts, 689,
692, 702.

Manual activities in education, 768-72; con-
tribution of, 771; origin of instruction in,
769; spread of the idea of, 769.

Manual-labor school idea, 564.

Manual training high school in U.S., 796.

Manufacturing, rise of, 492.

Manumission Society of N.Y., 660.

Manuscripts, copying of, 132.

Maria Theresa, 475, 562.

Massachusetts Law of 1642, 326, 363, 506;
Law of 1647, 365, 506; Law of 1827, 700.

Massachusetts school system, first constitu-
tional provision for, 522; fundamental
basis of, 366.

Maturitatspriifung, 573.

Maurus, R., 155, 164.

Mayo, Charles, 631.

Mebrissensis, 253.

Mechanics, 392.

Mediaeval Church, repressive attitude of, 173.

Mediaeval education, characteristics of, 171,
174.

Mediaeval man, transformation of, 243.

Mediaeval town, a typical, 203.

Mediaevalism, reaction against, 278.

Medical inspection in schools, 823.

Medical instruction, beginnings of, 198; in
Middle Ages, 226; in modern times, 803.

Medicean Library, 250.

Medici, Cosimo de, 250, 257, 265.

Melancthon, 270, 281, 289; his Saxony plan,
316.

Mercator's map of the world, 392.

Methodism, rise of, 489.

Methods of teaching, evolution of new, 756.

846

INDEX

Middle Ages, deadly sins of, 173; problems
faced by, 123; what started with, loi.

Middle schools, 791.

Migrations of peoples, 732-34; to U.S., 790.

Mill, James, 625, 631.

Milton, John, 399.

Minnesingers, rise of, 186, 242.

Mirabeau, Count de, 512.

Modern studies, evolution of, 281.

Mohammedans in Spain, 180-86; influence
of, on Europe, 184-86.

Monasteries, civilizing work of, 122; in
Charlemagne's day, 136; preserve learning,
129-36; suppression of, in England, 321.

Monastic collections, 135.

Monastic schools, 100, 128, 150, 152.

Monasticism, rise of, 98.

Monitorial system, in England, 624-30; in
U.S., 662-64.

Monroe Doctrine, 503, 717.

Montaigne, 401.

Monte Cassino, 99, 245.

Montesquieu, 480.

Montpellier as a medical center, 199, 225,
226.

More, Sir Thomas, 288.

Morocco, education in, 741, 787.

Mount Holyoke College, 698.

Mulcaster, Richard, 432.

Music, in ancient Greece, 30; in Seven Lib-
eral Arts, 162, 280. ^

Napoleon, 518; and technical education, 797;

organizing work of, in France, 590-95; in

Holland, 712; in Italy, 603-07.
National Convention of France, 515; work

of, 5 16-18.
National needs in education, 836.
Nationality, rise of spirit of, 242, 473, 738;

schools to promote, 789.
Nations, educational problems of the future

of, 838; estabHshed and experimental, 835.
Necker, 485.

Neptune, discovery of, 725.
Nestorian Christians, 181.
Netherlands, early education in,' 333.
New England, beginning of schools in, 360.
New England Primer, 374.
New Jersey, early educational history, 371;

elimination of charity school in, 683.
Newspapers, first, 309, 490, 491.
Newton, Sir Isaac, 388, 395, 423, 485.
New York, attempt to divide the school

funds in, 693; early educational his..ory

in, 368, 660, 666; elimination of rate bill

in, 685; first State Superintendent, 687.
New Zealand, education in, 716.
Nicene Creed, 96, 196.
Nobility, training of, in early Middle Ages,

164-69; in later Middle Ages, 265-68; in

early modern times, 403-05, 418, 462.

Normal school, contribution of Pestalozzi to
work of, 746-49; in France, 517, 595, 597,
750; in Prussia, 561, 562, 570, 750; in
U.S., 664, 745.

Northmen, invasions of, 145.

Nunneries, 100.

Oberschulecollegium Board created, 564;

abolished, 569.
Odyssey, translation of, into Latin, 61.
Orbis Pictus, 412-15, 441.
Orphanages, first, 813.,
Orphans, care of, 821.
Owen, Robert, 630.

Pagan learning, rejection of, in West, 95.

Page, a, 166.

Paine, Tom, 622.

Palace School of Charlemagne, 141.

Palaistra, in ancient Greece, 31, 34.

Palestine, education in, 741 .

Papal schism, the, 291, 302.

Paper, invention of, 254.

Paracelsus, 389.

Paris, cathedral school at, 189, 217; rise of
University of, 217, 225; work of Univer-
sity of, 423.

Parish school of early Middle Ages, 151.

Pasteur, Louis, 726.

Pauper school, 451.

Pauper school idea, in England, 615; in U.S.,
679-84.

Peabody, Elizabeth, 766.

Pedagogy. See Education.

Pennsylvania, early educational history of,

369-
Pennsylvania, Law of 1834, 681.
Percy vail, John, 277.
Peru, education in, 718.
Pestalozzi, and Basedow compared, 538; and

Froebel, 764; contribution of, 541-44; to

teacher-training problem, 746-49, 760;

Prussia sends teachers to study work of,

569; spread of ideas of, 544; work of, 539-

46.
Peter the Great, 477.
Peter the Lombard, 171, 191, 227.
Petrarch, 244, 247, 265, 386, 424.
Philadelphia, educational beginnings in, 652,

666.
Philanthropinum of Basedow, 536, 538.
Philippines, education in, 740, 789.
Philosophers banished from Rome, 63.
Phrase books, 282.

Physics, in Middle Ages, 162; modern, 724.
Piarists, 346.
Pietism, 418.

Pilgrimages, in Middle Ages, 200.
Pilgrim's Progress, 491.
Plato, 41.
Pohtical influences modify school, 787-95-

INDEX

847

Political pamphlets appear, 490.

Polo, Marco, 258.

Poor-Law legislation in England, 325, 367,

372.
Porto Rico, education in, 740, 789.
Pounds, John, 619.
Precenter, the, 176.
Presbyterians, Scotch, 299, 335.
Press, freedom of, 490.
Primary education in U.S., 666.
Primer, the New England, 441.
Primer, the religious, 440.
Principia Regulative, the, 557.
Printing, early presses, 256; invention of,

254-

Private adventure schools, 451.

Probejahr, the, 573.

Protestant revolts, results of, 296.

Protestant school organization, 319.

Providence, early educational beginnings in,
662; grading of schools in, 756-59.

Prussia, benevolent rulers of, 473; earliest
school laws for, 555, 557-61, 565; earhest
Teachers' Seminaries in, 746 f.; humilia-
tion of, 566; regeneration of, 566-79.

Prussian school system, 577; 19th-century
characteristics evolved, 578; modern pur-
pose of, 585; reaction after 1848, 580-84;
reorganization of 1872, 584.

Psychology, becomes the master science, 755;
history of modern, 826.

Ptolemy, 49, 160, 185, 385.

Public meetings, first in England, 491.

Public School Society of N.Y., 660.

Punishments, school, 455.

Pupil-teacher system, 753.

Puritans, the, 299, 357, 488.

Quadriviura, the, 158-62, 164, 280.
Quintilian, 67, 155, 246.
Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory, recovered,
246, 257, 265.

Rabelais, Fr., 398.

Ragged Schools, 618, 619.

Raikes, Robert, 617.

Rate bill, ehmination of, in U.S., 684-86.

Ratio Stiidiorum, 340.

Ratke, Wolfgang, 607.

Raumer, Karl Georg von, 545 f, 825.

Raymer, Andreas, 317, 417.

Reading, in ancient Greece, 28.

Reading schools, 445.

Realien, 419, 796.

Realism in education, 397-425.

Realschule, first, 420; in Germany, 423, 582,

775. 796.
Rector, the, in the University, 224.
Reformation, the Protestant, 287-304; and

education, 351-53.
Reformatories, juvenile, 813.

Reform Bill, of 1832 in England, 637; of
1867 in England, 642.

Rein, WiUiam, 762.

Religions in the Roman world, 82.

Religious freedom, 300, 489, 497.

Religious societies for education in England,
632.

Religious theory for schools, 312, 437; weak-
ening of, 438, 493. 519.

Reuchhn, Johann, 255, 271, 289.

Revolution in France, results of, 502.

Revolutionary War in U.S., effect of, on edu-
cation, 657.

Rhetoric, in Seven Liberal Arts, 157; law a
part of, 157; law separates from, 196;
schools of, at Rome, 69.

Rhode Island, Barnard in, 690; early educa-
tion in, 368.

Richter, Jean-Paul, 534.

Ritter, Carl, 544 f.

Ritterakademien, 405, 418, 462.

Robinson Crusoe, 491.

Rolland, 510.

Roman cities, fate of, 117, 193; survival of
law in, 194.

Roman education, schools die out, 116; an-
cient system, 721.

Roman law, influence of, 117.

Rome, barbarian inroads on, iii; debt to,
102; education and work of, 53-78; great
mission of, 55, 74-78.

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 483, 508, 530-33.

Royal Society of Great Britain, 492.

Russia, benevolent despots of, 477; nine-
teenth-century progress, 715; work of
Catherine II, 477, 511.

St. Paul's School, 275.

Saleno, rise of medical study at, 198.

Salzmann, C. G., 538 f.

Sanitary science, creation of, 727, 803.

Sardinia, beginning of Italian educational

organization in, 608.
Savonarola, 288.

Savoy, educational beginnings in, 606.
Saxe-Gotha, Duke Ernest's work in, 317.
Saxony plan of Melancthon, 316; school

organization, 552, 561.
Scharnhorst, 567.
Schism, the papal, 291,' 312.
Scholastic theology, rise of, 189-92.
Scholasticus, 175, 176, 224.
School conditions by 1750, 437-58, 519-21,

563-
School societies, in England, 618, 632; in

U.S., 659-
School support, beginnings of, 459.
Schools of industry, 450, 453.
Science, character of ancient, 380; loss and

recovery of, 393; in agriculture, 800; in

industry, 492, 800, 804; in medicine, 803;

848

INDEX

in schools, 416, 744-46, 795 ; in university,

421, 773, 797; nation's protector, 804.
Scientific knowledge, advance of, in 19th

century, 723; applications of, 727.
Scientific method, beginnings of, 385.
Scientific societies, rise of, 393, 492.
Scotland, early education in, 335, 714.
Scriptorium, the, 134.
Secondary schools, rise of, in German lands,

271; evolution of studies of, 281.
Sectarian instruction, elimination of, in

France, 602; in Italy, 611; in U.S., 691-95.
Seguin, Edouard, 820.
Seminaries for teachers, earliest, in German

lands, 746 f.
Seminars in German universities, 573, 577.
Semler, Christopher, 420.
Sense realism in education, 401-05.
Seven Liberal Arts, in Middle Ages, 153; in

Rome, 70; modification of, 279.
Seven Perfections of Chivalry, 168.
Silesian School Code of 1765, 559.
Smith, Adam, 485, 620.
S.P.C.K., 449-51, 615.
S.P.G., 449, 615, 658.
Societies, scientific, rise of, 393, 492.
Sociologial influences in education, 812-24.
Socrates, 43.
Song schools, 151.
Sophists, the, 41.
South Africa, education in, 717.
Spain, 18th-century benevolent rulers, 476.
Sparta, education in, 22-23.
Spectacles, first, 309.
Spellers, early, 443.
Spencer, Herbert, 777.
Squire, 167.

State Board of Education, first, 689.
State constitutional requirements, early

American, 522.
State control idea, general acceptance of,

722; spread of, 711-23.
State education for special classes, 820.
State school superintendent, first, 687.
State school systems, as now organized,

794; costs for, 795.
State supervision of schools, establishment in

the U.S., 687-91.
State theory of education, 507, 547-49; in

America, 519-27, 521; in France, 508-19,

516.
State universities in U.S., beginnings, 657;

efifect of Dartmouth College decision on,

707; establishment of, 702-07.
States General in France, 599.
Stein and his work, 567.
Studium generale, evolution of, 215, 220.
Sturm, Johann, 271, 274, 283.
Suffrage, extension of, in England, 637, 642;

in U.S., 669; educational significance of

extension of, 642, 670.

Sunday-School societies, in England, 618.
Sunday Schools, in Berlin, 563; in England,

616-18, in U.S., 658.
Superior children, education of, 821.
Sweden, educational system of, 297, 713;

manual instruction in, 769.
Sydenham, Thomas, 392, 395.

Talleyrand, 513, 516.

Taxation for education, beginnings of, 677.

Teacher training, beginnings of, 745-48; con-
tributions of Pestalozzi to, 746-49; the
first normal schools, 750-54.

Teachers' certificates, first, 176.

Teachers, character of, in i8th century, 446,
452.

Teachers' Colleges, 827.

Teachers' Seminaries in Germany, 561, 562,
570, 746 f.

Teaching methods by i8th century, 454.

Teaching Orders, Catholic, 345.

Technical education, beginnings of, 797;
in U.S., 798; impulses to the develop-
ment of, 799.

Tetzel and indulgences, 294.

Textbooks by the i8th century, 439; of
the Middle Ages, 162.

Theodulf of Orleans, 144.

Theology, in the mediaeval universities, 227,
422; rise of study of, 169-71.

Thirteenth century, the wonderful, 241.

Thirty Years' War, the, 301 .

Thomas Aquinas, 191, 227.

Tournaments, 165.

Tours, battle of, 113.

Trade and commerce, revival of, 205.

Trade routes, early, 206; of the modern
world, 733.

Trent, Council of, 303.

Trigonometry, study of, begun, 280, 392.

Trivium, the, 155-58, 164, 222, 280.

Troubadours, rise of, 186, 242.

Troy Seminary founded, 698.

Truce of God, 166, 187.

Turgot, 480, 511, 800.

Twelve Tables, the, 59.

Ulphilas, Bishop, 119.

United States, awakening an educational
consciousness in, 658-67; battles for
schools, and alignments of people, 672-74;
beginnings of State universities, 657; of
teacher training, 751; early colleges in,
657; effect of Revolutionary War on edu-
cation, 654.

Universities, evolution of, 216; faculties in,
223-25; German, American students at,
576 f.; instruction in, 225-33, 421; in the
U.S., State, 657, 702-07; mediaeval, rise
of, 215-35; new modern foundations, 793;
of ancient Greek world, 47.

llNUh^A

»4Q

University expansion, recent, 792.
University mothers, 218.
University of Alexandria, 48.
University of Berlin, 574-77.
University of France, 512, 593.
University of the State of New York, 524.
University of Virginia, founded, 526.
University privileges granted, 220, 534.
Uprising of Prussia of 1813, 568, 572.
Urbino, Ducal library at, 251.
Ursulines, 346.
Usher, school, 758.

Vatican Library founded, 252.
Venetians capture Constantinople, 201 ; de-
velop trade and commerce, 205.
Venice, center of book trade, 257, 265.
Vernacular schools, introduction of science

instruction into, 416; rise of, 309, 352, 430.
Vesalius, 198, 389.
Vespasiano, 251.
Victor Emmanuel, 609.
Vinet, Elie, 269.
Virchow, 726.
Virginia, early educational history, 371;

Jefferson's plan for education in, 525.
Vittarino da Feltre, 265.
Vocational education, beginnings of, in U.S.,

809-12; in Germany, 780, 807; need for,

80s.
Volksschule, German, 315, 353, 571, 577,,

581, 582.
Voltaire, 480, 485.
Voluntary educational system in England,

616, 645; work of, in estabhshing schools,

632.
Vulgate Bible, 131, 170.

Waldenseemiiller, his Geography, 258.

Walther von der Vogelweide, 294.

Washington, George, 525; his will, 657.

Watt, James, 493.

Weber and modern psychology, 826.

Webster, Noah, 443.

Wedgwood and pottery, 493.

Wedmore, Peace of, 145.

Weimar, schools in duchy of, 317, 417.

Wesley, John, 489.

Wessel, Johann, 254. 271.

Westphaha, Peace of, 302, 417, 834.

Whitbread, 625, 631, 633.

White man's burden, the, of future, 839.

Whitfield, George, 489.

Willard, Emma, 698.

William and Mary College, 372, 657, 702.

Winchester School founded, 277.

Workhouse schools, 453.

Workingmen, interest of, in education in

U.S., 671.
Writing schools, 445.
Wundt and modern psychology, 826.
Wiirtemberg, plan of 1559, 317; schools in,

439, 545-
Wycliffe, John, 290, 297, 311.

Xenophon, 42.

Yale College, early history of, 657, 702;

founding of, 367.
York, cathedral school at, 139.
Yverdon, 541, 544, 749-

Zeller, Carl August, 545, 569.
Ziller, Tuiskon, 762.
Zwingli, Huldreich, 297, 311.

RIVERSIDE
TEXTBOOKS IN EDUCATION

General Educational Theory

EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION.
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DISCIPLINE AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM,
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AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO CHILD PSYCHOLOGY.

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History of Education

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION.

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READINGS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION.

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RURAL LIFE AND EDUCATION.
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HEALTH WORK IN THE SCHOOLS.

By E. B. HoAG, M.D., and L. M. Terman, Leland Stanford Junior University

MEASURING THE RESULTS OF TEACHING.

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1926 a

EDUCATIONAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS.
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A HANDBOOK FOR RURAL SCHOOL OFFICERS.

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By C. N. Kendall and G. A. Mirick.

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL.
By G. H. Trafton, State Normal School, Mankato, Minnesota.

TEACHING IN RURAL SCHOOLS.

By T. J. WooFTER, University of Georgia.

Secondary Education

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL.

By Thos. H. Briggs, Columbia University.

THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL.

By Charles Svvain Thomas.

PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.

By Alexander Inglis, Harvard University.

PROBLEMS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION.
By David Snedden, Columbia University.

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

1926 b

370.9 C962H c.1 ^ ^

Cubberley # The history
of education : educationa

LU
0)

3 0005 02010951 1

:^70.5 copy 1

C962H

Cubberley

The history of education.

370.9

C962H

Cubberley

The history of education.

copy 1

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